UNIT-5

COMPUTER CONTROL
Need of computer control of power systems-
PMU - system monitoring, data acquisition and controls –
System hardware configurations –
SCADA and
EMS functions –
state estimation problem – measurements and errors – weighted least square estimation –
various operating states –
state transition diagram-Power system security
Need of computer control
• The computer control of power systems are needed in
• ❖ Power system Planning
• ❖ System Monitoring
• ❖ Automatic generation control
• ❖ Security control
• ❖ Voltage or reactive power control
• ❖ Unit commitment
• ❖ Economic dispatch
• ❖ State estimation
• ❖ Contingency analysis
• ❖ Load forecasting
• Increase in unit size, growth of interconnected and the need to maintain the system in normal mode
requires sophisticated control, instrumentation and protection.
• ❖ The multiplicity of monitoring instruments in the control room and their distance apart make the
observation of more than a few vitalizes almost impossible, especially during the intense activity of plant
start-up.
• ❖ The operation of changing plot parameters and take critical decisions.
• ❖ These requirements led to the development and application of more advanced solid state modular electronic
instruments, computer based direct control and date processing systems.
Computer Configuration Trend
• ❖ The computer system used at power system has been undergoing continuous development over the years.
Formerly, all the functions such as data acquisition, logging display, and control and performance calculations
were performer by computer processing unit (CPU).
• ❖ In such system failure of any of the elegant leads to the total system breakdown.
• Thus, the need for a dual computer configuration arose which is quite costly.
• ❖ The further advancement in communication technology and powerful microprocessors has resulted in the
cheap and reliable microprocessor based Distributed Processing System (DPS).
• ❖ It is based on the principle of LAN. Today, in all process industries including power plant, this system is
employed for data acquisition and control.
• ❖ DPS consists of a number of microprocessors connected through data highway, which is passive in nature.
Each processor is assigned a specific task independently.
Energy control centres
• When the power system increases in size-the number of substations, transformers, switchgear and
so on-their operation and interaction become more complex. So it becomes essential to monitor
this information simultaneously for the total system which is called as energy control centre.

• A fundamental design feature of energy centre is that, it increases system reliability and economic
feasibility. In other words, Energy Management (EM) is performed at control centre called system
control centre.

• Fig. shows the schematic diagram showing the information flow between various functions to be
performed in an operations control centre computer system. The system gets information about the
power system from remote terminal units (RTU) that encode measurement transducer outputs and
operand/closed status information into digital signals that are transmitted to the operations centre
over communication circuits.
• The control centre can transmit control information such as raise/lower commands to the speed changer and in
turn to the generators and open/close commands to circuit breakers (CBs). The information coming into the
control centre is breaker /switch status indications and analog measurements.

• The analog measurements of generator outputs must be used directly by the Automatic Generation Control
(AGC) program, whereas, all other data will be processed by the state estimator before being used by the other
programs. Real time operations are in two aspects.

• (a) Three level control

• 1. Turbine-governor to adjust generation to balance changing load-instantaneous control.

• 2. ACG (called Load Frequency Control (LFC)) maintains frequency and net power interchange –action
repeated at 2-6 sec. interval.

• 3. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC) distributes the load among the units such that fuel cost is minimum-
executed at 5-10 minutes intervals.
• (b) Primary voltage control

• 1. Excitation controls regulate generator bus voltage.

• 2. Transmission voltage control device includes SVC (Static VAR Controllers), shunt capacitors,
transformer taps, etc

• Automatic Generation Control

• Automatic generation control (AGC) consists of two major and several minor functions that
operate online in real time to adjust the generation against load at minimum cost. The major
functions are load frequency control and economic dispatch, each of which is described below. The
minor functions are reserve monitoring, which assures enough reserve on the system; interchange
scheduling, which initiates and completes scheduled interchanges; and othersimilar monitoring and
recording functions.
 ECC Functions
• Functions
• The practice of all communication links between equipment and the control centre could be
interrupted and still, electric service is being maintained. The generating in the system remains
synchronized to the transmission network and maintains its existing power output level even
without signals received from control centre.
• Monitoring
• An energy control centre fulfills the function of coordinating their response of the system
elements in both normal operation and emergency conditions.
• The burden of repetitious control in normal situations is delegated to the digital computer and
selective monitoring is performed by human operators.
• The digital computer is used to process the incoming stream of data to detect abnormalities and the
human operator via lights, buzzers and CRT presentations. Many lower level or less serious cases
of exceeding normal limits are routinely handled by digital computer. A more serious abnormality
detected by the digital computer may cause suspension of normal control functions
• In emergencies such as loss of a major generator or excess power demands by a neighboring
utility on the tie lines, many alarms could be detected and the system could enter an emergency
state.
• Data Acquisition and Control
• Data acquisition provides operators and computer control systems with status and measurement
information needed to supervise overall operations. Security control analyses the consequences of
faults to establish operating conditions.
• A SCADA system consists of a master station and remote terminal unit (RTU).Master station
communicates information to the RTU for observing and controlling plants.
• RTUs are installed at generating station or transmission substation or distribution substation. RTUs
transmitting status of the device and measurements to master station and receive control
commands from the master station.
• In a computer aided data acquisition scheme, the steady state reading can be acquired
simultaneously from various instrument locations and can be saved for
• future analysis.
• The transient may result in the form of voltage or current fluctuations. In a real
• power system, the transient may result in the failure of components and it is
• sometimes difficult to trace the origin of disturbance. Using a Data Acquisition
• system, the transients can be reduced and analyzed.
 Phasor Measurement Units for Power Systems (PMU):

• A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is a device used to estimate the magnitude and
phase angle of an electrical phasor quantity (such as voltage or current) in the
electricity grid using a common time source for synchronization. Time
synchronization is usually provided by GPS or IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol,
which allows synchronized real-time measurements of multiple remote points on the
grid. PMUs are capable of capturing samples from a waveform in quick succession
and reconstructing the phasor quantity, made up of an angle measurement and a
magnitude measurement. The resulting measurement is known as a synchrophasor.
These time synchronized measurements are important because if the grid’s supply and
demand are not perfectly matched, frequency imbalances can cause stress on the grid,
which is a potential cause for power outages.
• PMUs can also be used to measure the frequency in the power grid. A typical commercial PMU
can report measurements with very high temporal resolution, up to 120 measurements per second.
This helps engineers in analysing dynamic events in the grid which is not possible with traditional
SCADA measurements that generate one measurement every 2 or 4 seconds. Therefore, PMUs
equip utilities with enhanced monitoring and control capabilities and are considered to be one of
the most important measuring devices in the future of power systems. A PMU can be a dedicated
device, or the PMU function can be incorporated into a protective relay or other device.

• Existing systems in power grid such as Energy Management System (EMS) and Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition system (SCADA) have the capability to provide only steady state
view of power system with high data flow latency. In Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
system (SCADA) it was not possible to measure the phase angles of bus voltages of power system
network in real time, due to technical difficulties in synchronising measurements from distant
locations.
• Measurements were obtained at slower rates; it was not possible to get dynamic behavior of power
system as well as limited situational awareness was conveyed to the operator. Advent of Phasor
Measurement Units (PMUs) alleviated this problem by synchronising voltage and current
waveforms at widely dispersed locations with respect to global positioning system. PMU is
superior to SCADA with respect to speed, performance and reliability.
• As per definition of IEEE, PMU is defined as device that produces synchronised phasor,
frequency and rate of change of frequency estimates from voltage and/or current signals and
time synchronizing signal. PMUs provide real time synchronised measurements in power system
with better than one microsecond synchronisation accuracy, which is obtained by Global
Positioning System (GPS) signals. PMUs are situated in power system substations, and provide
measurement of time stamped positive sequence voltages and currents of all monitored buses and
feeders. Data from various substations are collected at suitable site, and by aligning time stamps of
measurements a coherent picture of the state power system is created. PMUs are time synchronised,
high speed measurement units that monitor current and voltage waveforms (sinusoids) in the grid,
convert them into a phasor representation through high end computation and securely transmit the
same to centralised server.
• PMU technology is well suited to track grid dynamics in real time, the data obtained can be used for wide area
monitoring, stability monitoring, dynamic system ratings and improvement in state estimation, protection and
control. It enables utilities to proactively plan energy delivery and prevent failures.

• PMU application

• Post disturbance analysis

• Stability monitoring

• Thermal overload monitoring

• Power system restoration

• State estimation

• Real time control

• Adaptive protection
 System Hardware Configuration

• The supervisory control and the data acquisition system allow a few operators to monitor the
generation and HV transmission system. Consistent with principles of high reliability and fail safe
failures, electric utilities have almost universally applied a redundant set of dual digital computers
for the function of remote date acquisition control, energy management and system security.

• Both computers have their own core memory and drive an extensive number of input-output
devices such as printers, teletypes, and magnetic tape drive, disks. Usually one computer, the on-
line units, is monitoring and controlling the power system. The backup computer may be executing
off-line batch programs such as load forecasting or hydro-thermal allocation.

• The on-line computer periodically updates a disk memory shared between the two computers.
Upon a fail over or switch-in status command, the stored information of the common disk is
inserted in the memory of the on-line computer.
• The information used by the on-line computer has a maximum age of update cycle. All of the
peripheral equipment is interfaced with the computer through input-output microprocessors that
have been programmed to communicate, as well as pre-process the analog information, check for
limits, convert to another system of units and so on.

• The microprocessors can transfer data in and out of computer memory without interrupting the
central processing unit. As a result of these precautions, for all critical hardware functions, there is
often a guaranteed 99.8% or more availability.

• Software also allows for multilevel hardware failures and initialization of application programs, if
failures occur. Critical operation and functions are maintained during either preventive or
corrective maintenance.
• Besides hardware, new digital code to control the system may be compiled and tested in the
backup computer, then switched to on-line status. The digital computers are usually employed in a
fixed cycle operating mode, with priority interrupts wherein computer periodically performs a list
of operations. The most critical functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically, the following
categories are scanned every 2 seconds.
• All status points such as switchgear position, substation loads and voltages, transformer tap
positions and capacitor banks.
• Tie-line flow and interchanges schedules.
• Generator loads, voltage, operating limits and boiler capacity.
• Telemetry verification to detect failures and error in the remote bilateral communication links
between the digital computer and remote equipment.
• The turbine-generators are often commanded to new power levels every 4 seconds, sharing the
load adjustment based on each unit‘s response capability in MW/min. The absolute power output
of each unit‘s response capability is typically adjusted every 5 min by the computer executing an
economic dispatch program to determine the base power settings.
 Energy Management System (EMS)
• Automatic generation control and economic dispatch minimize the production cost and transmission
cost. Commit the number of units to be operated to minimize the cost and schedule hydro-thermal
plants properly have come under energy management.
• The functions of energy management systems are:
• System load forecasting – Hourly energy, 1 to 7 days.
• Unit commitment – 1 to 7 days.
• Fuel scheduling to plants.
• Hydro-thermal scheduling – up to 7 days.
• MW interchanges evaluation – with neighboring system.
• Transmission loss minimization.
• Security constrained dispatch.
• Maintenance scheduling.
• Production cost calculation
• Load Management – Carried out at Distribution Control Centre
• Remote terminal unit (RTU) installed at distribution substations, can provide status and
measurements for distribution substation. RTU can monitor switches, interrupters, control voltage,
customer meter reading, etc.
• The functions
• 1. Data acquisition
• 2. Monitoring, sectionalizing switches and create circuit configuration
• 3. Feeder switch control and preparing distribution map
• 4. Preparation of switching orders
• 5. Customer meter reading
• 6. Load management
• 7. Fault location and circuit topology configuration
• 8. Service restoration
• 9. Power factor and voltage control
• 10. Implementation time dependent pricing
• 11. Circuit continuity analysis.
• 12. To control customer load through appliance switching and indirectly through voltage control
 Power System Data Acquisition and Control

• A SCADA system consists of a master station that communicates with remote terminal units (RTUs)
for the purpose of allowing operators to observe and control physical plants.
• Generating plants and transmission substations certainly justify RTUs, and their installation is
becoming more common in distribution substations as costs decrease. RTUs transmit device status
and measurements to, and receive control commands and set point data from, the master station.
• Communication is generally via dedicated circuits operating in the range of 600 to 4800 bits/s with
the RTU responding to periodic requests initiated from the master station (polling) every 2 to 10 s,
depending on the criticality of the data.
• The traditional functions of SCADA systems are summarized:
• a) Data acquisition: Provides telemetered measurements and status information to operator.
• b) Supervisory control: Allows operator to remotely control devices, e.g., open and close circuit
breakers. A “select before operate” procedure is used for greater safety.
• c) Tagging: Identifies a device as subject to specific operating restrictions and prevents
unauthorized operation.
• d) Alarms: Inform operator of unplanned events and undesirable operating
• conditions. Alarms are sorted by criticality, area of responsibility, and chronology.
• Acknowledgment may be required
• e) Logging: Logs all operator entry, all alarms, and selected information.
• f) Load shed: Provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of load in
• response to system emergencies.
• g) Trending: Plots measurements on selected time scales.
 SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION
(SCADA)
• There are two parts to the term SCADA Supervisory control indicates that the operator, residing in
the energy control center (ECC), has the ability to control remote equipment.
• Data acquisition indicates that information is gathered characterizing the state of the remote
equipment and sent to the ECC for monitoring purposes.
• The monitoring equipment is normally located in the substations and is consolidated in what is
known as the remote terminal unit (RTU).
• Generally, the RTUs are equipped with microprocessors having memory and logic capability. Older
RTUs are equipped with modems to provide the communication link back to the ECC, whereas
newer RTUs generally have intranet or internet capability.
• Relays located within the RTU, on command from the ECC, open or close selected control circuits
to perform a supervisory action.
• Such actions may include, for example, opening or closing of a circuit breaker or switch,
modifying a transformer tap setting, raising or lowering generator MW output or terminal voltage,
switching in or out a shunt capacitor or inductor, and the starting or stopping of a synchronous
condenser.
• Information gathered by the RTU and communicated to the ECC includes both analog information
and status indicators.
• Analog information includes, for example, frequency, voltages, currents, and real and reactive
power flows.
• Status indicators include alarm signals (over-temperature, low relay battery voltage, illegal entry)
and whether switches and circuit breakers are open or closed.
• Such information is provided to the ECC through a periodic scan of all RTUs. A 2 second scan
cycle is typical.
 SCADA
• It consists of a master station and RTU linked by communication channel. The hardware
components can be classified into
• 1. Process computer and associated hardware at the energy control center
• 2. RTU and the associated hardware at the remote stations.
• 3. Communication equipment that links the RTUs and process computers at the master station
Fig. Digital computer control and monitoring for power system
• Hardware
• System Hardware Configuration
• The supervisory control and data acquisition system allows a few operators to monitor the
generation and HV transmission system. Consistent with principles of high reliability and fail safe
features, electric utilities have almost universally applied a redundant set of dual digital computers
for the functions of remote data acquisition control, energy management and system security. Both
computers have their own core memory and drive an extensive number of input output devices
such as printers, teletypes, magnetic tape drive, and disks and so on.
• Usually one computer, the on-line units, is monitoring and controlling the power system. The
backup computer may be executing off-line batch programs such as load forecasting to hydro-
thermal allocation. The on-line computer periodically updates a disk memory shared between the
two computers.
• Upon a fail over or switch-in status command, the stored information of the common disk is
inserted in the memory of the on-line computer.
• The information used by the on-line computer has a maximum age of update cycle. The figure
gives a detailed block diagram of a typical digital computer control and monitoring for power
systems. All of the peripheral equipment is interfaced with the computer through input-output
microprocessors that have been programmed to communicate, as well as preprocess the analog
information, check for limits, convert to another system of units and so on.
• The microprocessors can transfer data in and out of computer memory with processing unit. As a
result of these precautions, for all critical hardware functions, there is often a guaranteed 99.8 % or
more availability. Software also allows for multilevel hardware failures and initialization of
application programs, if failures occur. Critical operations and functions are maintained during
either preventive or corrective maintenance.
• Besides hardware, new digital code to control the system may be compiled and tested in the
backup computer, then switched to on-line status. The digital computers are usually employed in a
fixed cycle operating mode, with priority interrupts wherein the computer periodically performs a
list of operations. The most critical functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically, the following
categories are scanned every two seconds.
• All status points such as switchgear position, substation loads and voltages, transformer tap
positions and capacitor banks.
• Tie-line flows and interchanges schedules.
• Generators loads, voltage, operating limits and boiler capacity.
• Telemetry verification to detect failures and errors in the remote bilateral communication links
between the digital computer and the remote equipment.
• The turbine generators are often commanded to new power levels every four seconds, sharing the
load adjustment based on each unit’s response capability in MW/min. The absolute power output
of each unit’s response capability is typically adjusted every five min by the computer executing an
economic dispatch program to determine the base power setting.
• Most low priority programs may be executed on demand by the operator for study purposes or to
initialize the power system. An operator may also alter the digital computer code in the execution if
system. The computer software compiler and data handlers are designed to be versatile and readily
accepts operator inputs a parameter changes in the system.
• Types of SCADA systems and areas of applications:

• Type 1: Small distribution systems, small hydro stations, HVDC links.

• Type 2: Medium sized power system (plant control center), power station HVDC link distribution
systems.

• Type 3: Regional control center, distribution system in large urban areas several hydro power
stations with cascade control.

• Type 4: National and Regional control center distributed systems in large urban areas, several
hydro power station with cascade control
Components of SCADA
• SENSORS - Analog and digital sensors are used to interface the systems
• RELAYS– Relays are used to sense the abnormal conditions and protect the
system.
• REMOTE TERMINAL UNITS – RTU’s are microprocessors controlled
electronics devices which are used to collect various data's and transmit to
SCADA system.
• MASTER UNIT- Master unit act as a central processor computer.
• COMMUNICATION LINKS- It is used to link RTU’s and SCADA system.
Satellite communication, micro-wave communication, fiber-optic communication
may be used for communication purpose.
MASTER STATION
• Master unit is provided with a digital computer with associated interfacing devices and hardware to
receive information from RTU, process data and display salient information to the operator.
• The hardware at the master station includes the following
• 1. Process computer
• 2. CRT display
• 3. Printer
• 4. Data logger
• 5. Computer graphics
• 6. Control console
• 7. Keyboard
• 8. Alarm panel
• 9. Instrument panel
• 10. Modem
• 11. Multiplexer
REMOTE TERMINAL UNIT

• The RTU’S are installed at selected power stations and substations. The
• hardware components of RTU may include the following.
• 1. Transducers
• 2. A/D and D/A converters
• 3. Serial Interface
• 4. Modems
• 5. Multiplexers
• 6. Front end Computer
• 7. Control relays
State Estimation
State estimation plays an important role in monitoring and control of modern power system. State
estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state variable based on
measurements from that system according to some criteria i.e., minimizing the sum of the squares
of the differences between the estimated and true values of a function.
Aim of state estimation
To obtain the best possible values i.e., “best estimate” of the bus voltage magnitudes and angles by
processing the available network data. The complex bus voltage (V<δ) serve as the state variables
of the power system. State estimation is the process to clean up the erroneous data.
Need of state estimation
To “smooth out” small random errors in meter readings, detect and identify gross measurement
errors and “fill in” meter readings that have failed due to communication failures.
State Estimation
Effective operation of power system required that critical quantity be measured
and the values of measurements be transmitted to a central location.
Such systems of measurements and data transmission are called telemetry
s y s t e m s .
Telemetered data and information regarding breaker position received from the
system are processed first by the estimator.
The output of the state estimator is then fed into the security analyzer.
Other information like contingencies to be evaluated and associated constraints
i s a l s o f e d i n t o t h e s e c u r i t y a n a l y z e r .
The security analyzer evaluates the impact of the above contingencies with the
help of fast load flow techniques.
Thus, the real-time data are processed in the control centres and are scanned
by the security analyzer to ascertain whether the operating condition is secured.
State Estimation
Effective operation of power system required that critical quantity be measured
and the values of measurements be transmitted to a central location.
Such systems of measurements and data transmission are called telemetry
s y s t e m s .
Telemetered data and information regarding breaker position received from the
system are processed first by the estimator.
The output of the state estimator is then fed into the security analyzer.
Other information like contingencies to be evaluated and associated constraints
i s a l s o f e d i n t o t h e s e c u r i t y a n a l y z e r .
The security analyzer evaluates the impact of the above contingencies with the
help of fast load flow techniques.
Thus, the real-time data are processed in the control centres and are scanned
by the security analyzer to ascertain whether the operating condition is secured.
VARIOUS CONTROLS FOR SECURE OPERATION.
System security involves practices designed to keep the system operating when
components fail. Systems security can be broken down into three major
functions that are carried out in an energy control centre:
•System monitoring
•Contingency analysis
•Security-constrained optimal power flow
System monitoring
It provides the operators of the power system with pertinent up to data
information on the conditions of the power system. Effective operation of the
system is required that critical quantities are measured and the values of
measurements are transmitted to a central location. Such system of
measurements and data transmission called telemetry systems, have evolved
to schemes that can monitor voltages, currents, power flows and status of
circuit breakers and switches in every substation in a power system
transmission network.
Contingency analysis
The results of this type of analysis allow system to be operated defensively.
Many of the problems that occur on a power system can cause serious trouble
which is often the case with cascading failures. In this analysis, certain
programs are used that model possible system and are used to study outage
events and alarm the operators about any potential overloads or out-of-time
voltages.
Security-constrained optimal power flow
In this function, a contingency analysis is combined with an optimal power flow
which seeks to make changes to the optimal dispatch of generation, as well as
other adjustments, so that when a security analysis is run, no contingencies
result in violations.
Other control for secure operation State estimator:
To determine the best estimate of the state of the system using real time status
a n d m e a s u r e m e n t s .
P o w e r f l o w :
To c a l c u l a t e V, δ , p o w e r f l o w s f o r t h e s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n .
C o n t i n g e n c y a n a l y s i s :
To determine the events which are harmful to the system by determining the
s t a t e s . O p t i m a l p o w e r f l o w :
Op tim iz e a s p e c ifie d o b je c tiv e fu n c tio n b y u s in g c o n tr o l l e r a c t i o n .
S e c u r i t y e n h a n c e m e n t :
To alleviate an existing overload in the system by using corrective control
a c t i o n s . P r e v e n t i v e a c t i o n :
Before the occurrence of contingency event, preventive action has to be taken.
B u s l o a d f o r e c a s t i n g :
Forecast the load using real time measurements.
T r a n s m i s s i o n l o s s f a c t o r s :
Calculate the impact of the transmission losses using incremental transmission
loss (ITL).
S h o r t c i r c u i t a n a l y s i s :
Determine the fault current for different types of faults.
 Errors
In real time control, the measurements like real and reactive line flows, real and reactive bus injections
(P&Q),bus voltage magnitudes are collected through SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition
system).The telemetered data contains error, that may be redundant measurements. The
errors arise from.
➢ Inaccurate transducer calibration.
➢ The effect of analog to digital conversion.
➢ Noise in communication channels.
➢ Unbalanced phase,etc.
➢ These errors are random in nature and the bus voltage magnitudes cannot be predicted. So, state
estimation is to clean up the erroneous data.
➢ If the number of measurements are more, or the redundancy in the measurement set to determine the
condition of the network, a systematic crosschecking should be able tc eliminate the errors. Then the output
data are used in the system control center to implement security constrained dispatch and control.
State Vector
➢ The system state is represented by a vector [X] which includes the voltage magnitudes all the buses (slack,
P-V, P-Q buses) and the voltage angles of all the buses except reference bus (P-V, P-Q buses slack).
 Let nb be the number of buses. Dimension of state vector is n s. ns = 2nb-1

Static State Estimation

In Power system, the condition of the system may be defined by its complex bus voltages.
The static state of the power system is defined as the system state that exists after the action of automatic
controllers such as turbine governor control (speed governing mechanism) and automatic excitation control are
completed.
The dynamic state of the power system is the state that exists during the action of the automatic controllers.
Real time control of power system is concerned with the static state of the system, i.e., the state of the system
that exists for every load and network condition in the varying load pattern and network configuration, after the
action of the automatic controllers is completed.
Static state estimation is the art of estimating the most likely system state given a set of imperfect
measurements made on the power system.
Estimation of system state is the process based on statistical criterion that estimates the true value of the state
variables by optimizing (minimizing or maximizing) a selected function.
Most commonly encountered criteria in statistical stated estimation can be done by
➢Weighted least square criterion.
➢Maximum likelihood criterion.
➢Minimum variance criterion.
Weighted least square criterion
The objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the weighted deviations of the estimated
measurements [F[X] ) from the actual measurements [Z].
Maximum likelihood criterion
The objective is to maximize the probability that the estimate of the state variables [X], is the true value of the
state variable vector [X].
Minimum variance criterion :
The objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the deviation of the estimated components of the state
variable vector from the corresponding components of the true state variable vector.
STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM OF A POWER SYSTEM
A power system may be operated in a several different states. These are
classified into five operating states. They are
1. Normal state (Secure state)
2. Alert state
3. Emergency state
4. Extremis state
5. Restorative state
Normal state
A system is said to be normal state if both load and operating constraints are
satisfied. It is one in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying
all the operating constraints (i.e., equality (E) and inequality (I) constraints).
Secure state
The normal of the system is said to be secure state if all postulated contingency
states are found to be normal. A normal state of the system is said to be
insecure if one or more of the postulated contingency state consists of the
constraint limits violated. In this state, frequency and the bus voltage magnitude
are within the normal operating range. Current flows on all transition lines are
within the given ratings. Transformers and generators are operated within their
ratings and there is no load shedding anywhere in the system. Reserve margin
is sufficiently high to make the system well secure.
Alert state
A normal state of the system is said to be in alert state if one or more of the
postulated contingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated. When
the system security level falls below a certain level or the probability of
disturbance increases, the system may be in alert state. All equalities (E) and
inequalities (I) are satisfied, but on the event of a disturbance occurs, the
system will push into emergency state. To bring back the system to secure state,
preventive control action is carried out.
Emergency state
The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating
constraints are violated, but the load constraint is satisfied. In this state, the
equality constraints are unchanged. The system will return to the normal
(secure) or alert state by means of corrective actions, i.e., disconnection of
faulted section or load shedding. The generator still traces the load and the
system is still synchronized. But one or several components are overloaded. As
the components eventually fail, the system will start disintegrate.
Extremis state
When the system is in emergency state, if no proper corrective action is taken in
time, then it goes to either serious emergency state or extremis state. In this,
neither the load nor the operating constraint is satisfied; this results in islanding.
Also the generating units are strained beyond their capacity. Emergency control
action is done to bring back the system state in to emergency state or normal
state.
Restorative state
From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure
state. The latter is a slow process. Hence, in certain cases, first the system is
brought back to alert state and then to the secure state. This is done using
restorative control action.
64,67,68,69,70,71,72,74,76,77,84,85,86,87,88,90,91,92,94,96,99,A0,A1,
A3,A6,A7,le16,17,20,21,22,23,26,27,30,32