REVIEW ON GRAPHENE AND IT’S APPLICATIONS

BY

OLALEYE OLUWATIMILEHIN ELIJAH

2009008050

A SEMINAR REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

PHYSICS , FACULTY OF SCIENCES, EKITI STATE UNIVERSITY,
ADO-EKITI, EKITI STATE, NIGERIA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF
SCIENCE DEGREE IN PHYSICS.

OCTOBER, 2024.

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 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the Seminar work entitled “Review on graphene and it’s applications”.
Submitted for the award of B.Sc. Degree Physics is my original work and that the seminar
research has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, fellowship or any other similar
title elsewhere.

Olaleye Oluwatimilehin E. ________________________

Student’s Name Signature & Date

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 CERTIFICATON

This is to certify that this work was written and carried out by Olaleye, Oluwatimilehin Elijah
with matriculation number 2009008050 as part of the requirements for the award of B.Sc (Hon)
Degree in Physics of Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.

PROF. K. A. ADULOJU …………………………

(Supervisor) Sign. / Date

DR. G. E. ADESAKIN ……………………………….

(Head of Department) Sign. / Date

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 DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this write up to Almighty God who made this a success for me and my
lovely parents for their support and words of encouragement rendered to me. I am very much
appreciative and thankful and blessed to have the ultimate support from my brother Olaleye
Tolulope. With this motivation and support, there is nothing that will stop me from becoming a
successful man in my near and far future.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank God Almighty for his blessings without which the completion of this seminar would have
not been possible
I am indebted to my supervisor, Prof. K. A. Aduloju, Department of Physics for his valuable
support and guidance towards the success of this seminar.

I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to my Head of Department, Dr. G. E. Adesakin, all

lecturers in the Department of Physics for their valuable guidance and contributions which has
been absolutely helpful in successful completion of this seminar.

And last but not the least, I am also grateful to my parents and friends for their aids without
which I wouldn’t have finished my seminar successfully. I extend my thanks to all my well-
wishers and all those who have contributed directly and indirectly for the completion of this
work.

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 ABSTRACT

Graphene is a 2-D atomic layer of carbon atoms with unique electronic transport properties
such as a high Fermi velocity, an outstanding carrier mobility, and a high carrier
saturation velocity, which make graphene an excellent candidate for advanced applications
in future electronics. In particular, the potential of graphene in high-speed analog electronics
is currently being extensively explored. In this paper, we discuss briefly the basic electronic
structure and transport properties of graphene, its large scale synthesis, the role of metal–
graphene contact, field-effect transistor (FET) device fabrication (including the issues of
gate insulators), and then focus on the electrical characteristics and promise of high- frequency
graphene transistors with record-high cutoff frequencies, maximum oscillation frequencies,
and voltage gain.

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 List of Figures

Figures Title pages

Fig. 2.1 Honeycomb lattice, resulting from A and B interpenetrating triangular 16
lattices.
Fig. 2.2 Hexagonal Brillouin zone of honeycomb lattice, resulting from A and 16
B interpenetrating triangular lattices.
Fig. 2.3 Energy bands of graphene, essentially as given by Wallace (1947). 17
Fig. 2.4 Vibrational frequencies calculated for graphene in the ab initio method 22
of Mounet and Marzari (2005), compared with data points obtained
experimentally for graphite.
Fig 2.5 Normalized dependence of graphene resistivity on temperature, 23
dominated by 2D acoustic phonon scattering.
Fig 3.1 Graphene Honeycomb Lattice 28
Fig 3.2: Structure of Graphene Oxide 30
Fig 3.3: Graphene Atomic Structure 31
Fig 3.4: Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene 34

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 List of Plates

Plates Title pages

Plate 2.1 Graphene annealed under high electrical current density 27

shows well-defined edges, as marked.
Plate 3.1 Phonon Transport in Graphene 35
Plate 3.2 Graphene Transistor Design 37
Plate 3.3 Graphene-Based Anode in LIBs 38
Plate 3.4 Graphene-Based Biosensor 39
Plate 3.5 Graphene Oxide Membrane for Water Filtration 41

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 Table of Contents
Title Page …………………………………………………………………………… 1
Declaration …………………………………………………………………………. 2
Certification ………………………………………………………………………… 3
Dedication …………………………………………………………………………... 4
Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………………….. 5
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………... 6
List if Figures ……………………………………………………………………….. 7
List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………... 8
Table of contents ……………………………………………………………………. 9
Chapter One ………………………………………………………………………… 10
Chapter Two ………………………………………………………………………... 16
Chapter Three ………………………………………………………………………. 28
Chapter Four ……………………………………………………………………….. 42

References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 45

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Studies
Graphene is the single layer of the graphite crystal, pure covalently bonded carbon in a
honeycomb lattice, one atom thick. The single layers can be detached from graphite, and
grown by conventional chemical vapor deposition methods.
The single layers are extremely strong in tension and bend very easily, but do not tear. They
are remarkably good conductors of electricity and heat. To a first approximation graphene is a
semimetal, and certainly has no band gap.
The Fermi level, lying at the intersection of conduction and valence bands in pure material,
can be shifted to make it N- or P-Type, by chemical additions, or, most easily, by an electric
field. The electron energy bands near the neutral point, termed the Dirac point, are linear,
rather than parabolic, in their dependence on wave vector k. The new electron properties arise
in a straightforward way from the symmetry of the atomic positions, resulting in cone-shaped,
rather than parabolic, regions in the electron energy surfaces.
All the new effects are well described by the Schrodinger-equation-based methods of
condensed matter physics, i.e., the Dirac- equation-like electron behavior is obtained directly
from appropriate simplification of the Schrodinger theory of solids. The linear bands mean
that there is a single velocity, vF, approximately 106 m/s, for all carriers within a few tenths of
an electron-volt (eV) of the neutral point energy. The lattice symmetry forbids direct
backscattering of electrons, enhancing the electrical mobility and conductivity.
The subtlety of the band structure brings in analogies to phenomena known in high energy
physics. The carriers formally behave as spinors, but the impact, beyond the improved
mobility, of these interesting and confirmed effects on applications seems modest. In
application, the main novelty of graphene is that it is fully functional and structurally
continuous, displaying exceedingly high electrical conductivity, at one atom thickness.
This fact is hard to believe but is well con- firmed. Electron device applications can exploit
the tunability of the Fermi level and thus the work function, by electric field. Applications can
also benefit from the basic symmetry of the electron properties above and below the neutral
point. This symmetry is a positive aspect in considering graphene-based devices as a
replacement of the CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) field- effect
transistor logic. Graphene is a fully covalent conductor based on extremely strong sp2 trigonal
bonds between carbon atoms.
The graphene structure fully engages the four n = 2 valence electrons of carbon: three of these
covalently bond the triangular lattice, the fourth electron, in a 2pz state, gives the electronic
conduction. The full covalent bonding leaves graphene as chemically inert, extremely strong,
and refractory, while the single free pz electron gives exceptional electrical conductivity.

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The parent graphite crystal sublimates at 3,900 K, suggesting that intact graphene layers
detach at 3,900 K. Disintegration of the individual layers has been variously estimated to
occur at temperatures 4,900 and 5,800 K.
The profound strength and refractory nature of this structure makes it difficult to sinter small
platelets of graphene (that are easily available) to achieve larger single crystal electrodes.
From the point of view of application, a practical difficulty is that there is no analog of the
nearly defect-free 300 mm silicon wafer, the basis for contemporary high-level chip (and solar
cell) manufacture. The closest graphene analog of the large wafer of silicon is a large sheet of
graphene grown at 1,000 °C by catalytic thermal decomposition (CVD) of methane on copper
foil.
This method has allowed continuous sheets of 30 in. diagonal measure, containing large 2D
grains. If four such sheets are chemically doped and stacked, a nearly transparent continuous
flexible electrode of sheet resistance 30 9X/square has been achieved (Bae et al. 2010).
The mechanical properties of graphene are well-predicted by classical bending- beam
formulas, (Bunch et al. 2007) taking beam thickness as t = 0.34 nm, the layer spacing in
graphite, and a Young’s modulus Y of 1 TPa. For example, a classical spring constant K,
representing the force F = Kx needed to deflect a square of side L, clamped on one edge, by a
distance x, is given as K * Yt3/L2 (Ekinci and Roukes 2005). For L = 1 nm, this gives K = 39
N/m, but for L = 1
micrometer, K = 39 9 10-6 N/m. Thus, a graphene square of molecular size is
stiff, but for size L larger than a micrometer, it has vanishing stiffness, and will
closely adhere, by van der Waals force, to any substrate, and will thus acquire the roughness
of that substrate. An interesting experiment has shown that a monolayer graphene membrane
is impermeable to helium atoms (Bunch et al. 2008). The membrane held an overpressure of
helium gas for hours, making clear that it was indeed continuous, defect-free, and would not
allow the smallest atom to pass through. This property is easily confirmed by elementary
tunneling theory, for example see Wolf (2013).
Another property of graphene is its vast surface area, 2,600 m2/g. The surface area per gram
is maximal because graphene is one atom thick, the only other possibilities would be Li, Be,
and B (mass numbers 7, 9, and 11) versus mass number 12 for C. But none of these forms
continuous sheets, although the graphene analog BN does form the same hexagonal 2D
structure (it is an insulator). Another way of stating this is that graphene is all surface, with no
bulk. So, while it is generally true that graphene is inert, when one looks more closely,
physisorbed atoms and molecules are common and do substantially reduce the electrical
conductivity of graphene. The conductivity of graphene can be
increased, by factors exceeding two, by gentle heating to *400 °C in modest vacuum (Bolotin
et al. 2008) (Molecules can also increase the conductivity by adding carriers to graphene, but
the mobility is always reduced.). The surface sensitivity of graphene, also present in carbon
nanotubes, is the basis for its use as a sensor, even, of single molecules (Schedin et al. 2007).

11
In practical terms, graphene is hard to deal with, it has no rigidity on scales larger than
micrometers and it is nearly invisible. The optical transmission of one monolayer is 97.7 %
(Nair et al. 2008), and a basic underlying reason for the Nobel Prizes for A. Geim and K.
Novoselov in 2010 was (Geim 2011); (Novoselov 2011) that they found a practical optical
approach to clearly identify a single monolayer of graphene, placed on an oxidized Si surface.
Graphene is the leading example of a 2D material (BN being a second) that can be fabricated
in three-dimensional space.
A mathematical literature establishes that a 2D layer, even if it is completely con- strained to
a plane, has some limitation on its lattice vibrational properties. The fortunate situation is,
apart from admitted difficulty in fabricating large samples of graphene and BN, that the
mathematically predicted limitations on in-plane vibrational properties are so small as to have
escaped detection. The practical problems of fabricating and handling graphene and similar
2D materials, in suit- able size and quality, remain formidable.

1.2 Aim and Objective of this work

The aim of this study is to explore the properties, synthesis, and applications of graphene, a
two-dimensional carbon nanomaterial, and to analyze its potential for revolutionizing various
industries such as electronics, energy, medicine, and materials science.
The Objectives are:
i. to investigate the structure and properties of graphene: - Understand the atomic structure,
chemical composition, and electronic properties of graphene.
ii. examine its mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal properties.
iii to explore the methods of graphene synthesis:- Analyze different graphene production
techniques such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), mechanical exfoliation, and liquid-
phase exfoliation.
iv. Compare the advantages and challenges of each synthesis method.
v. to examine the current applications of graphene:- Identify how graphene is being used in
various industries, including electronics (e.g., transistors, sensors), energy storage (e.g.,
batteries, supercapacitors), and composites (e.g., lightweight, strong materials).
vi. xplore its potential in the medical field, such as in drug delivery, biosensors, and tissue
engineering.
vi. to analyze the environmental and economic impact of graphene production:-Assess the
sustainability and environmental implications of graphene production techniques.
Investigate the economic feasibility and scalability of large-scale graphene manufacturing.
To investigate the future potential and challenges in graphene research:
Identify the emerging trends and innovations in graphene technology.
vii. Highlight the barriers to graphene commercialization, such as production costs,
integration with existing technologies, and safety concerns.
In summary, this research aims at providing a comprehensive understanding of graphene and
its potential to shape future technological advancements.

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1.3 Scope of this work
This research on graphene and its applications encompasses a broad examination of the
material's unique properties, its various synthesis methods, and its emerging applications
across multiple industries.
The scope of the study includes the following key areas:
a. Fundamental Properties of Graphene:
The study will delve into graphene's atomic and molecular structure, focusing on its two-
dimensional lattice of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb pattern.
It will cover graphene’s key physical and chemical properties, such as its extraordinary
mechanical strength, high thermal and electrical conductivity, and flexibility.
The investigation will include an analysis of graphene’s electronic properties, such as its
behavior as a semi-metal, and how these properties contribute to its wide range of
applications.
Synthesis and Fabrication Techniques:
This work will explore the various methods of synthesizing graphene, such as chemical vapor
deposition (CVD), mechanical exfoliation, and liquid-phase exfoliation.
It will review the advantages, limitations, and scalability of each method for both laboratory
and industrial-scale production.
The research will also address challenges related to the cost-effectiveness and purity of
graphene produced by different techniques.
b. Applications of Graphene:
The study will investigate graphene’s existing and potential applications in a variety of fields,
including:
Electronics: Its use in flexible and transparent electronics, transistors, sensors, and as a
material for faster and more efficient computing devices.
i. Energy:
Applications in energy storage devices such as batteries and supercapacitors, with a focus on
enhancing performance, charge cycles, and energy density.
Material Science: Incorporation of graphene into composites for stronger, lighter materials
used in aerospace, automotive, and construction industries.
ii. Biomedicine:
Graphene’s role in drug delivery systems, biosensors, tissue engineering, and medical
imaging.
Environmental Applications: Water filtration, environmental sensors, and pollution control
using graphene-based technologies.
c. Commercialization and Industrial Impact:
The research will assess the current state of graphene commercialization, including the efforts
to scale up production and integrate graphene into existing products.

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It will examine the market potential for graphene-based technologies and industries that are
most likely to benefit from its widespread adoption.
A review of the economic implications, including the cost of graphene production and market
demand, will be provided.
Environmental and Ethical Considerations:
The study will evaluate the environmental impact of graphene synthesis, including the
sustainability of raw materials, energy consumption, and waste generated during production.
It will also cover the potential health and safety risks associated with graphene manufacturing
and usage, especially in biomedical and environmental applications.
d.Future Trends and Challenges:
The research will explore the future trajectory of graphene research and development,
identifying emerging trends, such as new synthesis techniques, hybrid materials, and
enhanced applications.
The work will also address the challenges and limitations currently faced by graphene
technologies, including production costs, integration into complex systems, and regulatory
hurdles for widespread adoption.
This comprehensive scope ensures a holistic exploration of graphene, from its fundamental
science to its practical applications and future potential. It aims to provide insights for both
academic research and industrial stakeholders interested in leveraging the material’s
capabilities.

1.4 Contributions to knowledge

Understanding of Graphene's Unique Properties: This research enhances the scientific
understanding of graphene's remarkable properties, such as its atomic structure, mechanical
strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal properties. Graphene's one-atom-thick layer of
carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice offers unprecedented material characteristics,
contributing to new theoretical models in nanoscience and material physics.
I. Advancements in Synthesis Techniques: A detailed exploration of the various graphene
synthesis methods, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), mechanical exfoliation, and
liquid-phase exfoliation, provides significant contributions to material science. By comparing
the efficiency, scalability, and environmental impact of these techniques, the research offers
insights that can help optimize graphene production, enabling more affordable and large-scale
fabrication processes.
Innovations in Electronics and Nanotechnology: This research highlights graphene's
transformative potential in electronics, particularly in creating faster, smaller, and more
efficient electronic components. By analyzing its applications in transistors, flexible displays,
sensors, and quantum computing, the research contributes to the development of next-
generation technologies. Graphene's exceptional electron mobility and flexibility can push the
boundaries of miniaturization in electronic devices.

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II.Enhancements in Energy Storage and Generation: Graphene's use in energy storage
devices such as batteries and supercapacitors is critical for advancing energy solutions. This
research deepens the understanding of how graphene can improve the capacity,
charge/discharge rates, and lifespan of energy storage devices. Additionally, graphene-based
solar cells and fuel cells have the potential to revolutionize renewable energy generation,
making energy solutions more efficient and sustainable.
Applications in Medicine and Biotechnology: By exploring graphene's biocompatibility, this
research contributes to biomedical advancements, particularly in drug delivery, biosensors,
and tissue engineering. The ability to functionalize graphene for specific medical applications
could lead to breakthroughs in disease detection, targeted therapies, and regenerative
medicine. The study also contributes to knowledge about graphene's safety, cytotoxicity, and
interactions with biological systems.
Environmental and Industrial Impact: The environmental and economic implications of
graphene production and its potential to replace less efficient, more polluting materials are
crucial. This research contributes to sustainability studies by exploring how graphene-based
materials can reduce resource consumption and enhance product longevity across various
industries. The economic feasibility of scaling graphene production for widespread industrial
use is another valuable insight for policymakers and manufacturers.
III. Exploring Graphene Composites and Advanced Materials: Graphene's role in
reinforcing materials, such as composites used in aerospace, automotive, and construction
industries, adds significant value to material science. This research contributes by detailing
how graphene can enhance the strength, flexibility, and durability of composites, offering
alternatives to traditional materials and pushing the frontier of lightweight, high-performance
materials.
IV. Insight into Future Directions and Challenges: By identifying key challenges in
graphene commercialization—such as production costs, integration with current technologies,
and safety concerns—this research adds a forward-looking perspective to the field. It also
outlines potential future applications and innovations that could emerge from ongoing
graphene research, contributing to strategic roadmaps for industries looking to harness
graphene's full potential.

In conclusion, this study of graphene and its applications not only deepens the theoretical
understanding of the material but also provides practical insights that span across multiple
disciplines, influencing technological innovation, environmental sustainability, and industrial
processes.

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 CHAPTER TWO

FUNDAMENTAL OF GRAPHENE

2.1 Graphene Basic Lattice and Electronic Structure

The lattice is shown in Figure 2.1, where A and B indicate identical carbon atoms but located
on the two interpenetrating triangular lattices that make up the honeycomb lattice. In this
figure, a1 and a2 are the basis vectors that generate the lattice, while b1, b2 and b3 are the
nearest neighbor translations. In more detail, we have basis vectors a1 = (H3/2, -1/2)a, a2 =
(0, 1)a, and the sublattices are connected by b1 = (1/2H3, 1/2)a, b2 = (1/2H3, -1/2)a, b3 = (-
1/H3, 0)a, in terms of the nearest neighbor distance, a = 142 pm, where 1 pm = 10-12 m. The
bonding in this structure is of the planar covalent sp2 type based on the n = 2 electrons of the
carbon atom.

Fig. 2.1 Honeycomb lattice, resulting from A and B interpenetrating triangular lattices.

An important aspect of this structure is that nearest neighbor atoms are on different
sublattices, denoted A and B. The corresponding Brillouin zone is depicted in Fig. 2.2
Viewing Fig. 2.2, with nearest-neighbor distance a = 142 pm, the lattice constant is 31/2 a,
and the zone boundary M (half the reciprocal lattice vectors b1, b2), is 2p/3a. The coordinates
of the corner point K are (2p/3a, p/3H3a) so that the distance from the origin to point K is
4p/(3H3a). Since the conduction and valence

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Fig. 2.2 Hexagonal Brillouin zone of honeycomb lattice, resulting from A and B
interpenetrating triangular lattices. Reciprocal lattice vectors are b1, b2 and the essential Dirac
points are K, K0.

bands touch precisely at K, we have kF = |K| and the Fermi wavelength

λF = 2π/ kF = 3√3a/2 = 369 pm.
The electron bands that arise in this lattice were first calculated by Wallace in 1947, who
realized that the bands of the single plane that he calculated were a good approximation to the
bands of graphite, since the planes are so weakly coupled and so widely spaced, by 0.34 nm.
A modern representation of that bandstructure is shown in Fig. 1.3. The upper and lower
bands are derived from the 2pz orbitals of carbon. The conical crossings at K and K0 (Wallace
1947) are the result of the two-sublattice symmetry.

Fig. 2.3 Energy bands of graphene, essentially as given by Wallace (1947).

Energy E in units of t, which is about 2.7 eV, the basic nearest neighbor hopping energy. The
Dirac- like features are the linear energy dispersions, present near the neutral points K, K'.
One is expanded into the right panel of the figure.
The energy near the crossing points is

EF=ℏvF|k — K|, (2.1)

where K (or K') is the neutral point at the corner of the Brillouin zone. The Fermi velocity
determining the slope of the linear sections is given as
vF = 3ta/(2ℏ). (2.2)
This evaluates as 0.91 9 106 m/s, taking the hopping energy t = 2.8 eV,
h¯ = 1.05 9 10-34 J-s and nearest neighbor distance a as 142 pm.
The density of states is linear in E and vanishes at E = 0, according to

17
 g(E) = 2 Ac|E|/ p ¯h 2 v 2 ≈ g0|E|/Ac, (2.3)
F
where Ac 3,3 a2/2 5.18 Angstrom2 is the area of the graphene unit cell and g0 = 0.09/(eV2
unit cell), with a the interatomic spacing.
Integrating this expression to energy EF gives the carrier density per unit area as
N = E2 F g0/2Ac (2.4)
F
so that, e.g., Ef = 0.28 eV corresponds to N = 7 9 1012 cm-2. It turns out that these conditions
can be met in the common configuration of a graphene monolayer
placed above a 300 nm SiO2 layer on doped silicon, if the silicon acting as gate is biased at
100 V. The formula giving the induced charge follows from Gauss’s Law of electrostatics in
the form
N = ee0VG/de, (2.5)
where voltage VG appears across a dielectric layer of thickness d and permittivity e, e0 = 8.85 x
10-12 F/m, and electron charge e = 1.6 x 10- 19 C. Measuring the electrostatically induced free
carrier density N was one of the key initial measurements (via Hall effect) of the pioneering
workers Novoselov et al. (2004) and Zhang et al. (2005).
The bands shown in Fig. 2.3 have additional beneficial features that were recognized only
well after the work of Wallace. The similar but distinct corner points K and K' were described
by Semenoff (1984), as ‘‘right- and left-handed degeneracy points’’. The distinction relates to
the distinct sublattices A and B, and is related to the unusual ‘‘two-component wavefunction’’
for the carriers. While the two components are related to the two sublattices, it is convenient
to describe the result as an artificial spin ½.
The desirable aspect of this complexity, as first recognized by Semenoff (1984), is that direct
back-scattering of a carrier is forbidden, as it represents a ‘‘spin-flip transition’’, or a
transition from A lattice wavefunctions to (orthogonal) B lattice wavefunctions. As was
shown by McEuen et al. (1999), the mean free path in metallic nanotubes, whose
bandstructure is similar, is exceptionally long on this account.
These workers found that the mean free path in metallic carbon nanotubes was about 100
times longer than in similar quality carbon nanotubes that were semiconducting. They
attributed this large difference to the change in the band structure from conical in the metallic
case to parabolic in the semiconductor case.
The starting point for the two-component wavefunction, valid near K and K', is
the simplified 2D Dirac Hamiltonian:
H^ = b ¯h vF r · k, (2.6)
where b = 1 (-1) for states of energy above (below) those at point K, and r is a Pauli matrix.
This simplification, corresponding to Eq. (1.1) above, comes from cancellation of terms in the
usual tight binding theory by application of the
· k p approximation (Semenoff 1984; DiVincenzo and Mele 1984). A review of the algebraic
reduction of the Schrodinger theory to the simple Dirac expression (1.5) is given by Castro
Neto et al. (2009).

18
Evidence that graphene is truly a 2D system, that occurs in single layer thickness and indeed
can have exceedingly large electron mobility comes from observation of the anomalous Half-
integer Quantum Hall Effect with levels given (Novoselov 2011) as
1/2
En = vF[2e ¯h B( n + 1/2 1/2)] where n = 0, 1, 2... (2.7)
The details of this effect confirm the unusual band structure and two-component electronic
states. The exceptionally high carrier mobility is further indicated by observation of the
Quantum Hall Effect at room temperature by Novoselov et al.
(2007). No other material has displayed the effect at room temperature.

The mobility was estimated by Novoselov et al. (2007) as 1 m2/Vs at room temperature, with
an estimate of the scattering time as 10-13 s. At 106 m/s, the scattering distance is 100 nm, or
about 700 bond-lengths. More recent measure- ments by Mayorov et al. (2011) reveal
mobilities ten times higher, &10 m2/Vs at room temperature, and confirm earlier reports of
ballistic electron transport
(Bolotin et al. 2008; Du et al. 2008), now measured at room temperature. The improved
mobility values come from samples that are freely suspended and heated to release adsorbed
atoms, or mounted on BN, a substrate with fewer charge fluctuations. The record stated
mobility now appears to be 100 m2/Vs, although measured at the low temperature 2 K (Elias
et al. 2011).
The conductivity of graphene is dependent on temperature and on the Fermi level position
(the doping density). In practice, large doping, achieved by rinsing the graphene in nitric acid
(Bae et al. 2010), has led to a resistivity of 30 9X/square at room temperature in an assembled
four-layer graphene sheet.
The conductivity of neutral graphene, with the Fermi energy at the Dirac point, where the
density of states is zero, has been somewhat puzzling, although not of practical concern as
devices will always be designed with enhanced conductivity achieved by doping.
While the early literature quoted a minimum conductivity for pure neutral graphene even at
low temperature, the theoretically expected Mott-Anderson metal insulator transition for
neutral graphene has now been observed by Ponomarenko et al. (2011). The difficulty of
observation of the insulator transition has been that in a practical situation stray electric fields
from a substrate induce ‘‘charge puddles’’ that make adjoining regions of the putative neutral
sample actually conductive, so the true Dirac-point behavior is obscured.
The typical observed minimum conductivity is now understood as tunneling of carriers
between such randomly distributed positive and negatively doped regions. Only with
elaborate electrostatic shielding were these workers able to observe the Mott transition. The
experimental confusion has been resolved, but confusion still exists in the theoretical
literature. An expected correction, of perhaps 25 %, to the electrical conductivity may arise
from electron–electron interactions in graphene, as recently proposed by Rosenstein et al.
(2013). The reader may be warned that a large body of theory has been based on the

19
erroneous assumption of a metallic groundstate, of conductivity on the order of e 2/4ℏ, for
neutral graphene.
In practice graphene in monolayer and multilayer forms are superb electrical conductors,
typically doped to 1012 cm-2 by a gate electrode or by chemical doping. For example,
exceedingly high values of measured current density have recently been reported by Jain et al.
(2012) for graphene on hexagonal BN substrates. The graphene is grown by chemical vapor
deposition CVD on Cu foil and then transferred onto mechanically exfoliated flakes of
hexagonal BN that, in turn, had been transferred onto an oxidized Si wafer.
The electrical characteristics of Cu-grown Chemical Vapour Deposition graphene on the h-BN
surface are excellent, including mobility l = 1.5 m2/Vs at carrier density 1 9 1012 cm-2. The
breakdown current density was measured as 1.4 9 109 A/cm2 for a multilayer on h-BN
substrate. This is an exceptionally high value. According to Karim et al. (2009), bulk metals
fail because of Joule heating at current densities 103–104 A/cm2, but gold nanowires, of
diameter 80 nm withstand 1.2 9 108 A/cm2. In comparison, carbon nanotubes, very similar in
their conduction to graphene, are reported to withstand current density on the order of 109
A/cm2 (Dai et al. 1996; Yao et al. 2000).
It is clear that the observed values are dependent on the ability of the substrate or environment
to remove heat. This aspect likely explains the strong rise in sustainable current density as the
diameters of the measured gold nanowires were reduced from 700 to 80 nm. In the graphene
case, the thermal conductivity of the substrate seems important, with a note that the same type
of CVD-grown graphene multilayer that withstood 1.4 9 109 A/cm2 on h-BN withstood only
0.9 9 109 A/cm2 when mounted on oxidized silicon, a surface of fused silica.
Optical absorption of graphene occurs by raising the energy of free carriers. Since there is no
bandgap, the absorption has no energy threshold, and is broadband in nature. But since the
material is only 0.34 nm thick, the absolute absorption of one layer, as suggested earlier, is
only about 2.3 % (Nair et al. 2008). There is no indication in the experimental literature of
graphene of any weakness of the crystalline lattice, arising from its 2D nature (A separate
question is one of weak nanometer scale out-of-plane ripples or corrugations of the 2D lattice
that are sometimes seen.
It appears that such small modulations can occur by adsorbed weakly bonded atoms that
somewhat alter the strength of in-plane bonds, allowing the deflections especially if the sheet
has tension imposed by its boundary). The practical perfection and robust nature of the
graphene 2D lattice may be surprising, because there is a respectable literature that says that,
in two dimensions (2D), crystals do not exist at finite temperature. More precisely, an
extended crystalline phase, where each atom can be reached by lattice translations
R = na + mb, (2.8)
with integer n and m, is not possible at finite temperature in 2D. It is not too hard to show
(Landau and Lifshitz 1986) that thermal displacements u of atoms from their lattice positions
become indefinitely large in the 2D case of a sample of size L approaching infinity, according
to

20
 <u2> = const. × T ln(L/a), (2.9)
This literature applies to graphene at finite temperature, but its predictions have led to no
observed departure of behavior from that of traditional crystals. In part, the corrections may
not be observed because the bonding in graphene is so strong, with a Debye temperature
above 2,300 K, that the material is usually near the zero temperature limit of its vibrational
behavior. Second, the size L of the obtained samples is typically not large, although 30-in.
polycrystals have been constructed. Third, the deflections Eq. (1.9) are with respect to a fixed
origin, while inter-atom vibrational displacements in the 2D case at finite temperature are not
anomalous. The motion of near-neighbors is highly correlated, much as in a 3D crystal, but
anomalous behavior exists in the relative motion of distant neighbors. In almost all cases the
observation apparatus or mounting substrate will act to pin the lattice, so the absolute
displacement can be small.

2.2 Practical Consequences of One-Atom Thickness

The discussion above, with the exception of the Quantum Hall Effect, is similar to discussion
of a three dimensional crystal such as Si. The lattice and band structure calculation method is
the same, with the novelty mainly in the conical bands, that do not appear to be a specific
consequence of the dimensionality. The surprising and important fact is that the usual breakup
of a thin film into islands as its thickness is reduced is avoided entirely by the strong
directional 2D bonding in graphene, BN and other members of the class of covalent 2D
materials clarified by Geim and Novoselov. So these one-layer materials exist, are actually
very robust, and can often be considered largely in the same way as 3D materials are
considered.
As mentioned above, in practice graphene is difficult to deal with, because it is nearly
invisible and needs to be supported. The softness is a direct consequence of the single atom
thickness, and can be discussed classically as mentioned above.
The fundamental oscillation frequency f0 for singly- and doubly-clamped graphene beams,
was experimentally found to be well fitted by the classical expression (Bunch et al. 2007)
1/2
1/2
f0 = {[A (Y/p) t/L2]2 + A20.57T/pL2wt} , (2.10)
where Y is Young’s modulus, T the tension applied in Newtons, q the mass density; t, w and L
are the dimensions of the beam and the clamping coefficient A is 1.03 for a doubly clamped
beam and 0.162 for cantilevers. The value of Y was taken as 1 TPa.
Based on such measurements, a spring constant K* (for a doubly-clamped graphene beam of
length L, width w and thickness t, with force applied at its center) can be written (Shivaraman
et al. 2009) as
K* = 32Ywt3/L3, (2.11)
As suggested above, because the thickness t entering the formula is only 0.34 nm, this is the
smallest possible spring constant K* for a sample of width w and length L. If L is a molecular
size, K* is on the scale of tens of Newtons/m, but for L exceeding a micrometer the restoring
force F = K*x, for deflection x, is vanishingly small, resulting in a sheet that adheres to any

21
substrate by unavoidable van der Waals attraction. The flexural modes observed by neutron
diffraction (Nicklow et al. 1972; see also Mounet and Marzari 2005) on graphite, are quite
consistent with the classical analysis outlined here.
The consequence of this softness is that most samples of graphene are supported on a
substrate, commonly on SiO2 grown thermally on P-type silicon. Micrometer scale sheets of
un-supported graphene may cross trenches etched in a silicon surface or cross openings in
TEM grids, but in device applications the graphene must lie on a rigid support.
The support may distort the graphene from local microscopic planarity if it is itself imperfect,
as in the case of amorphous silica. The support may contain electrical charges that can induce
charges in the graphene, that will alter its local Fermi energy. Careful research reveals (Dean
et al. 2010; Xue et al. 2011) that non-polar crystalline support surfaces, such as boron nitride
BN, yield much smoother graphene surfaces, as seen by scanning tunneling microscope, than
graphene on silica.
While the main interest and novelty is in monolayer graphene, bilayer graphene can be grown
under similar conditions as used for the monolayer, for example see Ohta et al. (2006). In its
characteristic form, with Bernal stacking, carbon atoms on the upper layer are centered on
rings (holes) in the lower layer.
This registry leads to a semimetal with conventional parabolic bands and massive carriers,
lacking the conical band structure. Bilayer graphene retains the high carrier mobility because
of the long range perfection of covalent bonding, but the formal cancellation of direct
backscattering not longer appears. (Bilayer graphene does not usually result from stacking of
graphene monolayers, in which case there is typically no particular registry of angles between
the layers.
In the case of stacked graphene monolayers the transverse conductivity is additive as in a
parallel conductor arrangement, but the lack of registry means that the conduction
perpendicular to the planes is reduced.) In the chemical methods of breaking up graphite into
flakes, it is common to find stacks of variable numbers of monolayers. Most chemical
methods actually produce graphite oxide, an insulator, that is later reduced back to an oxide-
free material, however, commonly retaining many defects in the planes that quite substantially
reduce the electrical conductivity.
The softness and related aspects of graphene are as one would expect for a material of
vanishing thickness, a 2D material. A fundamental problem in practice is growing planar
crystals of graphene. This central problem will be discussed in detail in Chap. 2, but we offer
below a brief discussion. On a more detailed level, the graphene crystal lattice vibrations
differ from a typical 3D crystal because it can flex perpendicular to its plane. Actually,
however, the flexural modes of graphene are almost unchanged from the flexural modes that
are well-studied in

22
Fig. 2.4 Vibrational frequencies calculated for graphene in the ab initio method of Mounet and
Marzari (2005), compared with data points obtained experimentally for graphite. Here the
horizontal axis is wavevector, with the Brillouin zone points C, M and K as defined in Fig.
2.2.

graphite. Since graphite is only van der Waals bonded in the perpendicular direction, its lattice
modes include the flexural motions.
The modes labeled ZA in Fig. 2.4 have a quadratic dependence of frequency on wavevector,
characteristic of flexural motions of a 2D layer in 3D space. That these flexural modes are
observed in three-dimensional graphite is an indication of the weak coupling of the graphene
layers by van der Waals forces in graphite. An evidence of these modes is the negative
temperature coefficient of in-plane expansion, observed in graphite upto 600 K, and predicted
to a much higher temperature in graphene. The peak frequencies in the spectrum are near
1,600 cm-1, that, with the conversion 1 meV = 8.065 cm-1, corresponds to 198.4 meV. The
very high vibrational frequencies are an indication of the strong covalent bonding and small
atomic mass in graphene, and these factors correlate with high thermal conductivity. The high
frequency optical modes are less likely to be excited by carrier motion, a fact that contributes
to the high carrier mobility in graphene.
Extremely high current densities in graphene, on the order of several mA/lm, are reported, for
example, in the measurements of Liao et al. (2010). Assuming the thickness of the graphene is
0.34 nm, the current density is approximately 3 9 108 A/cm2.
A thorough experimental and theoretical analysis of the phonon-induced resistivity of
graphene is given by Efetov and Kim (2010). A key result of their work is illustrated in Fig.
1.5. The experiment achieved exceptionally large carrier densities N by the electric field
effect applied by a ‘‘solid-electrolyte polymer gate’’, as described in their paper

23
 Fig 2.5 Normalized dependence of graphene resistivity on temperature, dominated by 2D
acoustic phonon scattering.

By this means they achieved a specific capacitance between graphene and the gate, in which
Li+ and ClO - ions are mobile in the polymer PEO poly(ethylene)oxide, of 3.2 lF/cm2, more
4
than 250 times larger than the capacitance available in the conventional P-Si/SiO2 gate,
described in Eq. (2.5).
The large induced mobile carrier concentrations, N, were measured by Hall effect. The
conventional understanding of the temperature dependence of resistivity in metals is based on
the Debye temperature, that is dependent on the lattice vibration energies (such as shown in
Fig. 2.4 for graphene).
According to Krumhansl and Brooks (1953), the atomic motions of carbon atoms in graphite
can be described by Debye temperatures hD 2,500 K for in-plane motions and hD 900 K for
out of plane motions.
This would suggest a Debye temperature for graphene of 2,500 K, while Efetov and Kim
quote 2,300 K, in reasonable agree- ment. Efetov and Kim adapt the resistivity analysis from
a 3D metal to the 2D system where the carrier density is widely variable (in their work via the
voltage on the ‘‘solid-electrolyte polymer gate’’). They find the effective Debye temper- ature,
now called the Bloch-Gruneisen temperature
hBG = 2¯hvS kF /kB /hD (2.12)
B that marks the change in the temperature dependence of the resistivity, q(T), from linear in T
to linear in T4. This parameter, hBG, is dependent on carrier density, through the density
dependence of the Fermi wavevector kF a HN. In Eq. (2.12), vS and kB, respectively, are the
speed of sound and Boltzmann’s constant kb = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K. As shown in Fig. 1.5, the fitted
values of the Bloch-Gruneisen hBG a HN vary from 260 K at 13.6 x 1012/cm2 to 903K x 10.8 x 1013/cm2.
These authors achieve a universal scaling of the normalized resistivity of graphene, ,
Dq(T)/Dq(nhBG), over the whole concentration range, as a function of the normalized
temperature T/hBG. The dashed curve in Fig. 2.5, that quite nicely fits the wide range of
experimental data points, represents the theory of Efetov and Kim, with choice of the single
parameter n = 0.2, as well as values vF = 106 m/s, vS = (2.6 ± 0.4) 9 104 m/s and an acoustic
phonon deformation potential value DA = (25 ± 5) eV, all reasonable values.
The theoretical fit has included the unusual absence of direct backscattering, as one of the
changes from the conventional 3D analysis made by the authors. It is seen that the resistivity

24
at the lowest temperature is residual, depending on impurity and defect levels; rises initially
as T4 and then shifts, above the concentration-dependent characteristic temperature hBG =
2¯hv S k F /k B , to a concentration-independent T-linear resistivity. The resistivity analysis given
above applies at small current density j = Neu, with u the drift velocity. In device applications
at high current density, velocity saturation is observed.
The Fermi velocity in graphene has been mentioned above as near 106 m/s. The achieved drift
velocity, u, smaller than the Fermi velocity, is an important parameter in connection with
device performance, as for example, in the channel of a field effect transistor. The carrier drift
velocity u can be extracted from I–V measurements, such that I = Wj, for a channel of width
W, using the relation j = Neu.
DaSilva et al. (2010) have studied the carrier drift velocity and its saturation in graphene.
They find that u & 0.3 vF, at electric field E * 0.6 V/lm, for mechanically exfoliated graphene
placed on the traditional P–Si/SiO2 substrate. In their analysis of high-electric-field data, they
find that scattering by graphene phonons (as described by Efetov and Kim) is insufficient to
explain their measurements.
DaSilva et al. find that the primary scattering mechanism at high current density is emission
of surface optical (SO) phonons of the underlying SiO2 substrate. It appears that one of the
advantages of the diamond-like-carbon substrate, DLC, is that its phonons are at a higher
energy, 165 MeV, and less likely to be excited than the phonons in the more common
substrate, oxidized silicon.
Another phonon-related physical property is the thermal conductivity. Because of the high
phonon energy typical of graphene, one expects high thermal conductivity. The thermal
conductivity, j, of supported graphene has been studied by Seol et al. (2010). Measurements
on supported graphene reveal values of j near 600 W/(m-K). This value, from graphene on the
traditional SiO2 on Si substrate, exceeds that of common electronic materials, such as copper.
This value j = 600 W/m-K, however, is less than values, in the range 4,840–5,300 W/(m-K),
inferred (Balandin et al. 2008) from Raman measurements on suspended graphene, and 3,500
W/m-K on single-wall carbon nanotubes (Pop et al. 2006).
These large thermal conductivity values, exceeding those of diamond and graphite, are
consequences of the strong bonding of the light carbon atoms. The reduction of thermal
conductivity, for samples mounted on fused quartz, is attributed to phonon-substrate
scattering. In more detail, phonons leak from the graphene into the substrate, and the flexural
modes, that are predicted to contribute strongly to the phonon conductivity, are strongly
scattered by the substrate.
In discussing matters of practical importance for applications of graphene, it is fortunate that
one can largely dismiss practical consequences of the esoteric effect known as Klein
tunneling. This process was predicted by Klein (1929) and reanalyzed by Katsnelson et al.
(2006) in the context of graphene. The effect arises in pnp or npn junctions of graphene as a
consequence of the symmetry of the gapless conical bands about the neutral point E = 0. For
example, in the npn case, with EF at a positive value on the outer electrodes, transport can

25
occur with no reduction, in the p-region of width D, at its symmetrically located Fermi level, -
EF, but raised in potential by Vo & 2 EF. Formally this can be regarded as a hole perfectly
carrying the current through the barrier.
The electron of energy E approaches a barrier of height V0, in the center, of width D, where
the potential is raised. The electron on the left, with positive wavevector k and positive
pseudospin (?), matches, in energy and pseudospin, a positive hole of opposite wavevector q.
The current is thus continuous in the barrier, carried by the matching hole. The same
transformation occurs between the barrier and the right hand electrode. This gives unit
probability of transfer (at precise normal incidence) of the electron by Klein tunneling from
left to right. As long as the interfaces are sharp and the barrier permits coherent ballistic
motion, there is no limitation of unit transmission from increasing width and/or height of the
barrier at precisely normal incidence, a = 0.
The corresponding transmission factor T = 1 — r2 = t2 , in the limit of a high barrier |V0| |E|
is
T = | t2 | = cos2(α)/ 1 — cos2(qxD)sin2(α) . (2.13)
These two equations also show that perfect transmission for a = 0 reappears periodically at
other angles, specified by
qxD = n π, where n = 0, ± 1, ± 2 , , .. .. (2.14)
In these equations
qx = [ (E – V0)2 /h¯2v2F – k2y]1/2. (2.15)
F y
It appears that, under a more realistic analysis, the individual pn junctions in the graphene
further reduce the transmission, for angles away from precise normal incidence. This was
analyzed carefully by Cheianov and Fal’ko (2006), who derive the transmission probability T
of the single pn junction as
T = exp[ — π (kFD)sin2(α)] = exp — [- π h¯vF k2 y /(eE)]
(2.16)
y
with E the electric field at the junction. The second form of the equation is presented by
Young and Kim (2009) and attributed to Cheianov and Fal’ko (2006). Strong collimation, T =
1, is retained at a = 0, but now transmission off normal incidence, k2 [ 0, is greatly reduced by
the traditional
y exponentially decaying tunneling barrier transmission factor.
The details of the Klein tunneling effect in graphene have been confirmed in careful
experimental work by Young and Kim (2009), but the effects in the end are minor and indeed
hard to observe. One can conclude confidently that the effect is not of importance in the
applications of graphene.
Applications of graphene in some cases are hindered by the lack of an energy gap. Graphene
Nanoribbons (GNR) and nanomeshes are, respectively, ribbons or periodically perforated
sheets of graphene, that do develop bandgaps, up to per- haps 0.2 eV. Nanoribbons of width
W are found to have energy gaps arising from the boundary condition. In detail the energies
available depend upon the precise boundary condition, but an empirical rule is EG (eV) & 2 eV
nm/W(nm) Figure 2.7 shows a TEM image with examples of zigzag and armchair edges of

26
graphene, note the scale bar of 1 nm. The smooth edges were obtained by heating the
graphene above 2000 K. The zigzag and armchair edges, respectively, can be visualized also
in Fig. 2.1 as the vertical and horizontal boundaries of the Figure.
Confinement in a ribbon in general leads to an energy gap inversely related to the width W.
The propagating wavefunction along a ribbon is
ψ(x, y) ~ eikxsin(nπy/W), (2.17)
where the 2nd factor recognizes that the probability of finding the particle at y = 0 or y = W
must vanish, as a work function barrier confines the particle. This gives ky = np/W, that
corresponds, in a conventional metal (or in bilayer graphene, with massive electrons moving
in parabolic bands), to a confinement energy
2
(¯h k y ) /2m = h2/8mW2. (2.18).
y
In monolayer graphene, however, as was pointed out by Berger et al. (2006), the linear bands
lead to a different GNR energy gap. In monolayer graphene the
energy En at the bottom of nth sub band state becomes, with vF the Fermi velocity,

Plate 2.1 Graphene annealed under high electrical current density shows well-defined edges,
as marked. 1nm scale bar.

This gives a gap *100 meV for nanoribbon width W = 20 nm, quite close to the measurement
of Han et al. (2007).
To this basic analysis one must add consideration of the nature of the edges. In practice it is
difficult to achieve a uniform boundary, and the size- and boundary- effects are obscured if
the material has a short mean free path and if the boundaries are rough.
If a bandgap of 0.4 eV is needed for a conventional transistor, this would require a width W =
5 nm, that is difficult to manufacture with specific boundary type.

27
 CHAPTER THREE

GRAPHENE AND IT’S APPLICATIONS

Introduction
Graphene, a two-dimensional (2D) material composed of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged
in a hexagonal lattice, has garnered significant attention due to its remarkable mechanical,
electrical, thermal, and optical properties. As a member of the carbon allotrope family, graphene
serves as a building block for other carbon-based materials such as graphite, fullerenes, and
carbon nanotubes. In this chapter, we will explore the chemistry and physics of graphene, its
various synthesis methods, and its numerous applications.

3.1 Chemistry of Graphene

Graphene consists of carbon atoms bonded in a sp² hybridized state. Each carbon atom forms
three sigma (σ) bonds with neighboring carbon atoms, leaving one p-orbital electron to
participate in delocalized pi (π) bonding. These π-bonds are responsible for graphene's
exceptional electrical conductivity and unique chemical properties.

3.1.1 Carbon Bonding and Hybridization in Graphene

In graphene, carbon atoms are sp²-hybridized, which means each carbon atom forms three
sigma (σ) bonds with neighboring carbon atoms, leading to the formation of a planar hexagonal
lattice. The fourth electron of each carbon atom resides in a p-orbital, which overlaps with
neighboring p-orbitals to form a delocalized π-bonding system.

Fig 3.1: Graphene Honeycomb Lattice

The bond length between carbon atoms in graphene is approximately 0.142 nm, which is shorter
than the bond length in single-bonded carbon compounds (sp³-hybridized carbon, such as in
diamond) but longer than in triple-bonded carbons (sp-hybridized carbon, such as in acetylene).
Each carbon-carbon bond in graphene is covalent, giving graphene its high mechanical strength,

28
while the delocalized π-electrons give it excellent electrical conductivity

C(1s22s22p2) → C(1s2(sp2)3 2p1) 3.1

In the sp² hybridization, one s-orbital mixes with two p-orbitals to form three sp² hybrid orbitals,
which participate in sigma bonding with adjacent carbon atoms. The remaining unhybridized p-
orbital overlaps with neighboring p-orbitals to form a π-bond.

3.1.2 Delocalization of π-Electrons in Graphene

The delocalization of π-electrons across the graphene sheet is one of its most important chemical
features. These π-electrons, shared between carbon atoms, form a continuous electron cloud
above and below the plane of graphene. This delocalized electron cloud is responsible for many
of graphene’s properties, such as its electrical conductivity and chemical reactivity.
The π-electron cloud in graphene provides pathways for charge carriers, allowing for excellent
electrical conductivity. Additionally, the delocalization of these electrons contributes to
graphene’s chemical inertness, as the π-bond system is highly stable. Representation of π-
bonding system is given as;

C(sp2)−C(sp2) + p-orbital overlap → delocalized π-system 3.2

3.1.3 Chemical Functionalization of Graphene

Graphene is chemically inert in its pristine form due to the stability of the sp² carbon lattice and
the delocalized π-electron system. However, the introduction of defects or functional groups can
significantly alter its chemical reactivity and solubility. Functionalization can be achieved via
covalent or non-covalent methods, and it enhances graphene’s interaction with other materials
for applications like composites, sensors, and energy storage devices.

3.1.3.1 Oxidation of Graphene (Graphene Oxide - GO)

The oxidation of graphene introduces oxygen-containing functional groups such as hydroxyl (-
OH), carboxyl (-COOH), carbonyl (-C=O), and epoxide (-C-O-C-) groups onto the graphene
surface. This process is used to prepare graphene oxide (GO), which is more hydrophilic and
easier to process compared to pristine graphene.

The oxidation of graphite to graphene oxide can be achieved using a modified Hummers method,
involving a mixture of potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).

Cgraphite + KMnO4 + H2SO4 → Graphene Oxide (GO) + MnO2 + CO2 + H2O 3.3

Graphene oxide (GO) contains a significant number of oxygen functional groups, which disrupt
the sp² hybridization, thereby reducing its electrical conductivity but increasing its solubility and
chemical reactivity.

29
 Fig 3.2: Structure of Graphene Oxide
3.1.3.2 Reduction of Graphene Oxide (rGO)
Graphene oxide can be reduced back to graphene-like structures by removing the oxygen
functional groups through chemical or thermal treatments. The resulting material is called
reduced graphene oxide (rGO). However, rGO typically retains some defects and functional
groups, so it does not fully regain the properties of pristine graphene.
GO → rGO + O2 + H2O 3.4
Reduction of Graphene Oxide
Various reducing agents, such as hydrazine (N₂H₄), ascorbic acid, or thermal treatments, are
commonly used for this process.

3.1.4 Chemical Reactions Involving Graphene

Graphene can also undergo chemical reactions such as halogenation, hydrogenation, and
fluorination to modify its electronic properties.
a) Hydrogenation of Graphene: This process results in graphane, where hydrogen atoms
are bonded to carbon atoms, effectively transforming sp² hybridized carbon atoms into
sp³. This leads to the loss of graphene’s electrical conductivity, but it can create
interesting semiconductor materials.
Cgraphene + H2 → Cgraphene 3.5
Hydrogenation of Graphene to Graphane
b) Fluorination of Graphene: Fluorine atoms can bond to graphene’s carbon atoms,
creating fluorographene, which is an insulating material with a high band gap. Fluorinated
graphene also exhibits high chemical resistance.

Cgraphene + F2 → Cfluorographene 3.6

Fluorination of Graphene
c) Halogenation of Graphene: Similar to fluorination, graphene can be halogenated using
chlorine, bromine, or iodine to alter its electrical and optical properties.

3.1.5 Doping of Graphene

Doping involves substituting carbon atoms in the graphene lattice with other elements like
nitrogen or boron to tailor its electronic properties. Doping can either donate electrons (n-type

30
doping) or create electron holes (p-type doping), depending on the dopant used.

3.1.5.1 Nitrogen Doping (n-type)

Nitrogen doping introduces electron-rich sites in graphene, increasing its electron density and
modifying its band structure.
Cgraphene + N → CN-doped grapheme 3.7
Nitrogen Doping of Graphene
3.1.5.2 Boron Doping (p-type)
Boron, an electron-deficient element, introduces electron holes in the graphene structure,
creating p-type graphene.

Cgraphene + B → CB-doped grapheme 3.8

Boron Doping of Graphene
3.1.6 Structure of Graphene

Fig 3.3: Graphene Atomic Structure

Graphene is a single layer of graphite, with carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb lattice. Each
carbon-carbon bond length is approximately 0.142 nm, and the angle between the bonds is 120°.

3.1.7 Chemical Bonds in Graphene

As shown in the following chemical bonding diagram, graphene’s carbon atoms are sp²-
hybridized, which leads to the formation of a planar structure. The π-bonding results from the
overlap of the unhybridized p-orbitals, enabling graphene to conduct electricity due to the
mobility of the delocalized electrons.
C(sp2) - C(sp2) → π bonding between p-orbitals 3.9

3.1.8 Functionalization of Graphene

Functionalizing graphene through oxidation or other chemical processes allows the introduction
of various functional groups like hydroxyl, carboxyl, and epoxy groups, enhancing its solubility
and making it easier to process.
Graphene + KMnO4+ H2SO4 → Graphene Oxide 3.10

31
Graphene oxide (GO) is often used as a precursor for reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which can
be chemically or thermally reduced to regain some of the properties of pristine graphene.

3.2 Physics of Graphene

The physics of graphene is fascinating due to its two-dimensional nature, unique electronic
properties, and mechanical strength. As a zero-bandgap semiconductor, graphene exhibits
behaviors that deviate from conventional three-dimensional materials. Its exceptional electrical,
thermal, and mechanical properties arise from the unique arrangement of carbon atoms in a
honeycomb lattice and the corresponding band structure. Graphene’s physical properties stem
from its 2D structure and π-bonded carbon atoms, leading to unique electrical, mechanical, and
optical behaviors.

3.2.1 Electronic Properties of Graphene

The electronic properties of graphene are largely dictated by its unique band structure.
Graphene’s band structure is characterized by the linear dispersion relationship near the Dirac
points, where the conduction and valence bands meet at the Fermi level without opening a
bandgap.

Dirac Points and Massless Charge Carriers

At these Dirac points, the charge carriers (electrons and holes) behave like massless Dirac
fermions and exhibit a linear energy-momentum relationship. This gives rise to several unique
properties such as high electron mobility, the Klein tunneling effect, and ambipolar field-effect.
The Dirac equation for graphene describes the behavior of these massless charge carriers and can
be written as:

Hψ = vFσ ⋅ pψ 3.12
Where:
 H is the Hamiltonian operator
 vF is the Fermi velocity (∼106 m/s in graphene)
 σ is the vector of Pauli matrices
 p is the momentum operator
 ψ is the wavefunction

In conventional materials, the energy-momentum relationship is quadratic (E ∝ p2). In graphene,

Equation 3.12 gives Energy-Momentum Relation in Graphene

E(k) = ℏvF ∣k∣

however, the relation is linear near the Dirac points:
3.13

Where vF is the Fermi velocity and k is the wave vector. This linear dispersion relation makes the
charge carriers behave like relativistic particles, giving rise to properties such as ballistic

32
transport.

3.2.2 Electrical Conductivity of Graphene

Graphene's high electrical conductivity results from its unique electronic structure. The presence
of delocalized π-electrons in the graphene plane allows for high electron mobility. Even at room
temperature, the mobility of charge carriers in graphene can exceed 200,000 cm²/V·s, much
higher than in traditional semiconductors like silicon.

3.2.2.1 Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene

One of the most striking consequences of graphene's unique electronic structure is the
anomalous quantum Hall effect (QHE). In graphene, the Hall conductivity is quantized in steps
of:

2
4ⅇ 1
σ xy = n+ 3.13
h 2

Where:
 e is the elementary charge
 h is Planck's constant
 n is an integer representing the Landau level index

Equation 3.14 gives the Conductivity in Graphene , This differs from the QHE observed in
conventional 2D electron gases, where the quantization occurs in integer steps.
The electrical conductivity of graphene can be modeled as:

σ = neμ 3.14
Where:
 σ is the conductivity
 n is the carrier density
 e is the charge of an electron
 μ is the carrier mobility

The high mobility of graphene allows for very high conductivity, even at low carrier densities.

33
 Fig 3.4: Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene

3.2.3 Mechanical Properties of Graphene

Graphene’s mechanical properties are a direct result of its strong covalent bonding between
carbon atoms. It is one of the strongest known materials, with a Young’s modulus of about 1
TPa and an intrinsic tensile strength of 130 GPa. Despite its strength, graphene is extremely
flexible, allowing it to be bent or folded without breaking.

Equation describing the Stress-Strain Relationship in Graphene

The stress (σ) and strain (ε) in graphene follow Hooke’s Law for elastic deformation:

σ = Eε 3.14

Where E is the Young’s modulus, which measures the stiffness of the material.

Due to the strong sp² bonds between carbon atoms, graphene has an extremely high fracture
toughness, making it suitable for applications in high-strength composite materials.

3.2.4 Thermal Conductivity of Graphene

Graphene also exhibits extraordinary thermal properties, with a thermal conductivity ranging
from 3000 to 5000 W/m·K at room temperature, significantly higher than most conventional
materials such as copper (400 W/m·K). This high thermal conductivity is attributed to the
phonon transport mechanism in the lattice of graphene. Thermal Conductivity of Graphene is
given by Equation 3.16
The thermal conductivity κ of a material is generally expressed as:

1
k = Cvl 3.15
3
Where:
 C is the specific heat capacity per unit volume
 v is the phonon velocity (similar to the speed of sound in the material)

34
  l is the mean free path of the phonons

In graphene, the mean free path of phonons can reach up to several micrometers, contributing to
its excellent thermal conductivity.

Plate 3.1: Phonon Transport in Graphene

3.2.5 Optical Properties of Graphene

Graphene exhibits unique optical properties due to its electronic structure. Although it is only
one atom thick, graphene absorbs about 2.3% of incident white light over a broad wavelength
range, from the visible to the infrared. This absorption can be attributed to the linear energy
dispersion near the Dirac points. Optical Absorption of Graphene is given by Equation 3.17
The optical transmittance (T) of a single layer of graphene is approximately given by:
T = 1− πα 3.17
Where α is the fine structure constant (α ≈ 1/137).

This optical behavior is unusual for a material of such thinness and has led to potential
applications in transparent conductive films, photodetectors, and optoelectronics.

3.2.6 Klein Tunneling in Graphene

One of the most exotic phenomena in graphene is Klein tunneling, which allows relativistic
particles to pass through potential barriers without any reflection. In graphene, due to the linear
energy-momentum relationship, electrons can tunnel through energy barriers that would be
insurmountable in other materials.
The probability of an electron in graphene tunneling through a barrier of height V 0 and width d is
given by:

35
 1
T ( ϵ )= 3.18
( )
2
v0 2
1+ sin ( kd )
ϵ

Where E is the electron energy and k is the wave vector. This phenomenon enables ballistic
transport in graphene, where electrons can travel over long distances without scattering.

3.3 Methods of Preparing Graphene Thin Films

Several methods exist for the synthesis of graphene, each with its advantages and disadvantages
depending on the desired quality and application of the material.

3.3.1 Mechanical Exfoliation

Mechanical exfoliation, often referred to as the "Scotch tape method," involves peeling layers of
graphene from bulk graphite. This method was famously used in the first isolation of graphene
but is limited to small-scale production.

3.3.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

CVD is one of the most widely used methods for synthesizing large-area graphene films. In this
process, a carbon-containing gas, such as methane, is decomposed at high temperatures over a
substrate (e.g., copper) to form a layer of graphene.

CH4 → C(graphene) + 2H2 3.19

3.3.3 Liquid Phase Exfoliation

In liquid phase exfoliation, graphite is dispersed in a solvent and exfoliated into graphene sheets
through ultrasonication. This method is scalable for producing graphene in large quantities.

3.3.4 Reduction of Graphene Oxide (GO)

Graphene oxide can be synthesized via the oxidation of graphite and then reduced to yield
reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which is easier to produce than pristine graphene, though it lacks
some of graphene’s properties.

3.4 Applications of Graphene

Graphene’s exceptional properties—such as its electrical conductivity, mechanical strength,
flexibility, transparency, and thermal conductivity—have led to a wide range of potential and
existing applications. The combination of these characteristics allows graphene to be applied
across various industries, including electronics, energy, healthcare, composites, and sensors.
Graphene's unique properties make it suitable for a wide range of applications across various
industries:

36
3.4.1 Graphene in Electronics
Graphene is widely researched for its potential to revolutionize electronics due to its unique
electrical properties, including high electron mobility, flexibility, and transparency.

3.4.1.1 Transistors and High-Speed Electronics

Graphene’s ability to conduct electrons at extremely high speeds makes it a candidate for
replacing silicon in transistors, enabling faster and smaller electronic devices. Graphene-based
transistors, known as graphene field-effect transistors (GFETs), exhibit higher performance
compared to traditional silicon-based transistors, particularly in terms of switching speed.

Plate 3.2: Graphene Transistor Design

One challenge, however, is that graphene lacks an intrinsic bandgap, which is essential for
creating on-off states in transistors. Researchers are working on ways to open a bandgap in
graphene, either through doping, functionalization, or by using bilayer graphene.

3.4.1.2 Flexible and Wearable Electronics

The flexibility and transparency of graphene make it ideal for use in flexible electronics, such as
bendable displays, wearable sensors, and electronic textiles. Graphene-based thin films can be
integrated into smart fabrics for medical monitoring or foldable smartphones, creating durable
and stretchable electronic circuits.

3.4.1.3 Transparent Conductors

Graphene is also used in transparent conductive films (TCFs), which are essential components
of touchscreens, solar cells, and OLED displays. It serves as an alternative to traditional
materials like indium tin oxide (ITO), which is expensive and brittle. Graphene’s flexibility,
transparency, and excellent conductivity allow for the development of flexible displays and solar
panels.

3.4.2 Graphene in Energy Storage

Graphene’s high surface area, electrical conductivity, and chemical stability make it an ideal
material for energy storage applications, such as batteries and supercapacitors.

37
3.4.2.1 Graphene in Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs)
Graphene is used to improve the performance of lithium-ion batteries by increasing the surface
area for charge storage and improving electron transport. Graphene-enhanced anodes, typically
made by coating graphite with graphene, allow for faster charging and discharging, higher
capacity, and longer cycle life.

Plate 3.3 Graphene-Based Anode in LIBs

Graphene can also serve as a conductive additive in cathodes, reducing internal resistance and
enhancing overall battery performance.

3.4.2.2 Supercapacitors
Graphene supercapacitors have garnered significant attention due to their ability to store and
release energy more quickly than traditional capacitors. Graphene’s high surface area enables the
storage of a large amount of charge, while its electrical conductivity ensures rapid charge and
discharge cycles. These properties make graphene-based supercapacitors ideal for applications
requiring fast energy delivery, such as in electric vehicles or backup power systems. The energy
(E) stored in a capacitor is given by:

1 2
E= C v 3.20
2
Where:
 C is the capacitance
 V is the voltage applied

In graphene supercapacitors, the capacitance is significantly increased due to graphene’s large

surface area.

3.4.3 Graphene in Sensors

Graphene’s high sensitivity to environmental changes and its large surface area make it an ideal
material for sensor applications, especially in the fields of chemical and biological detection.

38
3.4.3.1 Chemical Sensors
Graphene-based chemical sensors can detect gas molecules at very low concentrations due to the
high surface area and conductivity of graphene, which changes when molecules adsorb on its
surface. These sensors can be used for detecting harmful gases like nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and
ammonia (NH₃) in industrial or environmental monitoring applications.

3.4.3.2 Biosensors
Graphene biosensors are used to detect biological molecules, such as glucose, proteins, or DNA.
These biosensors are highly sensitive, capable of detecting biomolecules at picomolar
concentrations, and are increasingly being explored for medical diagnostics and healthcare
monitoring.

Plate 3.4 Graphene-Based Biosensor

Graphene’s conductivity changes when it interacts with target biomolecules, providing a fast and
sensitive response, making it ideal for point-of-care medical devices.

3.4.4 Graphene in Composite Materials

Graphene is widely used to enhance the mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties of
composite materials. Even in small quantities, graphene can significantly improve the
performance of polymers, metals, and ceramics.

3.4.4.1 Mechanical Strengthening

Graphene is often added to polymers to increase their mechanical strength, toughness, and
resistance to cracking. Graphene-reinforced composites are used in the aerospace and automotive
industries to create lightweight yet durable materials.

3.4.4.2 Thermal Management

In addition to strengthening composites, graphene’s high thermal conductivity helps to dissipate
heat more effectively. This is especially useful in electronics, where managing heat is critical for
preventing device failure.

3.4.5 Graphene in Biomedical Applications

39
Graphene’s biocompatibility, antibacterial properties, and electrical conductivity make it an
excellent material for various biomedical applications, such as drug delivery, tissue engineering,
and medical diagnostics.

3.4.5.1 Drug Delivery Systems

Graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) are being explored as drug delivery
platforms due to their ability to bind a variety of drug molecules via functional groups on their
surface. These materials can target specific sites in the body, ensuring the controlled release of
drugs over time.

3.4.5.2 Tissue Engineering

Graphene-based scaffolds are being developed for tissue engineering due to graphene’s ability to
support cell growth. These scaffolds can promote the regeneration of tissues such as bone, nerve,
and muscle by providing a conductive and biocompatible environment for cell proliferation.

3.4.5.3 Medical Implants

Graphene coatings on medical implants reduce the risk of bacterial infection and improve
biocompatibility. This can be particularly useful for implants like stents or prosthetics, where
biocompatibility and durability are crucial.

3.4.6 Graphene in Photonics and Optoelectronics

Graphene’s unique optical properties, including its ability to absorb light across a wide spectrum,
make it an excellent material for photonics and optoelectronic devices.

3.4.6.1 Photodetectors
Graphene-based photodetectors can detect light from the ultraviolet (UV) to infrared (IR) range.
These photodetectors are faster and more sensitive than traditional semiconductor-based devices,
with applications in imaging, communication, and environmental monitoring.

3.4.6.2 Graphene in Solar Cells

Graphene’s transparency and conductivity make it an attractive material for use in transparent
electrodes in solar cells. By replacing traditional materials like indium tin oxide (ITO), graphene
can create more efficient and flexible solar cells that are cheaper to produce and more
environmentally friendly.

3.4.6.3 Light-Emitting Devices

Graphene can be incorporated into light-emitting devices, such as organic light-emitting diodes
(OLEDs). Its flexibility and conductivity allow for the development of foldable or stretchable
displays.

3.4.7 Graphene in Water Filtration and Desalination

40
Graphene oxide (GO) membranes are being explored for water filtration and desalination due to
their ability to selectively allow water molecules to pass through while blocking contaminants,
salts, and other impurities.

3.4.7.1 Graphene-Based Water Purification

Graphene oxide membranes are highly efficient in filtering out organic pollutants, heavy metals,
and even radioactive materials. They are also being tested for their ability to desalinate seawater,
providing a cost-effective and energy-efficient solution to global water scarcity.

Plate 3.5 Graphene Oxide Membrane for Water Filtration

Graphene’s unique properties make it one of the most promising materials for a wide range of
applications, from high-performance electronics and energy storage devices to advanced medical
technologies and environmental solutions. The versatility of graphene across such diverse fields
reflects its potential to revolutionize technology and industry, paving the way for the
development of innovative products that can address current and future challenges. As
production techniques for graphene continue to improve, its role in various applications will only
expand further. Graphene stands at the forefront of nanomaterials due to its extraordinary
combination of properties. From its robust chemistry rooted in sp² hybridized carbon atoms to its
fascinating physical characteristics, graphene has proven to be a versatile material with
applications ranging from electronics and energy storage to biotechnology and composite
materials.

41
 CHAPTER FOUR
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 Conclusion
Graphene, a one-atom-thick sheet of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb lattice, has
emerged as one of the most promising materials for a wide range of applications, thanks to its
exceptional electrical, mechanical, thermal, and optical properties. From its discovery,
graphene has significantly advanced both fundamental research and industrial applications.
The synthesis methods of graphene, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), exfoliation
techniques, and epitaxial growth, offer various pathways to produce high-quality graphene
with specific properties tailored to distinct applications.
Graphene’s high electron mobility and mechanical strength have driven its use in next-
generation electronics, transistors, and flexible displays. It shows tremendous promise in
energy storage technologies such as lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors, where its large
surface area and conductivity improve charge storage capacity. In the biomedical field,
graphene is finding applications in drug delivery, biosensors, and tissue engineering due to its
biocompatibility and unique chemical properties. Furthermore, graphene-based composites
and coatings are used to enhance materials in aerospace, automotive, and construction
industries, and its potential in water filtration offers solutions to global water challenges.
While significant strides have been made in understanding graphene’s properties and
applications, challenges remain, particularly in the scalable, cost-effective production of
defect-free graphene for industrial uses. Nonetheless, with ongoing research and innovation,
graphene's applications across various industries will continue to grow, potentially
transforming many fields in the coming years.

4.2 Summary
The summary is categorized into for aspects as follows;
a. Graphene Chemistry: Graphene is composed of sp²-bonded carbon atoms arranged in a
two-dimensional lattice. Its unique chemical structure allows it to exhibit remarkable
properties such as high electrical conductivity, chemical stability, and thermal conductivity.
b. Physics of Graphene: Graphene’s band structure, Dirac cones, and massless charge carriers
enable it to behave differently from conventional materials. Its quantum Hall effect and
ballistic transport of electrons make it ideal for high-speed electronics.
c. Methods of Preparing Graphene Thin Films: Various methods for producing graphene
include bottom-up approaches like CVD and epitaxial growth, and top-down methods like
mechanical exfoliation and liquid-phase exfoliation. Each method has advantages and
challenges related to scalability, cost, and graphene quality.
d. Applications of Graphene: Graphene’s applications span across numerous industries:
i. Electronics: High-speed transistors, flexible electronics, and transparent conductors.
ii. Energy: Advanced lithium-ion batteries, supercapacitors, and solar cells.

42
 iii. Sensors: Chemical and biosensors for environmental monitoring and medical
diagnostics.
iv. Composites: Mechanical reinforcement of materials and thermal management.
v. Biomedicine: Drug delivery systems, tissue engineering scaffolds, and medical
implants.
Vi. Water Filtration: Graphene oxide membranes for filtration and desalination.
Graphene continues to drive innovation due to its unparalleled set of properties, and ongoing
research aims to overcome the challenges of mass production, integration, and cost reduction.

4.3 Contribution to knowledge

Understanding of Graphene's Unique Properties: This review enhances the scientific
understanding of graphene's remarkable properties, such as its atomic structure, mechanical
strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal properties. Graphene's one-atom-thick layer of
carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice offers unprecedented material characteristics,
contributing to new theoretical models in nanoscience and material physics.
I. Advancements in Synthesis Techniques: A detailed exploration of the various graphene
synthesis methods, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), mechanical exfoliation, and
liquid-phase exfoliation, provides significant contributions to material science. By comparing
the efficiency, scalability, and environmental impact of these techniques, the research offers
insights that can help optimize graphene production, enabling more affordable and large-scale
fabrication processes.
Innovations in Electronics and Nanotechnology: This research highlights graphene's
transformative potential in electronics, particularly in creating faster, smaller, and more
efficient electronic components. By analyzing its applications in transistors, flexible displays,
sensors, and quantum computing, the research contributes to the development of next-
generation technologies. Graphene's exceptional electron mobility and flexibility can push the
boundaries of miniaturization in electronic devices.
II.Enhancements in Energy Storage and Generation: Graphene's use in energy storage
devices such as batteries and supercapacitors is critical for advancing energy solutions. This
research deepens the understanding of how graphene can improve the capacity,
charge/discharge rates, and lifespan of energy storage devices. Additionally, graphene-based
solar cells and fuel cells have the potential to revolutionize renewable energy generation,
making energy solutions more efficient and sustainable.
III. Applications in Medicine and Biotechnology: By exploring graphene's biocompatibility,
this research contributes to biomedical advancements, particularly in drug delivery,
biosensors, and tissue engineering. The ability to functionalize graphene for specific medical
applications could lead to breakthroughs in disease detection, targeted therapies, and
regenerative medicine. The study also contributes to knowledge about graphene's safety,
cytotoxicity, and interactions with biological systems.

43
Environmental and Industrial Impact: The environmental and economic implications of
graphene production and its potential to replace less efficient, more polluting materials are
crucial. This research contributes to sustainability studies by exploring how graphene-based
materials can reduce resource consumption and enhance product longevity across various
industries. The economic feasibility of scaling graphene production for widespread industrial
use is another valuable insight for policymakers and manufacturers.
IV. Exploring Graphene Composites and Advanced Materials: Graphene's role in reinforcing
materials, such as composites used in aerospace, automotive, and construction industries, adds
significant value to material science. This research contributes by detailing how graphene can
enhance the strength, flexibility, and durability of composites, offering alternatives to
traditional materials and pushing the frontier of lightweight, high-performance materials.
V. Insight into Future Directions and Challenges: By identifying key challenges in
graphene commercialization—such as production costs, integration with current technologies,
and safety concerns—this research adds a forward-looking perspective to the field. It also
outlines potential future applications and innovations that could emerge from ongoing
graphene research, contributing to strategic roadmaps for industries looking to harness
graphene's full potential.

44
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