• Light is the form of energy that enables us to see.

Properties of Light
• Electromagnetic wave so does not require any medium to travel.
• Light tends to travel in straight line.
• Light has dual nature i.e., wave as well as particle.
• Light casts shadow.
• Speed of light is maximum in vaccum. Its value is 3  108 ms-1.
• When light falls on a surface, following may happen :
(a) Reflection
(b) Refraction
(c) Absorption

REFLECTION
Bouncing back of light when it strikes on a polished surface like mirror.

Laws of Reflection:
(1) Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(2) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all
lie in the same plane.

1
 Image : It is a point where atleast two light rays actually meet or appear to
meet.
Real Image Virtual Image
• Formed when light rays actually • Formed when light rays appear to
meet. meet.
• Can be obtained on screen. • Can’t be obtained on screen.
• Inverted • Erect
• E.g., image formed on cinema • E.g., image formed by plane mirror
screen. or convex mirror.
Image Formed by Plane Mirror

Characteristics of Image
(i) Virtual and erect.
(ii) Size of image is equal to the size of object.
(iii) Image is formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
(iv) Laterally inverted.
Lateral Inversion : The right side of the object appears left side of the image
and vice-versa.
Application of lateral inversion : The word AMBULANCE is written as
so that it can be read correctly in rear view mirror of vehicles going
in front of it.
Spherical Mirrors : Mirrors whose reflecting surface is curved.
Convex Mirror Concave Mirror

2
• Reflecting surface is curved outwards. • Reflecting surface is curvedinwards.
• Diverging mirror • Converging mirror

• Principal axis : The line joining the pole and center of curvature.
• Pole (P) : The centre of the spherical mirror.
• Aperture (MN) : It is the effective diameter of the spherical mirror.
• Center of Curvature (C) : The centre of the hollow glass sphere of
which the mirror was a part.
• Radius of Curvature (R) : The distance between the pole and the centre
of curvature.
• Focus (F) : The point on principal axis where all the parallel light rays
actually meet or appear to meet after reflection.
• Focal length (f) : The distance between the pole and the focus.
Relationship between focal length and radius of curva-
ture :
R
f=
2

Rules for making ray diagrams by concave mirror

(i) Aray parallel to the principal axis will pass through the principal focus,
after reflection.

(ii) Aray passing through the principal focus of concave mirror will emerge
parallel to principal axis after reflection.

3
 (iii) A ray of light passing through the centre of curvature of a concave
mirror is reflected back along the same path as it is a normally incident
ray.

(iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis of a concave mirror is

reflected obliquely making equal angle.

Ray diagrams for images formed by concave mirror

(i) When object is at infinity : Image
Position − At ‘F’
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Point sized or highly
diminished

(ii) When object is beyond ‘C’ Image

Position – Between ‘F’ and ‘C’
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Diminished

4
 (iii) When object is at ‘C’ Image
Position – At ‘C’
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Same size as that of
object

(iv) When object is placed between ‘F’ and ‘C’ Image

Position – Beyond ‘C’
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Enlarged

(v) When object is placed at ‘F’ Image

Position – At Infinity
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Highly enlarged

(vi) When object is between ‘P’ and ‘F’ Image

Position – Behind the mirror
Nature – Virtual, erect
Size – Enlarged

5
Uses of Concave Mirror
(i) Used in torches, search lights and vehicles headlights to get powerful
parallel beam of light.

(ii) Concave mirrors are used by dentists to see large image of teeth of
patients. (Teeth have to be placed between pole and focus).

(iii) Concave mirror is used as shaving mirror to see a larger image of the
face.
(iv) Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat
in solar furnace.
Rule for image formation by Convex Mirror
(i) A ray of light parallel to the principal axis of a convex mirror appear to
diverge from the principal focus.

(ii) A ray which is directed towards the focus of the convex mirror will
emerge parallel to the principal axis after reflection.

6
 (iii) A ray directed towards the center of curvature of a convex mirror is
reflected back along the same.

(iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis is reflected obliquely.

Ray diagrams of images formed by convex mirror

(i) When object is placed at infinity : Image
Position − At ‘F’
Nature – Virtual, erect
Size – Point sized

(ii) When object is placed between pole and infinity Image

Position – Between ‘P’ and ‘F’
Nature – Virtual, erect
Size – Diminished

• A full length image of a tall building/tree can be seen in a small convex

mirror.

Uses of Convex Mirror

(i) Convex mirrors are used as rear view mirrors in vehicles because

7
 (a) they always give an erect though diminished image.
(b) they have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards.

(ii) Convex mirrors are used at blind turns and on points of mergingtraffic
to facilitate vision of both side traffic.
(iii) Used in shops as security mirror.
Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirror
Or
New Cartesian Sign Convention
(i) The object is placed to the left of the mirror.

(ii) All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of
the mirror.

(iii) All distances measured in the direction of incident ray (along + X-axis)
are taken as positive and those measured against the direction of incident
ray (along – X-axis) are taken as negative.

(iv) Distance measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis are
taken as positive.
(v) Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis are
taken as negative.

• Object distance = ‘u’ is always negative.

• Focal length of concave mirror = Negative

• Focal length of convex mirror = Positive

8
Mirror Formula :
1 1 1
+ =
v u f

where, v = Image distance

u = Object distance
f = Focal length

Magnification of SphericalMirrors
It is the ratio of the height of image to the height of object.
Height of image
m=
Height of object

hi
m=
ho
Also,
v
m=
−
u

If ‘m’ is negative, image is real.

If ‘m’ is positive, image isvirtual.
If hi = ho then m = 1, i.e., image is equal to object.
If hi > hi then m > 1 i.e., image is enlarged.
If hi < ho then m < 1 i.e., image is diminished.
• Magnification of plane mirror is always + 1.
‘+’ sign indicates virtual image.
‘1’ indicates that image is equal to object’s size.
• If ‘m’ is ‘+ve’ and less than 1, it is a convexmirror.
• If ‘m’ is ‘+ve’ and more than 1, it is a concavemirror.
• If ‘m’ is ‘-ve’, it is a concave mirror.
Check Your Knowledge
1. Magnification of plane mirror is + 1. What does it indicate ?
2. A real image, 1/5 th size of object is formed at a distance of 18 cm from
a mirror. What is the nature of the mirror ? Calculate its focal length.

9
 3. Name the type of mirror used in the following and reason for using it :
(a) Solar furnace
(b) Rear view mirror in a vehicle
4. What should be the position of the object, when a concave mirror is used :
(a) as a shaving mirror ?
(b) in torches as reflecting mirror ?
5. (a) Define principal focus of a spherical mirror.
(b) For what position of the object does a concave mirror form a real,
inverted and diminished image of the object ? Draw the ray diagram.
(c)An object 4 cm high is placed at a distance of 6 cm in front of a
concave mirror of focal length 12 cm. Find the position of the image.
6. For what position of an object, a concave mirror forms a real image equal
to size of object ?
7. Identify the nature of mirror and mention two characteristics of image
formed when magnification m = + 6.
8. Suggest a method to find approximate focal length of a concave mirror.
9. Draw ray diagram when :
(a) object is placed between pole and focus of a concave mirror.
(b) object is placed at infinity from a convex mirror.
10. Name the type of spherical mirror which
(a) has positive focal length.
(b) always forms a virtual image.
REFRACTION
Bending of light when it enters obliquely from one transparent medium to
another.
• Speed of light is maximum in vaccum. It is 3  108 m/s.
• Cause of refraction : Change in speed of light.
• Some examples of refraction :
(i) The bottom of swimming pool appears higher.

10
 (ii) A pencil partially immersed in water appears to be bent at the
interface of water and air.

(iii) Lemons placed in a glass tumbler appear bigger.

(iv) Letters of a book appear to be raised when seen through a glass slab.

Refraction through glass slab

• The extent of bending of ray of light at the opposite parallel faces of

rectangular glass slab is equal and opposite, so the ray emerges parallel
to incident ray.

• Lateral displacement depends on :

(a) Refractive index of glass slab
(b) Thickness of the glass slab

Laws of Refraction
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two
transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

11
(ii) Snell’s law : The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction is a constant, for a light of given colour and for a given pair of
media.
sin i
=constant
sin r
Refractive index (n) : The ratio of speed of light in a given pair of media
Velocity of light in medium 1
n=
Velocity of light in medium 2

n21 means refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium,and
v1
n21 =
v2

n12 means refractive index of first medium with respect to second medium.
v2
n12 =
v1

• Absolute Refractive Index : Refractive index of a medium with respect

to vaccum or air.
c
n= c = 3  108 ms-1
v

• Refractive index of one medium is reciprocal of other’s refractive index

in a given pair.
1
n12 =
n21

If refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t. air is given as 1nair, and

If refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t. air is given as 2nair
air
Then, refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t. medium 2 = 1 n
2
nair

• Refractive index of diamond is the highest till date. It is 2.42. It means

1
speed of light is times less in diamond than in vaccum.
2.42
• Optically denser medium : Out of two given media, the medium with
higher value of refractive index.

12
 • Optically rarer medium : Out of two given media, the medium with
lower value to refractive index.
• When light enters obliquely from a rarer to a denser medium, it bends
towards the normal.

• When light enters obliquely from denser to a rarer medium, it bends

away from the normal.

• Refractive index of a medium does not depend on physical density.

Spherical lens : A transparent medium bound by two surfaces, of which one
or both surfaces are curved.
Convex lens Concave lens

• Thin from corners • Thick from corners

• Thick at center • Thin at centre
• Converging • Diverging

13
 Rules for image formation by convex lens
(i) A ray of light parallel to principal axis of a convex lens always passes
through the focus on the other side of the lens.

(ii) A ray of light passing through the principal focus will emerge parallel
to principal axis after refraction.

(iii) A ray of light passing through the optical center will emerge without
any deviation.

Ray Diagrams of Imaged formed by Convex Lens

(i) When object is at infinity : Image
Position − At ‘F2’
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Point sized or highly
diminished

14
 (ii) When object is beyond ‘2F1’ Image
Position – Between ‘F2’ and ‘2F2’
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Diminished

(iii) When object is at ‘2F1’ Image

Position – At ‘2F2’
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Same size

(iv) When object is between ‘F1’ and ‘2F1’ Image

Position – Beyond ‘2F2’
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Enlarged

(v) When object is at ‘F1’ Image

Position – At Infinity
Nature – Real, inverted
Size – Highly enlarged

(vi) When object is between ‘F1’ and optical centre Image

Position – On the same side of
the lens as object
Nature – Virtual and erect
Size – Enlarged

15
Rules for Image Formation by Concave Lens
(i) A ray of light parallel to the principal axis appear to diverge from the
principal focus located on the same side of the lens.

(ii) Aray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of a concave lens
will emerge parallel to principal axis.

(iii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge
without any deviation.

Ray Diagrams of Images Formed by a Concave Lens

(i) When object is placed at infinity : Image
Position − At ‘F1’
Nature – Virtual, erect
Size – Point sized or highly
diminished

16
 (ii) When object is placed between infinity and optical centre
Position – Between ‘F’ and ‘O’
Nature – Virtual, erect
Size – Diminished

Sign convention for spherical lenses

• Sign conventions are similar to the one used for spherical mirrors, except
that measurements are taken from optical center of the lens.
• Focal length of convex lens = Positive
Focal length of concave lens = Negative

Lens Formula :
1 1 1
− =
v u f

Magnification :
hi
m=
ho

Also,
v
m=
u

Power of a lens:
It is defined as the reciprocal of focal length in meter.
The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays is expressed in terms
of power.
1 1
Power = P=
focal length f

• SI unit of Power = dioptre = D

1 D = 1 m-1
1 dioptre is the power of lens whose focal length is one meter.

17
• Power of convex lens = Positive
• Power of concave lens = Negative
1
• Power 
focal length or thickness

• Power of a lens combination

P = P1 + P2 +P3.........
CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. Refractive indices of mediumA, B and C are 1.3, 1.5 and 1.4 respectively.
In which of the following the speed of light will be the :
(a) fastest ?
(b) slowest ?
2. A compound lens is made up of two thin lenses having power + 12.5 D
and – 2.5 D. Find the focal length and power of the combination.
3. Light enters from air to kerosene having a refractive index of 1.47. What
is the speed of light in kerosene ?
4. A 5 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to principal axis of a convex
lens of focal length 10 cm. If the object is placed 30 cm away from the
lens, find the position, size and nature of image.
5. One half of a convex lens is covered with black paper.
(a) Show the formation of image of a object placed at 2F, of such
covered lens with the help of ray diagram. Mention the position and
nature of the image.
(b) Draw the ray diagram for same object at same position in front of
the same lens, but now uncovered. Will there be any difference in
image obtained in the two cases ? Give reasons for your answers.
6. A thin converging lens forms a (i) real magnified image, (ii) virtual
magnified image.
(a) Write the position of object in each case.
(b) Draw labelled diagram for each case.
7. (a) What happens to a ray of light when it travels from one medium to
another having equal refractive indices ?
(b) State the cause of refraction of light.

18
8. (a) Define 1 dioptre of power. Find the focal length of a lens of
power – 2.0 D.
(b) Why does a lemon kept in water in a glass tumbler appear to be
bigger than actual size ?
9. A ray travelling in water enters obliquely into glass. Does the light bend
towards or away from the normal and why ?
10. An object is placed at the focus of a convex lens. Draw ray diagram to
locate the position of image formed.
Hints to Long Answer Type Questions

7. (a) No bending of light.

(b) Change in refractive index of two medium.
8. (a) 1 dioptre : It is the power of lens whose focal length is 1 m.
1
P=
f

(b) Due to refraction of light.

10. Ray diagram.
Image formed : At infinity
Size : Enlarged
Nature : Real and inverted

19