CHAPTER II

VEHICLE FORWAR DYNAMICS

I. VEHICLE’S LAYOUT GENERAL PARAMETERS
II. WHEEL & TIRE’S SPECIFICATIONS
III. PARKED VEHICLE ON A LEVEL ROAD
IV. PARKED VEHICLE ON AN INCLINED ROAD
V. ACCELERATING VEHICLE ON A LEVEL ROAD
VI. ACCELERATING VEHICLE ON AN INCLINED ROAD
VII. PARKED VEHICLE ON A BANK ROAD
VIII.OPTIMAL TRACTION AND BRAKING FORCES
IX. AERODYNAMICS
CHAPTER II
OUTLINES
1.1. Overall vehicle coordinate system.
1.2. Components of the force acting on the vehicle.
2.1. Dimensions and meaning of other tire’s parameters.
2.2. Calculating basic problems about rotational speed and vehicle
speed.
3.1. An overview of basic problems in the parked car case.
3.2. Sequence of drawing force diagram.
3.2. Derive the reaction equation.
3.3. Analysis of the meaning of mathematical models
3.4. Calculate the parameters according to the critical friction and
turn-over conditions.
4. Similar to the item 3, but in the case of moving vehicles, including
the arrangement of the active axle.
5. Distribution of traction, optimal braking force.
6. Resistance components and traction balance equation.
I. VEHICLE’S LAYOUT GENERAL PARAMETERS
1.1 General layout of vehicle dynamics
I. VEHICLE’S LAYOUT GENERAL PARAMETERS
1.2 General layout parameters

Vehicle

Drag
I. VEHICLE’S LAYOUT GENERAL PARAMETERS
1.2 General layout parameters

Gear shift

Tyre: Pacejka-model
II. WHEEL & TIRE’S SPECIFICATIONS
2.1 Tires and Sidewall Information

Cross section of a tire on a rim to show tire height and width

II. WHEEL & TIRE’S SPECIFICATIONS
2.1 Tires and Sidewall Information

Side view of a tire and the most

important information printed on a tire
sidewall
II. WHEEL & TIRE’S SPECIFICATIONS
2.1 Tires and Sidewall Information
II. WHEEL & TIRE’S SPECIFICATIONS
2.2 Tire Components

Illustration of a sample radial tire interior components and arrangement

II. WHEEL & TIRE’S SPECIFICATIONS
2.3 Radial and Non-Radial Tires

A sample of tire
tread to show lugs
and voids

Examples of a non-radial tire’s interior

components and arrangement

Ground-sticking behavior of radial and non-

A tireprint
radial tires in the presence of a lateral force
II. WHEEL & TIRE’S SPECIFICATIONS
2.3 Wheel and Rim

Illustration of a wheel and its dimensions

II. WHEEL & TIRE’S SPECIFICATIONS
2.3 Wheel and Rim

Illustration of DC, WDC, and WDCH rims and their geometry

There are two main rim shapes:

1−drop center rim (DC)and, 2−wide
drop center rim (WDC). The WDC
may also come with a hump.The
humped WDC may be called
WDCH
III. PARKED VEHICLE ON A LEVEL ROAD
3.1 Normal force (under each of the Front & Rear Wheels)

A parked car on level pavement

Mass center position
III. PARKED VEHICLE ON A LEVEL ROAD
3.2 Mass Center determination
IV. PARKED VEHICLE ON AN INCLINED ROAD
4.1 Rear-Wheel Braking

A parked car on inclined pavement

IV. PARKED VEHICLE ON AN INCLINED ROAD
4.2 Maximum inclination angle (Rear-Wheel Braking)
There is a specific angle ΦM at which the braking force Fx2 will saturate and
cannot increase any more
IV. PARKED VEHICLE ON AN INCLINED ROAD
4.3 Front-Wheel Braking
IV. PARKED VEHICLE ON AN INCLINED ROAD
4.4 Four-Wheel Braking

A four wheel brake car,

parked uphill
V. ACCELERATING VEHICLE ON A LEVEL ROAD
5.1 Four Wheel Drive (Normal force)

An accelerating car on a level pavement

V. ACCELERATING VEHICLE ON A LEVEL ROAD
5.2 Assignment in Class

Plot the Free Body Diagram and derive the equations to calculate the
Normal Forces of a vehicle in cases of:

1. Front-wheel-drive accelerating on a level road.

2. Front-wheel-braking decelerating on a level road.
3. Rear-wheel-drive accelerating on a level road.
4. Rear-wheel-braking decelerating on a level road.
5. Four-wheel-braking decelerating on a level road.
V. ACCELERATING VEHICLE ON A LEVEL ROAD
5.2 Assignment in Class

Derive the equations to calculate the maximum acceleration/deceleration

of a vehicle in cases of:

1. Front-wheel-drive accelerating on a level road.

2. Rear-wheel-drive accelerating on a level road.
3. All-wheel-drive accelerating on a level road.
4. All-wheel-braking decelerating on a level road.

Suggestion:
+ maximum tractions

+ wheels can leave the ground when Fzi = 0

V. ACCELERATING VEHICLE ON A LEVEL ROAD
5.2 Assignment in Class

Maximum acceleration for a single-

axle drive car

Effect of mass center position

on the maximum achievable
acceleration of a front- and a
rear-wheel drive car
V. ACCELERATING VEHICLE ON A LEVEL ROAD
5.2 Assignment in Class

Give a car with specifications as:

+ wheel base = 2272 mm.

Determine the Minimum time for 0 −100 (km/h) on a level road in cases of:

1. Front-wheel-drive.
2. Rear-wheel-drive.
3. Four-wheel-drive
VI. ACCELERATING VEHICLE ON AN INCLINED ROAD
6.1 Four-wheel-drive, up-hill (Normal Forces)

An accelerating car on
inclined pavement
VI. ACCELERATING VEHICLE ON AN INCLINED ROAD
6.2 Assignment in class

Plot the Free Body Diagram and derive the equations to calculate the
Normal Forces of a vehicle in cases of:

1. Four-wheel-brake decelerating on a down-hill road.

2. Front-wheel-drive accelerating on a up-hill road.
3. Front-wheel-brake decelerating on a down-hill road.
4. Rear-wheel-drive accelerating on a up-hill road.
5. Rear-wheel-brake decelerating on a down-hill road.
VI. ACCELERATING VEHICLE ON AN INCLINED ROAD
6.2 Assignment in class

Derive the equations to calculate the maximum acceleration/deceleration

and Limits of inclination angle of a vehicle in cases of:

1. Four-wheel-drive accelerating on a up-hill road.

2. Four-wheel-brake decelerating on a down-hill road.
3. Front-wheel-drive accelerating on a up-hill road.
4. Front-wheel-brake decelerating on a down-hill road.
5. Rear-wheel-drive accelerating on a up-hill road.
6. Rear-wheel-brake decelerating on a down-hill road.

Suggestion:
+ maximum tractions

+ wheels can leave the ground when Fzi = 0

VII. PARKED VEHICLE ON A BANKED ROAD

Normal force under the

uphill and downhill tires
of a vehicle, parked on
banked road
VIII. OPTIMAL TRACTION AND BRAKING FORCES

The optimal longitudinal forces under the front and rear tires to achieve the
maximum acceleration are:

Optimal driving and braking forces for a sample car

IX. AERODYNAMICS

Aerodynamic Resistance Composed of:

1. Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)
2. Friction of air over vehicle body (12%)
3. Vehicle component resistance, from radiators and air vents (3%)

Aerodynamic lift and drag forces with different vehicle styles

IX. AERODYNAMICS
9.1 Drag Force

The drag force is acting at height hD above the ground

IX. AERODYNAMICS
9.2 Drag Factor
IX. AERODYNAMICS
9.3 Lift Force and Moments
Rolling
moment

Rolling
moment

Yawing
moment
CHAPTER III
ROAD PROFILE’S PARAMETERS
AND TIRE DYNAMICS

I. TYPICAL ROAD PROFILES

II. TIRE COORDINATE AND FORCE SYSTEM
III. TIRE’S EFFECTIVE RADIUS
IV. ROLLING FRICTION COEFFICIENT
V. TIRE’S FORCE COMPONENTS
I. TYPICAL ROAD PROFILES
1.1 Typical road profiles

Isolated bumps and troughs up and down:

(a) simple step; (b) triangular; (c) trapezoidal; (d) sine half-wave; (e) haversine.
I. TYPICAL ROAD PROFILES
1.2 Mathematical models
II. TIRE COORDINATE AND FORCE SYSTEM

A vertically loaded stationary tire Tire coordinate system

Front view of
a tire and Top view of a
measurement tire and
of the camber measurement
angle of the side
slip angle
II. TIRE COORDINATE AND FORCE SYSTEM

Illustration of vertically, laterally and longitudinally tire deformation

III. TIRE’S EFFECTIVE RADIUS

If the motion of the tire is

compared to the rolling of a rigid
disk with radius Rw, then the tire
must move a distance a = Rwϕ for
an angular rotation ϕ

Effective radius Rw compared to tire radius

Rg and loaded height Rh

The vertical stiffness of radial tires is less than non-

radial tires under the same conditions

For a non-radial tire For a radial tire

IV. ROLLING FRICTION COEFFICIENT

Side view of a normal stress σz distribution and its resultant

force Fz on a rolling tire
IV. ROLLING FRICTION COEFFICIENT
V. TIRE FORCE COMPONENTS
5.1 Longitudinal Force
The ideal distance that the tire would freely
travel with no slip is denoted by dF, while
the actual distance the tire travels is
denoted by dA.

Thus, for a slipping tire, dA>dF, and for a

spinning tire, dA<dF
instant value of s

A turning tire on the ground to show

the no slip travel distance dF, and
the actual travel distance dA
When we brake, a braking moment is applied to the wheel
axis. The tread of the tire will be stretched circumstantially
in the tireprint zone. Hence, the tire is moving faster than a
free tire.
Slip ratio is −1 <s< 0 in braking
When we drive, a driving moment is applied to the tire axis. The tread of the tire will be
compressed circumstantially in the tire-print zone. Hence, the tire is moving slower
than a free tire
Slip ratio is 0 <s< ∞ in driving
V. TIRE FORCE COMPONENTS
5.1 Longitudinal Force

Longitudinal friction
coefficient as a function
of slip ratio s,in driving
and braking
Average of longitudinal friction coefficients
V. TIRE FORCE COMPONENTS
5.2 Lateral Force

Front view
of a
laterally
deflected
tire

cornering force

drag force
Lateral force Fy as a function of slip angle
αfor a constant vertical load
V. TIRE FORCE COMPONENTS
5.2 Lateral Force

Gough diagram for a radial

passenger car tire

Lateral force behavior of a sample

tire for different normal loads as a
function of slip angle α
V. TIRE FORCE COMPONENTS
5.3 Camber Force

A front view
of a
cambered
tire and the
generated
camber force

The tire-print of a straight and a cambered tire,

turning slowly on a flat road
The camber force Fy for different
camber angle γ at a constant tire load
V. TIRE FORCE COMPONENTS
5.4 Tire Force and Pacejka model

The Pacejka model is substantially empirical. However, when the parameters A, B, C,

D, C1,and C2 are determined for a tire, the equation expresses the tire behavior well
enough.
CHAPTER IV
DRIVELINE DYNAMICS

I. ENGINE DYNAMICS
II. DRIVELINE AND EFFICIENCIES
III. GEAR BOX AND CLUTCH DYNAMICS
IV. GEAR BOX RATIO
I. ENGINE DYNAMICS

For indirect injection For direct injection

Diesel engines Diesel engines

A sample of power and torque

performances for a spark ignition engine
I. ENGINE DYNAMICS

An example of power performance in a spark ignition engine with constant efficiency

contours
II. DRIVELINE AND EFFICIENCIES
2.1 Driveline

Driveline components of a rear wheel drive vehicle

II. DRIVELINE AND EFFICIENCIES
2.1 Driveline

The input and output torque and angular velocity of each driveline component
III. GEAR BOX AND CLUTCH DYNAMICS
3.1 Velocity and Traction Force
III. GEAR BOX AND CLUTCH DYNAMICS
3.2 Velocity and Traction Force - example
III. GEAR BOX AND CLUTCH DYNAMICS
3.2 Velocity and Traction Force - example

A sample of a gear-speed plot for a gearbox

III. GEAR BOX AND CLUTCH DYNAMICS
3.2 Velocity and Traction Force - example

Wheel torque-speed at each gear ni of a gearbox

III. GEAR BOX AND CLUTCH DYNAMICS
3.3 Acceleration capacity at different speed

An example for the acceleration capacity ax as a function of forward speed vx

III. GEAR BOX AND CLUTCH DYNAMICS
3.4 Gear box stability condition

When we shift the gear to ni−1 the engine speed ωe jumps to a higher speed
ωe = ωi−1 >ωT at the same vehicle speed

The stability condition requires:

A simple rule for a stable gearbox design

III. GEAR BOX AND CLUTCH DYNAMICS
3.5 Example - Gear box stability condition
Transmission ratios and stability condition

The stability condition requires that ni−1/ni = cte

III. GEAR BOX AND CLUTCH DYNAMICS
3.5 Example - Gear box stability condition
Using n1 and n6
IV. GEAR BOX RATIO

used to calculate the gear ratios of a

gearbox as well as vehicle performance

- Engine should work at its maximum power to have the best performance.
- To control the speed of the vehicle, we need to vary the engine’s angular velocity.
- The engine’s working range: (ω1,ω2) around ωM, which is associated to the
maximum power PM.

Recommendations to design the transmission ratios of a vehicle gearbox

1.Design the differential transmission ratio nd and the final gear nn such that the
final gear nn is a direct gear, nn=1, when the vehicle is moving at the
moderate highway speed.
2.Same as item 1, however, when the vehicle is moving at the maximum
attainable speed.
3.The first gear n1 may be designed by the maximum desired torque at driving
wheels, (determined by the slope of a desired climbing road).
4.The gear stability condition is used to find the intermediate gears.
5.The value of cg for relative gear ratios, can be chosen in the range 1≤cg≤2.

To determine the middle gear ratios, there are two recommended methods:
1 - Geometric ratios
2 - Progressive ratios
IV. GEAR BOX RATIO
4.1 Geometric Ratio Gearbox Design

Geometric gearbox: the jump of engine speed in any two successive gears is
constant at a vehicle speed.

The engine’s speed jump is kept constant for any gear change from ni to ni+1
IV. GEAR BOX RATIO
4.1 Geometric Ratio Gearbox Design

A gear-speed plot
for a geometric
gearbox design
IV. GEAR BOX RATIO
4.2 Progressive Ratio Gearbox Design

Progressive gearbox: the speed span of a vehicle in any two successive gears is
kept constant.
IV. GEAR BOX RATIO
4.2 Progressive Ratio Gearbox Design

A gear-speed plot for a progressive gearbox design

IV. GEAR BOX RATIO
4.3 Example 1: A gearbox with three gears

Consider an m = 860 kg car having an engine with η = ηdηg = 0,84 and the power-
speed relationship

We define the working range for the engine, when the power is 100kW ≥ Pe ≥ 90 kW
IV. GEAR BOX RATIO
4.3 Example 1: A gearbox with three gears

The power performance curve and its working range

At the maximum speed vx=50 m/s, the engine is rotating at the upper limit of the
working range ωe = 524 rad/s and the gearbox is operating in third gear.
IV. GEAR BOX RATIO
4.3 Example 1: A gearbox with three gears
The gear-speed plot for a three-gear gearbox
IV. GEAR BOX RATIO
4.4 Example 2: Better performance with a four-gear gearbox

The gear-speed plot

CHAPTER V
STEERING DYNAMICS

I. KINEMATIC STEERING, ACKERMAN CONDITIONS

II. REAR-WHEELED STEERING
III. UNEQUAL FRONT AND REAR TRACKS
IV. VEHICLES WITH MORE THAN TWO AXLES
V. VEHICLE WITH TRAILER
VI. FOUR WHEEL STEERING
I. KINEMATIC STEERING, ACKERMAN CONDITIONS

A front-wheel-steering vehicle and steer

angles of the inner and outer wheels
I. KINEMATIC STEERING, ACKERMAN CONDITIONS

Equivalent bicycle model for a front-wheel-steering vehicle

I. KINEMATIC STEERING, ACKERMAN CONDITIONS

Effect of w/l on the Ackerman condition for front-wheel-steering vehicles

I. KINEMATIC STEERING, ACKERMAN CONDITIONS

The required space for a turning two-axle vehicle

The required space for turning

II. REAR-WHEELED STEERING

• Rear-wheel-steering is used where high maneuverability is a necessity on

a low-speed vehicle, such as forklifts.
• Rear-wheel-steering is not used on street vehicles because it is unstable at
high speeds.
• The center of rotation for a rear-wheel-steering vehicle is always a point on
the front axle.

A rear-wheel-steering vehicle
III. UNEQUAL FRONT AND REAR TRACKS

The angular velocity of the vehicle is

Kinematic steering condition

for a vehicle with different
tracks in the front and in the
back
IV. VEHICLES WITH MORE THAN TWO AXLES

Steering of a three-axle vehicle

IV. VEHICLES WITH MORE THAN TWO AXLES

The center of the front

axle and the mass
center of the vehicle are
turning about O by radii
Rf and R.

A six-wheel vehicle with one steerable axle in front

V. VEHICLE WITH TRAILER

triangle OAB

A vehicle with a one-axle trailer

V. VEHICLE WITH TRAILER

Two possible angle θ

for a set of (Rt,b1,b2)

The θ2 is called a jackknifing configuration

V. VEHICLE WITH TRAILER

A two-axle vehicle with a trailer is

steered according to the Ackerman
condition
VI. FOUR WHEEL STEERING

Positive 4WS situation - the front and rear Negative 4WS situation - the front and
wheels steer in the same direction rear wheels steer opposite to each other
VI. FOUR WHEEL STEERING
Illustration of a positive four-wheel steering
Triangles OAE and OBF vehicle in a left turn

Triangles ODG and OCH

VI. FOUR WHEEL STEERING
Illustration of a negative four-wheel steering
Triangles OAE and OBF
vehicle in a left turn

Triangles ODG and OCH

CHAPTER VI
VEHICLE PLANAR DYNAMICS

I. VEHICLE COORDINATE SYSTEM

II. APPLIED NEWTON – EULER METHOD
III. VEHICLE FORCE SYSTEM
IV. VEHICLE PLANAR DYNAMIC MODEL – 02-WHEELED MODEL
V. VEHICLE LINEAR PLANAR DYNAMIC MODEL – EXAMPLE (HB120)
I. VEHICLE COORDINATE SYSTEM

The vehicle force system (F, M)

Vehicle body coordinate frame B(Cxyz).

I. VEHICLE COORDINATE SYSTEM
Top view of a moving
vehicle to show the yaw
angle ψ between the x and
X axes, the sideslip angle β
between the velocity vector
v and the x-axis, and the
cruise angle β + ψ between
with the velocity vector v
and the X-axis.

Illustration of a moving vehicle,

indicated by its body coordinate frame
B in a global coordinate frame G
II. APPLIED NEWTON – EULER METHOD

A rigid vehicle in a planar motion

II. APPLIED LAGRANGE METHOD

A rigid vehicle in a planar motion

Noted to be concerned
Noted to be concerned: vector transformation
III. VEHICLE FORCE SYSTEM
The force system at
the tire-print of tire
number 1
IV. VEHICLE PLANAR DYNAMIC MODEL – 02-WHEELED MODEL

A front-wheel-steering four-wheel vehicle A two-wheel model for a

and the forces in the xy-plane acting at the vehicle moving with no roll
trire-prints
IV. VEHICLE PLANAR DYNAMIC MODEL – 02-WHEELED MODEL

Ignoring the aligning moments Mzi

assume δ small
IV. VEHICLE PLANAR DYNAMIC MODEL – 02-WHEELED MODEL

The global sideslip βi for the wheel i, is the angle between the wheel velocity
vector vi and the vehicle body x-axis

If the wheel number i has a steer angle δi then, its local sideslip angle αi, that
generates a lateral force Fyw on the tire, is
IV. VEHICLE PLANAR DYNAMIC MODEL – 02-WHEELED MODEL
Assuming small angles for global sideslips βf, β, and βr, the local sideslip angles for
the front and rear wheels, αf and αr, may be approximated as:
V. VEHICLE LINEAR PLANAR DYNAMIC MODEL
VI. VEHICLE LINEAR PLANAR DYNAMIC MODEL – EXAMPLE (HB120)
0.2rad  11.459deg t  0
Value  (t ) = 
Symbol
No-load Half-load Full-load
Unit
0 t 0
h 1,63 1,723 1,815 m
l 6,150 6,150 6,150 m
a1 3,840 3,531 3,818 m
a2 2,310 2,619 2,332 m
m 13710 14910 16110 kg
Cαf 207730 238670 233010 N/rad
Cαr 278380 278380 292210 N/rad
Iz 173918 186975 202808 kg.m2

Turning
radius R vs
forward
velocity vx
(δ =
0.2(rad))

Lateral force Fy vs forward velocity vx

(δ = 0.2(rad)) Critical velocity, vxc vs
steering angle δ
VI. VEHICLE LINEAR PLANAR DYNAMIC MODEL – EXAMPLE (HB120)

Lateral velocity vy(t) Angular acceleration r(t)

Lateral force at the vehicle gravity

Turning radius R
center
CHAPTER VII
SUSPENSION DYNAMICS

I. TASKS, CLASSIFICATION, STRUCTURES

II. ROLL CENTER AND ROLL AXIS
III. CAR TIRE RELATIVE ANGLES
IV. COORDINATE SYSTEM
V. MATHEMATIC MODELS
VI. TIME RESPONSES
VII. FREQUENCY RESPONSES
I. TASKS, CLASSIFICATION, STRUCTURES
1.1 Tasks
The suspension is what links the wheels to the vehicle body and allows relative
motion. The wheels, through the suspension linkage, must propel, steer, and stop
the vehicle, and support the associated forces.

1.2 Classification
1.2.1 Solid axle suspension

Adding an anti-tramp bar to guide a solid axle

The wheel move UP The wheel move DOWN

Equivalent kinematic model

I. TASKS, CLASSIFICATION, STRUCTURES
1.2 Classification
1.2.1 Solid axle suspension

A solid axle suspension with a A solid axle and a Panhard A triangle mechanism and a
triangulated linkage arm to guide the axle Panhard arm to guide a solid axle

Double triangle suspension A solid axle suspension

Illustration of a De Dion suspension
mechanism with coil springs
I. TASKS, CLASSIFICATION, STRUCTURES
1.2 Classification
1.2.2 Independent suspension

A double A-arm suspension A McPherson suspension

A double A-arm suspension mechanism on the A McPherson suspension mechanism on the

left and right wheels left and right wheels
I. TASKS, CLASSIFICATION, STRUCTURES
1.2 Classification
1.2.2 Independent suspension

A multi-link suspension mechanism A swing arm suspension

A trailing arm suspension A semi-trailing arm suspension

II. ROLL CENTER AND ROLL AXIS
➢ The roll center of the front or rear suspension is the instantaneous center of
rotation of the body with respect to the ground.
➢ Roll axis is found by connecting the roll center of the front and rear suspensions
of the vehicle. The roll axis is the instantaneous line about which the body of a
vehicle rolls.
Kinematically equivalent mechanism
An example of a double A- for the front half of the double A-arm
arm front suspensions suspension

- The instant center of rotation of a wheel

with respect to the body is called
suspension roll center.
- Determine the suspension roll centers.
- Find the intersection of the lines
connecting the suspension roll centers
to the center of their associated tire-
prints.
The roll center I18 is at the intersection of lines I12I28 and I13I38
III. CAR TIRE RELATIVE ANGLES
There are four major wheel alignment parameters that affect vehicle dynamics:
Toe Camber Caster Trust
IV. COORDINATE SYSTEM
➢ Wheel coordinate frame W (xw, yw, zw) is attached to the center of a wheel. It follows every
translation and rotation of the wheel except the spin. Hence, the xw and zw axes are
always in the tire-plane, while the yw axis is always along the spin axis.
➢ Wheel-body coordinate frame C (xc, yc, zc) at the center of the wheel parallel to the vehicle
coordinate axes. The wheel-body frame C is motionless with respect to the vehicle
coordinate and does not follow any motion of the wheel.
➢ The tire coordinate frame T (xt, yt, zt) is set at the center of the tire-print. The zt-axis is
always perpendicular to the ground. The xt-axis is along the intersection line of the tire-
plane and the ground. The tire frame does not follows the spin and camber rotations of the
tire however, it follows the steer angle rotation about the zc-axis.
V. MATHEMATIC MODELS
VI. TIME RESPONSES

mx = −ce ( x − y ) − ke ( x − y )

0 t  t _ start

 2 v
y = d 2 sin 2 t ; t _ start  t  t _ end
 d1
0 t  t _ end
VI. TIME RESPONSES
VII. FREQUENCY RESPONSES