Fundamentals

of
Mechanical engineering and Mechatronics

KME 101-T

Unit-2
Introduction to I.C. Engines and RAC

Department of Mechanical Engineering

BIT, Meerut 1
 Syllabus
IC Engine: Basic Components, Construction and Working of
Two stroke and four stroke SI & CI engine, merits and
demerits, scavenging process; Introduction to electric, and
hybrid electric vehicles.

Refrigeration: Its meaning and application, unit of

refrigeration; Coefficient of performance, methods of
refrigeration, construction and working of domestic
refrigerator, concept of heat pump. Formula based numerical
problems on cooling load.
Air-Conditioning: Its meaning and application, humidity, dry
bulb, wet bulb, and dew point temperatures, comfort
conditions, construction and working of window air
conditioner. 2
 Syllabus

IC Engine: Basic Components, Construction and Working of

Two stroke and four stroke SI & CI engine, merits and
demerits, scavenging process; Introduction to electric, and
hybrid electric vehicles.

3
 Engine
 It is a device which converts one form of energy into
another form of useful energy.

Heat Engine: It is a device which converts chemical energy of fuel

into heat energy and subsequently heat energy is converted into
mechanical power.

Examples of heat engines are Petrol engine, Diesel engine,

Steam engine, Gas turbine etc

Based on combustion engines are classified into

 Internal Combustion Engine (I.C. Engine)

 External Combustion Engine (E.C. Engine) 4

 I.C. & E.C. Engines

I.C. Engine

E.C. Engine

5
 I.C. & E.C. Engines
Internal Combustion Engine (I.C. Engine)
In internal combustion engine the burning or combustion of the
fuel takes place inside the cylinder.
Example- Automobile engines
 Petrol engine
 Diesel engine etc.

External Combustion Engine (E.C. Engine)

In external combustion engine the combustion of the fuel takes
place outside the engine and generated heat energy is
transferred to the main working fluid of the cycle to generate the
mechanical work.
Example- Steam engine, Closed gas turbine etc.
6
S. No. EC Engine IC Engine
Combustion of fuel is outside the Combustion of fuel is inside the
1
engine engine
Bulky due to presence of auxiliary
2 apparatus like boiler and It is light and compact
condenser.
High ratio of weight to power
3 Low ratio of weight to power output
output
It can use cheaper fuels including High grade fuels are used with
4
solid fuels proper filtration
Higher requirement of water for Lesser requirement of water
5
dissipation of heat
Lower efficiency about 15-20% Higher efficiency about 35-40%
6

Silent operation due to outside Very noisy operated engine

7
combustion

7
 Classification of I.C. Engine

 On the basis of strokes used

 Two Stroke cycle Engines
 Four Stroke Cycle Engines

 On the basis of cycle used

 Otto Cycle Engines
 Diesel Cycle Engines
 Dual Cycle Engines

 On the basis of types of fuel used

 Petrol Engines
 Diesel Engines
 Gas Engines
8
 Classification of I.C. Engine

 On the basis of types of Ignition Method :

 Spark Ignition (SI)
 Compression Ignition (CI)

 On the basis of types of cooling system used:

 Air cooled engines
 Water cooled engines

 On the basis of types of different position of cylinder

engines:
 Horizontal cylinder engines
 Vertical cylinder engines
 Inclined cylinder engines

9
 Advantages of I.C. Engine

These are the following advantages of an I.C. Engine

 Mechanical Simplicity

 Low initial cost due to absence of boiler, turbine condenser

etc

 High efficiency than external combustion engine

 Power to weight ratio is high

 Very suitable for small power requirement applications

 Starting time is very less

 Requires less maintenance 10

 Disadvantages of I.C. Engine

These are the following disadvantages of an I.C. Engine

 Variety of fuels that can be used is limited to very fine quality

gaseous and liquid fuel.

 Fuel used is very costly like gasoline or diesel.

 Engine emissions are generally high compared to external

combustion engine.

 Not suitable of large scale power generation.

 In case of reciprocating internal combustion noise is

generated due to detonation
11
 Components of I.C. Engines

Cylinder Block: It consists

of smooth round cylinders,
ports for the valves and
passage for the flow of
cooling water.

Crankcase: It supports the

crankshaft and camshaft in
suitable bearings and
provides the brackets for
supporting the engine on the
frame.

Physically the cylinder block and upper half of the crankcase are single
integral unit.
12
 Components of I. C. Engines

Cylinder Head: It is separately casted at the top of the

cylinder block, contains the combustion chamber, spark plugs
and usually the valves, passages for flowing water.

13
 Components of I. C. Engines

Piston: Grooves are cut in the side of the piston for piston
rings. The top is called the head, the part below the grooves
is called the skirt. Portion that separates the groove called the
land.

14
 Components of I. C. Engines

Piston Rings: A piston ring is a metallic split ring that is attached

to the outer diameter of a piston in an internal combustion engine
or steam engine. The main functions of piston rings in engines are:
Sealing the combustion chamber so that there is minimal loss of
gases to the crank case.

15
 Components of I. C. Engines

Connecting Rod: It is the connection between the crankshaft

and piston. It joins the gudgeon (wrist or piston) pin of the
piston with the crankpin of the crankshaft.

16
 Components of I. C. Engines

Crankshaft: Connects together with the connecting rod,

converts the reciprocating motion of piston into a rotary
motion. Length of crank-arm determines the stroke of the
engine.
Crankpin Main
Crank
Arm Journals
Counter
Weight

17
 Components of I. C. Engines

Flywheel: Store up energy necessary to carry the engine

over the points at which it is not receiving power impulses
from the explosion. It is connected to the electric starting
motor by a set of teeth cut on its outer rim.

18
 Components of I. C. Engines

Valve: Two valves are used for each cylinder – an inlet and
an exhaust valve. Inlet valve admitted the fuel/air to the
cylinder and exhaust valve escaped the burned gases.

19
 Components of I. C. Engines

Camshaft : It actuates the valves and carries one cam for

each valve to be operated. It is driven by the crankshaft and
always rotates at half the speed of the crankshaft.

20
Nomenclature of IC Engine

Clearance
Volume
Cylinder
TDC
Piston

Stroke
BDC

Bore

Swept
Volume

21
 Nomenclature of IC Engine
Top-Dead-Center (TDC): It is position of the piston
when it is farthest from the crank shaft.

Note:-In case of horizontal engine TDC is known as

inner dead center(IDC)

Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC): It is the position of the

piston when it is nearest to the crankshaft.

Note:-In case of horizontal engine BDC is known as

outer dead center(ODC)

Stroke: When piston moves from TDC to BDC or

BDC to TDC is known as stoke.

Stroke Length (L): It is the distance between TDC

and BDC.

22
 Nomenclature of IC Engine
Bore (D): Inner diameter of the cylinder or diameter of
the piston face.

Swept Volume (VS): Volume displaced by the piston

as it travels through one stroke.

𝑽𝑺 = π/4 𝑫 𝟐 L
𝟒

Clearance Volume (VC): It is the volume of the

cylinder when piston is at TDC or IDC, therefore it is
minimum volume.

Clearance is provided to accommodate (or to provide

space) valves and to prevent damage of valves.
23
 Nomenclature of IC Engine

Compression ration (r): It is defined as the ratio of volume before

compression to the volume of after compression.
V1 = volume before compression = VC + VS

V2 = volume after compression = VC

𝑽 +𝑽
r = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑪 𝑺
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝑪 24
 C.I. & S.I. Engines

Reciprocating Engines

Sparked Ignition Compressed Ignition

S.I. Engine C.I. Engine

4-Stroke 2-Stroke

25
PETROL OR S.I.
Engines

26
 C.I. & S.I. Engines
Spark Fuel
Plug Injector

Intake
Compression
Expansion
Exhaust

Sparked Ignition Compressed Ignition

S.I. Engine C.I. Engine

27
 Four Stroke Engines
 Four stroke engine can be S.I. or C.I.
 Cycle operations (Intake, Compression, Expansion or
power and Exhaust) completed in four strokes of the
piston or two revolution (720o) of the crank.

28
 Four Stroke Engines
Suction stroke: (inlet valve opened and
exhaust valve closed)

 Fresh air – fuel mixture or fresh air

only enters into the engine cylinder
from a carburetor.

 As fresh charge sucked inside, the

piston motion is known as suction
stroke.

29
 Four Stroke Engines
Compression stroke : (both valves
closed)
 For continues rotation of shaft, piston
will move from BDC to TDC.

 Compression takes place, hence the

piston motion is known as
compression stroke.

 At the end of compression stroke

charge is ignited by the spark or by
fuel injection and combustion takes
place.

30
 Four Stroke Engines

Expansion stroke: (both valves

closed)
 After combustion hot gases expand
and push the piston down from TDC to
BDC.

 Useful power is obtained hence this

downward motion of the piston is
known as power stroke or expansion
stoke.

 At the end of expansion stroke heat

rejection takes place.

31
 Four Stroke Engines
Exhaust stroke: (inlet valve
closed and exhaust valve open)

 After heat rejection burned

gases expel out due to the
movement of the piston from
BDC to TDC.

 As the gases are exhausted out,

the piston motion is known as
exhaust stroke.
 The cycle gets completed at the
end of the exhaust stroke.

32
Four Stroke SI Engines

32
DIESEL OR CI Engines

33
Four Stroke CI Engines

33
 Difference between SI and CI Engines
S. No. SI Engine CI Engine

It works on OTTO Cycle or constant It works on DIESEL Cycle or constant

1
volume heat addition. pressure heat addition.
During the intake or suction process, air During the intake or suction process,
2
and fuel are used. only air is used.
The fuel used Petrol which is highly The fuel used Diesel which is low
3 volatile. Self Ignition temperature is volatile. Self-ignition temperature is
high. low.
4 The fuel is supplied by Carburetor. The fuel is supplied by Injector.
5 The maintenance cost is low. The maintenance cost is high.
6 It is used in Small Vehicles. It is used in Heavy Vehicles.
7 The compression ratio is 6 to 10. The compression ratio is 16 to 22.
Starting is a little difficult comparatively
8 The starting of this engine is easy.
SI engine.
9 It produces less noise. It produces high noise.
Lower thermal efficiency because of the High thermal efficiency because of the
10
low compression ratio. high compression ratio.
36
 Two Stroke Engines
 Two stroke engine can be S.I. or C.I.
 Two stroke engines have ports (inlet, exit and transfer
port) in place of valves.

Exit Port
Transfer
Port

Inlet Port

37
 Two Stroke Engines

 Cycle operations (Intake, Compression, Expansion or

power and Exhaust) completed in two strokes of the
piston or one revolution (360o) of the crank.
 No piston stroke for suction and exhaust operations.
 Suction is accomplished by air compressed in crankcase.
 Induction of compressed air removes the products of
combustion through exhaust ports
 Transfer port is there to supply the fresh charge into
combustion chamber

38
Two Stroke Engines

39
 Two Stroke Engines

Expansion and exhaust:

During the expansion stroke the charge in the crankcase is
compressed. Near the end of the expansion stroke, the piston
uncovered the exhaust port and the cylinder pressure drop to the
atmospheric pressure as the combustion product leave the
cylinder.

Intake and compression:

Further movement of the piston uncovered the transfer port,
permitting the slightly compressed charge in the crankcase to enter
the engine cylinder.

Scavenging:
The piston top usually has a projection to deflect the fresh charge
towards the top of the cylinder preventing the flow through ports.

40
 2-Stroke & 4-Stroke Engines
S. No. 4-stroke 2-Stroke

Four stroke of the piston and two Two stroke of the piston and one
1
revolution of crankshaft revolution of crankshaft
One power stroke in every two One power stroke in each revolution
2
revolution of crankshaft of crankshaft
3 Power produce is less Theoretically twice power
Heavier flywheel due to non-uniform Lighter flywheel due to more uniform
4
turning movement turning movement
Lesser cooling and lubrication Greater cooling and lubrication
5
requirements requirements
Contains valve and valve mechanism Contains ports arrangement
6

Volumetric efficiency and Thermal Volumetric efficiency and Thermal

7
efficiency is high efficiency is low
8 Heavy and bulky Light and compact

41
 Electric Vehicles
 An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric
motor for propulsion.
 An electric vehicle may be powered through a battery, solar panels, fuel
cells or an electric generator to convert fuel to electricity.
 EVs now a days used on roads and rail vehicles, surface and
underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.

42
 Electric Vehicles
 EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when
electricity was among the preferred methods for motor
vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of
operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of
the time.

 Modern internal combustion engines have been the

dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles for almost
100 years, but electric power has remained commonplace in
other vehicle types, such as trains and smaller vehicles of
all types.

 Commonly, the term EV is used to refer to an electric car. In

the 21st century, EVs have seen a comeback due to
technological developments, and an increased focus
on renewable energy. 41
 Electric Vehicles
 Advantages:
 Better for the environment.
 Electricity is less expensive than fuels.
 Less maintenance at a lower cost.
 Produce less noise.

 Disadvantages:
 Some EVs have short ranges for driving.
 Charging can take a lot of time.
 Initial investment is high.
 Charging stations are not available everywhere.

44
Hybrid Electric Vehicles

45
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles
 A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle
that combines a conventional internal combustion engine
(ICE) system with an electric propulsion system (hybrid
vehicle drive train).

 The presence of the electric power train is intended to

achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional
vehicle or better performance.

 There is a variety of HEV types and the degree to which

each function as an electric vehicle (EV) also varies. The
most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car,
although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors) and
buses also exist.

46
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles
 Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving
technologies such as regenerative brakes which convert the
vehicle's kinetic energy to electric energy, which is stored in
a battery or super-capacitor.

 Some varieties of HEV use an internal combustion engine to

turn an electrical generator, which either recharges the
vehicle's batteries or directly powers its electric drive motors
this combination is known as a motor–generator.

 Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the

engine at idle and restarting it when needed this is known as
a start-stop system.

47
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles

 A hybrid-electric produces fewer tailpipe emissions than a

comparably sized gasoline car since the hybrid's gasoline
engine is usually smaller than that of a gasoline-powered
vehicle.

 If the engine is not used to drive the car directly, it can be

geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel
economy.

48
ThankYou
47
 KME 101-T

Refrigeration
Its meaning and application, unit of
refrigeration; Coefficient of performance,
methods of refrigeration, construction and
working of domestic refrigerator, concept of
heat pump. Formula based numerical
problems on cooling load.
48
 Introduction
 Refrigeration is a process of maintaining lower
temperature compare to surrounding temperature.

 In order to maintain temperature continuously

refrigeration system must run on a cycle.

 Refrigerant is a substance used for producing lower

temperature.

 Example are NH3, water, air, R-11, R-12, R-134 etc.

 Refrigerants absorb heat at a low temperature and reject

heat at a higher temperature .
51
 Unit of Refrigeration

 It is the amount of heat that is to be removed from one

tonne water at zero (0oC) in order to convert it into ice at
0 oC in one day (24 hours).

 Tonne of refrigeration represents heat transfer rate.

1 T.R. = 3.5 kJ/s = 3.5 kW = 210 kJ/min

52
 Introduction

 Air-Conditioning is a process of
controlling air temperature,
humidity, quality and ventilation in a
space (Building or Vehicle).

 Air-Conditioners work
on refrigeration system.

53
 Applications of Refrigeration

1. Human Comfort

2. Food processing & preservation

3. Chemical Industries

4. Medical Uses

5. Other
54
 Methods for Refrigeration

 Natural Refrigeration Methods

 Natural ice for refrigeration
 Evaporative Cooling

 Artificial Refrigeration Methods

 Gas refrigeration system
 Vapour Compression refrigeration system
 Vapour absorption system

55
 Methods for Refrigeration

 Other Refrigeration Methods

 Thermo-electric refrigeration system
 Steam jet refrigeration system
 Vortex tube refrigeration system
 Magnetic refrigeration system

56
 Thermal Energy Reservoir

 A body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity is

known as thermal reservoir.

 It can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without

undergoing any change in temperature.

 Examples: Sun, Oceans, Lakes, atmospheric air

 Source: A thermal reservoir that supplies energy in the

form of heat is called a source.

 Sink: A thermal reservoir that absorbs energy in the form

of heat is called a sink.
 Kelvin Plank Statement

 Kelvin Plank Statement: “It is impossible to construct a

device which produces work in a cycle by exchanging
heat with a single reservoir.

High Temperature
TH Reservoir

QH

H.E. W
 Heat Engine

High Temperature  Heat engine is a device which

Reservoir converts part of received heat
TH into work and rejects remaining
amount of heat.
QH
 Heat engine works on the
H.E. W Kelvin Plank Statement.

QL

TL
Low Temperature
Reservoir
 Heat Engine
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝜼=
High Temperature 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
Reservoir
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑾 𝒐 𝒓 𝒌
TH 𝜼=
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅

QH 𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝜼=
𝑸𝑯
H.E. W
𝑸 𝑯 −𝑸
QL 𝑳
𝜼= 𝑸
TL 𝑯
𝑸
Low Temperature 𝜼=𝟏−
Reservoir 𝑸𝑳 𝑯
 Clausius Statement
 Clausius Statement: “It is impossible to construct a
device which operates on a cycle and transfer heat from
low temperature body to high temperature body without
any external work.”

High Temperature
Reservoir TH

QH

QL

Low Temperature
Reservoir
TL
 Refrigerator

 Refrigerator works on the

High Temperature
Clausius statement.
Reservoir

TH  It absorb the heat from the

low temperature medium
QH
and rejects heat into high
W temperature medium by
R
consuming external work.
QL
 Refrigerator used to
TL maintain low temperature
Low Temperature
as compared to
Reservoir surrounding.
 Refrigerator

High Temperature 𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑹 =
Reservoir 𝑾 𝒐 𝒓 𝒌 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆
𝒅
TH
𝑪𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑹 =
QH 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌
𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅
W 𝑸𝑳
R
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑹 =
𝑾
QL
𝑸𝑳
TL 𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑹 =
𝑸 𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳
Low Temperature
Reservoir
 Heat Pump

High Temperature  Heat Pump works on the

Reservoir
Clausius statement.
TH
 It absorb the heat from the
QH
low temperature medium
W and rejects heat into high
H.P
temperature medium by
QL consuming external work.

TL  Heat pump used to maintain

Low Temperature
High temperature as
Reservoir compared to surrounding.
 Heat Pump

High Temperature 𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑪𝑶𝑷 𝑯 . 𝑷 . =
Reservoir 𝑾 𝒐 𝒓 𝒌 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆
𝒅
TH
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑪𝑶𝑷 𝑯 . 𝑷 . =
QH 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌
𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅
W
H.P 𝑸𝑯
𝑪𝑶𝑷 𝑯 . 𝑷 . =
𝑾
QL
𝑸𝑯
TL 𝑪𝑶𝑷 𝑯 . 𝑷 . =
𝑸 𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳
Low Temperature
Reservoir
 Refrigerator & Heat Pump

High Temperature High Temperature

Reservoir Reservoir
TH = Tatm. TH TH

QH QH

W W
R H.P.

QL QL

TL TL TL = Tatm.
Low Temperature Low Temperature
Reservoir Reservoir
 Refrigerator & Heat Pump

Proof That 𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑯𝑷 = 𝟏+ 𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑹

𝑸𝑯 𝑸𝑯
𝑪 𝑶 𝑷𝑯 𝑷= ⟹ 𝑪𝑶𝑷
𝑯 𝑷=
𝑾 𝑸 𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳

𝑸 𝑸 𝑯 − 𝑸 𝑯 + 𝑸𝑳
⟹ 𝑪𝑶𝑷
𝑯 𝑷= − 𝟏+ 𝟏 ⟹𝑪 𝑶 𝑷 𝑯 𝑷 = +𝟏
𝑸 𝑯𝑯 − 𝑸 𝑳 𝑸𝑯 − 𝑸 𝑳

𝑸
⟹ 𝑪𝑶𝑷
𝑯 𝑷= +𝟏
𝑸 𝑯𝑳 − 𝑸 𝑳

𝑪 𝑶 𝑷 𝑯 𝑷 = 𝑪 𝑶 𝑷 𝑹 +𝟏
 Coefficient of Performance

 The efficiency of a refrigerator and heat pump is

expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance
(COP).

 The value of COP can be greater than unity.

 Thermal efficiency can never be greater than 1.

 Due to which, efficiency of a refrigerator or heat pump

expressed by another term COP to avoid the oddity of
having efficiencies greater than unity.
 Coefficient of Performance

 The COP represents the running cost of refrigerator and

heat pump.
 Higher the value of COP lower the running cost.

QH = 4 kW-h

Welectric = 1 kW-h
COP = 4
QH = 1 kW-h Welectric = 1 kW-h
 Principle

 Both Refrigerator and heat pump work on the Clausius

statement.

 Both absorb the heat from the low temperature medium

and rejects heat into high temperature medium by
consuming external work.

 The working of both devices is same, however, both

used for different purposes.

 Refrigerator used to maintain low temperature and heat

pump is used to maintain the high temperature as
compared to surrounding temperature.

68
 Example-1
The heat removal rate from a refrigerated space and the
power input to the compressor are 7.2 kW and 1.8 kW,
respectively. Determine coefficient of performance (COP) of
the refrigerator.

71
 Example - 2
A heat pump absorbs 10 kW of heat from outside
environment at 250 K while absorbing 15 kW of work. It
delivers the heat to a room that must be kept warm at 300
K. Determine Coefficient of Performance (COP) of the heat
pump.

72
 Example -3
A household refrigerator is maintained at a temperature of
2°C. Every time the door is opened, warm material is placed
inside, introducing an average of 420 kJ, but making only a
small change in the temperature of the refrigerator. The
door is opened 20 times a day, and the refrigerator operates
at 15% of the ideal COP. The cost of work is Rs. 2.50 per
kWh. What is the monthly bill for this refrigerator? The
atmosphere is at 30°C.

73
 Refrigerator
Refrigerator is a cyclic device which is used to maintain lower
temperature as compared to surrounding temperature.

74
 Construction and working
1. COMPRESSOR:
 It is a mechanical device which transfers mechanical
energy to working fluids i.e. refrigerant which is coming
from evaporator.
 Compressor raises the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant.

75
 Construction and working
2. CONDENSER
 It is a type of heat exchanger.
 The refrigerant enters into the condenser from the
compressor
 Condenser rejects the heat from working fluid (refrigerant)
by means cooling coils made up of copper into the
atmosphere.
 Due to heat rejection from refrigerant, it converts from
gaseous state to liquid state.
 After condensing refrigerant goes into the expansion
devices.

76
 Construction and working
3. THROTTLING/EXPANSION DEVICES

 In expansion valve the pressure and temperature

decreases which comes from condenser.

 It also regulates the flow of refrigerant into the evaporator

and maintains the flow rate equal to the rate of evaporation
in the evaporator.

 We can regulate and control the temperature of refrigerator

using expansion devices by varying the opening as per our
requirements.

77
 Construction and working
4. EVAPORATOR

 Refrigerant comes from throttling device enters into the

evaporator at very low temp and pressure.

 In evaporator refrigerant goes through cooling coils and heat

is absorbed by the refrigerant.

 Due to this temperature of the refrigerant increases and liquid

refrigerant expends and converts into vapours after that
refrigerant goes to the compressor.

 Evaporator works as a heat exchanger between storage

space and cooling coils.
 This cycle repeats continuously.
78
 Thank You

TME-771
TME-773 Optimization Techniques
FiniteDoctoral
Element in Engineering
Methods in Engineering 77 of 77
35 77
TME-788 Seminar-I 77
 KME 101-T

Air-Conditioning
Its meaning and application, humidity, dry
bulb, wet bulb, and dew point temperatures,
comfort conditions, construction and working
of window air conditioner.

78
 Pure Substance

 A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is

called a pure substance. Example: helium (He), and Argon (Ar)

 A pure substance does not have to be of a single chemical

element it may be a compound. Example: N2, CO2, H2O, NH3

 A mixture of various chemical elements or compounds also

qualifies as a pure substance as long as the mixture is
homogeneous. Example: Air

 Air is a mixture of several gases, but it is often considered to be

a pure substance because it has a uniform chemical
composition.

81
 Air

Composition of Air
Component Molecular Mass Part by Volume
N2 28.02 0.7803

O2 32.00 0.2099

Ar 39.91 0.0094

CO2 44.00 0.0003

H2 2.02 0.0001

 Mixture of these gases are known as dry air.

82
 Air-Conditioning

 Air-Conditioning is a process of controlling air

temperature, humidity, quality and ventilation in
a space (Building or Vehicle).

 Atmospheric air makes

up environment in all the
air-conditioning systems.

83
 Air Conditioning

 Air-Conditioning is a process of controlling air

temperature, humidity, quality and ventilation in a space
(Building or Vehicle).

 Air conditioning can be used in both domestic and

commercial environments.

 This process is most commonly used to achieve a more

comfortable interior environment, typically for humans and
other animals.

 However, air conditioning is also used to cool and

dehumidify rooms filled with heat-producing electronic
devices, such as computer servers.
84
 Atmospheric Air

 Dry air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and small

amounts of some other gases.

 Air in the atmosphere normally contains some water

vapor (or moisture), number of pollutants and referred
as atmospheric air.

 The amount of water vapour and pollutants in the

atmospheric air vary from place to place.

85
 Moist Air

 For the air conditioning application, the atmospheric

air is filtered and in the air-conditioning we deals
with moist air.

 Moist air is the mixture of water vapour and dry

air.

 The amount of water vapor changes as a result of

condensation and evaporation from oceans, lakes,
rivers, showers, and even the human body.

86
 Moist Air

 The temperature of air in air-conditioning applications ranges

from about 10 to about 50°C. In this range, dry air can be
treated as an ideal gas with a constant cp value of 1.005
kJ/kg·K.

 Moist air pressure (P) is the sum of the partial pressure of dry
air (Pa) and that of water vapor (Pv).

87
 Psychrometry

 In air-conditioning, we deals with moist air and moist air is

not a pure substance.

 The properties of moist air are called Psychrometric

properties and the subject which deals with the behavior
of moist air is known as psychrometry.

88
 Specific Humidity

 It is also known as absolute humidity or humidity ratio and

denoted by 𝝎 .

 Specific humidity can be defined as the mass of water

vapor present in a unit mass of dry air.

.. kg of 1kg of moist
water
vapour + dry air air

mv ma mv +ma
89
 Specific Humidity

 Specific humidity can also be defined as the ratio of

mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air present in
the mixture or moist air.
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐰. 𝐯. Unit
𝛚 = kg of water vapour / kg of dry air
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐝. 𝐚.

𝒎𝒗
⟹𝛚 =
𝒎𝒂

90
 Relative Humidity

 Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor (vapor

pressure) that is in the air. It is a percentage of how much
moisture the air could possibly hold.
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 water vapor
𝛚 =
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 vapor in saturated condition

𝒎𝒗
⟹𝛚 =
𝒎vs

91
 Dry Bulb & Wet bulb Temperature

 In psychrometry, a psychrometer comprises of a dry bulb

and a wet bulb thermometer.

92
 Dry Bulb & Wet bulb Temperature

Dry Bulb Temperature (Tdb or T)

 The dry bulb thermometer has bare bulb which is directly
exposed to air and measure the actual temperature.

Wet Bulb Temperature (Twb)

 The bulb of wet bulb thermometer is covered by a wick
thoroughly wetted by water.

 The temperature which is measured by the wet wick

covered bulb is known as wet bulb temperature.

93
 Dew point Temperature

 The air in atmosphere contain moisture (water vapour).

 If we reduce the temperature of the air, moisture get

condense.

 The temperature at which first drop of dew is formed or

condensation begins when the air is cooled at constant
pressure is known as dew point temperature.

 Denoted by Tdp.

94
 Industrial & Comfort Air Conditioning

Comfort:
 Heating load due to solar energy,
 Electronics devices
 Heat rejected human body
 Ventilation

Industrial:
 Textile mill
 Paper mill
 Pharmaceutical
 Food Industry
 Manufacturing

95
 Human Comfort

 Human comfort depends upon the ease which body temperature

is maintained with dissipation of heat.
 Heat is produced principally by metabolism (oxidation of food)
Then this heat is used to perform work, loss of heat by
convection, radiation and evaporation.
 Therefore, human comfort affected with temperature and
humidity of air. Apart from that velocity of air also a factor.
 The Effective Temperature combines effect of DBT & WBT with
effect of air movement to yield equal sensation of warmth or
cold.
 Effective temperature is a temperature at which same net heat
exchange by radiation, convection and evaporation at different
humidity.

96
 Window Air Conditioner
 Window air conditioner is
sometimes referred to as
room air conditioner.

 It is the simplest form of

an air conditioning
system and is mounted
on windows or walls.

 It is a single unit that is

assembled in a casing
where all the
components are located.

97
Window Air Conditioner

98
 Window Air Conditioner

Compressor
 The refrigerant enters the
compressor at low
temperature and pressure
in a gaseous state.
 In compressor
temperature and pressure
of the refrigerant
 increases.
 The refrigerant leaves the
compressor and enters to
the condenser.
 Since this process
requires work, an electric
motor may be used.
99
 Window Air Conditioner

Condenser

 It is a kind of heat exchanger in which refrigerant of high

pressure and temperature enters which coming from
compressor.

 The function of the condenser in a air-conditioning system is

to transfer heat from the refrigerant to another medium,
such as air.

 By rejecting heat, the gaseous refrigerant condenses to

liquid inside the condenser.

100
 Window Air Conditioner

Throttling/Expansion valve

 High pressure refrigerant from the condenser enters the

throttling device, the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant drops down suddenly.

 Throttling valve also controls the amount of the refrigerant

flowing through it.

101
 Window Air Conditioner

Evaporator

 It is a kind of heat exchanger in which refrigerant of low

pressure and temperature enters which is coming from
throttling valve.

 The function of the evaporator is to absorb heat by the

refrigerant from the space to be cooled.

 By absorbing heat, the refrigerant converts from liquid state

to gaseous state.

102
 Window Air Conditioner
 Filter Drier is used to remove the moisture from the
refrigerant.

 Drain Pan is used to contain the water that condensate from

the cooling coil and is discharged out to the outdoor.

103
 Window Air Conditioner
 Propeller Fan is used in air-cooled condenser to help move
the air molecules over the surface of the condensing coil.

104
 Window Air Conditioner
 Fan Motor has a double shaft where the indoor blower and
outdoor propeller fan are connected together.

105
 Window Air Conditioner : Operation

 Room temperature reaches the thermostat’s set point, turning

on the room or window air conditioner’s blower. This draws
room air through the air inlet grille and a filter that removes
airborne dust and particles.
 Refrigerant is pumped through tubing in the unit, initiating the
refrigeration process. This refrigerant takes on and gives off heat
as it raises and lowers in temperature, changing from liquid to
gas and then back to liquid.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-CXI1WmMrRI
106
 Window Air Conditioner : Operation
 When the refrigerant begins to circulate through the indoor coil,
it is very cold. As the blower pushes warm air across the coil, the
refrigerant absorbs heat and turns into vapor.
 The vapor travels to a compressor that pressurizes it and moves
it through the condenser coil, where it gives off heat, which is
expelled outside.
 The refrigerant then moves through an expansion device that
converts it to a low-pressure, cool liquid again, which then
returns to the evaporator coil.
 The cycle repeats. All the while, the blower pushes air past the
cold coil to chill the air and blow it back into the room. 107
 Thank You

TME-771
TME-773 Optimization Techniques
FiniteDoctoral
Element in Engineering
Methods in Engineering 109
109 of 35
TME-788 Seminar-I 109 109