Unit-3 notes

Metal Forming
Forming processes involve applying forces (tensile, compressive, bending or combinations) to a heated
metal workpiece so as to deform it to the desired shape and size. Forming processes are further classified
into two categories based on the temperature to which the metal is heated.

1. Hot working processes: In these processes, deformation of metal takes place above its
recrystallization temperature. Ex: Forging, rolling, extrusion etc.

2. Cold working processes: In these processes, deformation of metal takes place below the
recrystallization temperature. Ex: Drawing, bending, shearing etc.

Recrystallization temperature: It is the lowest temperature at which the distorted grain structure of a
deformed metal is replaced by a new, strain-free grain structure during prolonged heating.

Plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature is known as cold working. It is
generally performed at room temperature. In some cases, slightly elevated temperatures may be used to
provide increased ductility and reduced strength. Cold working offers a number of distinct advantages, and
for this reason various cold-working processes have become extremely important. Significant advances in
recent years have extended the use of cold forming, and the trend appears likely to continue.

In comparison with hot working, the advantages of cold working are:

1. No heating is required
2. Better surface finish is obtained
3. Better dimensional control is achieved; therefore no secondary machining is generally needed.
4. Products possess better reproducibility and interchangeability.
5. Better strength, fatigue, and wear properties of material.
6. Directional properties can be imparted.
7. Contamination problems are almost negligible.

Some disadvantages associated with cold-working processes are:

1. Higher forces are required for deformation.

2. Heavier and more powerful equipment is required.
3. Less ductility is available.
4. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free.
5. Strain hardening occurs ( may require intermediate annealing ).
6. Undesirable residual stresses may be produced
Plastic deformation of metal carried out at temperature above the recrystallization temperature, is called
hot working. Under the action of heat and force, when the atoms of metal reach a certain higher energy
level, the new crystals start forming. This is called recrystallization. When this happens, the old grain
structure deformed by previously carried out mechanical working no longer exist, instead new crystals
which are strain-free are formed.

In hot working, the temperature at which the working is completed is critical since any extra heat left in the
material after working will promote grain growth, leading to poor mechanical properties of material.

In comparison with cold working, the advantages of hot working are • No strain hardening

• Lesser forces are required for deformation

 • Greater ductility of material is available, and therefore more deformation is possible. • Favourable
grain size is obtained leading to better mechanical properties of material • Equipment of lesser power is
needed

• No residual stresses in the material.

Disadvantages associated in the hot-working of metals are:

• Heat energy is needed

• Poor surface finish of material due to scaling of surface • Poor accuracy and
dimensional control of parts

• Poor reproducibility and interchangeability of parts

• Handling and maintaining of hot metal is difficult and troublesome • Lower life of tooling and
equipment.

In these forming processes large amount of energy is applied for a very short interval of time.

• Many metals tend to deform more readily under extra – fast application of load which make these
processes useful to form large size parts out of most metals including those which are otherwise
difficult – to – form.

• The parts are formed at a rapid rate, and thus these processes are also called high –
velocity forming processes.

• There are several advantages of using these forming processes, like die costs are low, easy
maintenance of tolerances, possibility of forming most metals, and material does not show spring-
back effect.
• The production cost of components by such processes is low.

• The limitation of these processes is the need for skilled personnel.

High energy rate forming

There are three main high energy rate forming processes:

• Explosive forming

• Magnetic forming

Explosive forming, is distinguished from conventional forming in that the punch or diaphragm is replaced
by an explosive charge. The explosives used are generally high – explosive chemicals, gaseous mixtures, or
propellants.

There are two techniques of high – explosive forming:

• Stand – off technique

• Contact technique

Standoff Technique:
The sheet metal work piece blank is clamped over a die and the assembly is lowered into a tank filled with
water. The air in the die is pumped out. The explosive charge is placed at some predetermined distance
from the work piece as shown in the figure. On detonation of the explosive, a pressure pulse of very high
intensity is produced. A gas bubble is also produced which expands spherically and then collapses. When
the pressure pulse impinges against the work piece, the metal is deformed into the die with as high velocity
as 120 m/s.

• The use of water as the energy transfer medium ensures a uniform transmission of energy and
muffles the sound of the explosive blast.

• The process is versatile – a large variety of shapes can be formed, there is virtually no limit to the size
of the work piece, and it is suitable for low – quantity production as well.

• The process has been successfully used to form steel plates 25mm thick x 4m diameter and to bulge
steel tubes as thick as 25 mm.

Contact Technique:
The explosive charge in the form of cartridge is held in direct contact with the work piece while the
detonation is initiated. The detonation builds up extremely high pressures (upto 30,000MPa) on the
surface of the work piece resulting in metal deformation, and possible fracture. The process is used
often for bulging tubes, as shown in figure.

Applications:

• Explosive forming is mainly used in the aerospace industries but has also found successful
applications in the production of automotive related components.

• The process has the greatest potential in limited – production prototype forming and for forming
large size components for which conventional tooling costs are prohibitively high.
Electromagnetic forming

The process is also called magnetic pulse forming and is mainly used for swaging type operations, such
as fastening fittings on the ends of tubes and crimping terminal ends of cables. Other applications are
blanking, forming, embossing, and drawing.

• The work coils needed for different applications vary although the same power source may be
used.

• To illustrate the principle of electromagnetic forming, consider a tubular work piece. • This
work piece is placed in or near a coil as shown in figure.

• A high charging voltage is supplied for a short time to a bank of capacitors connected in parallel.
(The amount of electrical energy stored in the bank can be increased either by adding
capacitors to the bank or by increasing the voltage).

• When the charging is complete, which takes very little time, a high voltage switch triggers the
stored electrical energy through the coil.

• A high – intensity magnetic field is established which induces eddy currents into the conductive
work piece, resulting in the establishment of another magnetic field.

• The forces produced by the two magnetic fields oppose each other with the consequence that
there is a repelling force between the coil and the tubular work piece that causes permanent
deformation of the work piece.

Various applications of magnetic forming process.

(i) Swaging, (ii) Expanding, and (iii) Embossing or blanking

Either permanent or expandable coils may be used.

Since the repelling force acts on the coil as well the work, the coil itself and the insulation on it must be
capable of withstanding the force, or else they will be destroyed. The expandable coils are less costly and
are also preferred when high energy level is needed.

Magnetic forming can be accomplished in any of the following three ways, depending upon the
requirements.

• Coil surrounding work piece: When a tube – like part x is to fit over another part y (shown as
insert in Fig (i)), coil is designed to surround x so that when energized, would force the material
 of x tightly around y to obtain necessary fit.

• Coil inside work piece: Consider fixing of a collar on a tube – like part, as shown in Fig (ii). The
magnetic coil is placed inside the tube – like part, so that when energized would expand the
material of the part into the collar.

• Coil on flat surface: Flat coil having spiral shaped winding can also be designed to be placed either
above or below a flat work piece, see Fig (iii). These coils are used in conjunction with a die to form,
emboss, blank, or dimple the work piece

Extrusion

Extrusion can be performed in either cold or hot state. Here the metal or alloy to be shaped is forced
through shaped dies.

Cold extrusion is carried out at room temperature. Because of the large forces required in extrusion,
most metals are extruded in hot state. At the same time, strain hardening is also eliminated in hot
extrusion. Hot extrusion is preferred when the metals lack ductility at room temperature.Metals most
easily extruded include lead, copper, aluminium, magnesium and their alloys. They have relatively low
yield strengths and low hot working temperature.

Forward extrusion:

In direct or forward extrusion, metal confined in a chamber is forced through the die opening by applying
pressure at the back of the billet by a hydraulic ram. The solid ram drives the entire billet out of the
stationary die. The die opening is usually circular but can be of other shapes also. More force is required in
this process since part of it goes wasted in overcoming friction between moving billet and the confining
chamber.

Indirect extrusion
In indirect or backward extrusion, the die is mounted on the face of a hollow ram and the material
when forced comes out through the opening in the ram. It requires less deformation force, when
compared to direct extrusion. It is because of the absence of friction between billet and billet chamber.
Forward or Direct Extrusion Backward or Indirect Extrusion

It is the simplest, but it is limited by the fact The billet does not move relative to the
that as the ram moves the billet must slide or container, instead the die moves
shear at the interface between billet and
container

High friction forces are involved Low friction forces; the friction involved
is only between the die and the container and
this is independent of the billet length

High extruding forces required; Extruding force is 25 to 30% less than in

however, mechanically more convenient forward extrusion. However, a long hollow ram
is required and this limits the loads which can
be applied. Due to this and complex design of
tools, this type of extrusion finds limited
application

Scrap or process waste is about 18 to 20% of Scrap or process waste is only 5 to 6% of billet
the billet weight weight
Impact extrusion

Impact extrusion is essentially a cold process which is mostly used for making collapsible medicine tubes,
toothpaste tubes, shaving cream tubes and food cans from more ductile metals such as zinc, lead, tin, and
aluminium. During the process, the billet is placed in a die cavity and is given a strong single blow through
the punch which causes the metal to flow plastically around the punch. The tube thickness is controlled by
the clearance between the die and punch and the outside diameter of the tube is equal to the die
diameter. Impact extrusions are low in cost and have excellent surface finish. It is much simpler to produce
a small deep canister in aluminium by impact extrusion than by deep drawing.

Hydrostatic extrusion

It is based on the use of fluid pressure. The billet is completely submerged in the fluid which exerts
pressure on it trough a ram. It is usually performed at room temperature.

⚫ The process finds limited industrial application because of need for specialized equipment
and tooling and low production rate.
⚫ The pressure transmitting fluids commonly used for hydrostatic extrusion are glycerin,
ethylgol, SAE 30 mineral lubricating oil, castor oil with 10% alcohol and isopentane.

⚫ The hydrostatic pressure ranges from 1100 to 3150 N/mm2.

The main commercial applications of this process are:

❑ Cladding of metals

❑ Making wires of less ductile materials

 ❑ Extrusion of nuclear reactor fuel rods

Advantages:

⚫ The process goes at faster speeds, attaining higher reduction ratios at lower billet temperatures
owing to lesser frictional forces between the chamber and the billet.

⚫ An even flow of material is achieved thereby giving better surface finish. ⚫ Larger billets and even

large cross-sections can be extruded easily with this process. ⚫ There is no billet residual at the chamber

walls thereby achieving 100% extrusion. Disadvantages:

⚫ The process can get complicated sometimes as the billet has to be tapered before process starts
to make the seal. Also, in order to remove any surface defects, the entire billet needs to be
wire-brushed or cleaned.

⚫ Owing to complicated equipment and procedures, the process has longer cycle times.

⚫ It sometimes gets difficult to contain the fluid under high pressure.

Wire drawing

Wire drawing is the process of reducing diameter of metal rods by drawing them through conical
openings in die blocks.Steel, iron or non-ferrous rod is converted into wire by drawing it through a conical
hole having an included angle of 8-24 degrees.In continuous wire drawing, the wire passes through a
succession of holes of decreasing size in dies made of steel, tungsten carbide, ruby or diamond.The
reduction in cross sectional area is usually about 30%.The rods for wire drawing are first pickled in acid to
remove any scale and the electrically butt welded. The end of the rod is tapered sufficiently to fit the first
dies by driven rollers having a number of grooves of decreasing size between which the rod is rolled
 ⚫ The rod may be coated with iron hydroxide, copper or tin, applied during or after pickling.

⚫ The rod is then fed into the wire drawing machine, which may be fitted with six or more dies,
through which the wire is drawn by means of number of power-driven pulleys or rotating
drums.

⚫ Due to great heat generated by the friction of the wire in the dies, both the dies and drums are
continuously cooled by circulating water through them.

⚫ Lubrication is often ensured by passing the rod through dry soap in its way to the die.

Tube extrusion

Tube extrusion is used to produce tubular products with the help of a mandrel. During the process, the
heated billet is placed in billet chamber and is pushed through a ram. The pressure exerted by ram helps
to flow the metal around the mandrel and come through the die opening. Because of the additional
tooling requirement, this process is more expensive than solid extrusion. It is an economical method of
producing hollow sections.
Tube drawing
Tube drawing can be used to produce high-quality tubing where the product requires the smooth surfaces,
thin walls, accurate dimensions, and added strength (from the strain hardening) that are characteristic of
cold forming. Internal mandrels are often used to control the inside diameter of tubes, which range from
about 12 to 250 mm (0.5 to 10 in.) in diameter. As shown in Figure, these mandrels are inserted through
the incoming stock and are held in place during the drawing operation. Products are generally limited to
lengths of 30m(100 ft) or less.

Forging

Forging is the process by which heated metal is shaped by the application of sudden blows or steady
pressure and characteristics of plasticity of material are made use of.

Forging can be carried out at room temperature – cold working, or at elevated temperature – warm/hot
forging.

Typical parts made by forging are

∙ Crankshafts, Connecting rods for engines

∙ Turbine discs, gears, wheels, bolt heads, hand tools

∙ Structural components for machinery and transformation equipment.

Open die forging:

In this type of forging, the metal is never completely enclosed or confined on all sides. Most open dies
forgings are produced on flat, V or swaging dies. Swaging dies are usually round but may also be of other
shapes e.g., double V.

Open die forging, in its simplest form generally involves placing a solid cylindrical workpiece between two
flat dies (platens) and reducing its height by compressing it. This process is known as upsetting.

• In ideal condition, a solid cylinder deforms as shown in Fig. b.

• Fig.C shows the deformation in upsetting with friction as the die workpiece interfaces; the
specimen develops a barrel shape.

Advantages:
• Simple and inexpensive dies;

• wide range of part sizes;

• good strength characteristics;

 • Generally for small quantities

Limitations

• Limited to simple shapes;

• difficult to hold close tolerances;

• machining to final shape necessary;

• low production rate;

• relatively poor utilization of material;

• high degree of skill required

Closed die forging

• However, in true closed-die forging, flash does not form (hence the term flashless forging), and
the workpiece completely fills the die cavity (see right side of Fig. 14.9b).

• Consequently, the forging pressure is very high, and accurate control of the blank volume and
proper die design are essential to producing a forging with the desired dimensional tolerances.

• Undersized blanks prevent the complete filling of the die cavity; conversely, oversized
blanks generate excessive pressures and may cause dies to fail prematurely or the
machine to jam.
Hammer forging- drop stamp

• Drop stamp of board hammer is widely employed when shaping hot bars, and finally to bring the
work to size and shape between a set of drop stamping dies. In board hammer the tup is attached
to a board which passes between two rollers. The latter run in an over head attachment, are belt-
driven and run in opposite directions. The tup is lifted by means of eccentric (foot, or hand
operated or self acting) and they cause the rollers to grip or release the board. When the board is
gripped by the rollers their direction of rotation is such as to lift it and the attached tup. when the
board is released the tup falls with it.
• When producing small drop forgings or hot pressings the drop stamps in its various forms is a very
effective method of obtaining the desired results.

• For shallow sheet metal work drop stamp is first class production machine as it permits a solid
blow to be struck without any fear of ending a crank or breaking a press frame.

Hammer forging – pneumatic hammer

• In pneumatic hammer air is compressed on both upward and downward strokes of the piston
which is worked by the electric motor.

• This compressed air is supplied to the ram cylinder by the long valve kept between the two
cylinders which is moved by the control lever.

• By lowering and raising of control lever, the strokes and the speeds of the blows per minute can be
varied from 50 to 200.

• The steam and air hammers are designed to give sharp and fast blows, reproducing to a marked
extent the action of the smith and his hammer.

• They may be used with a standard pair of anvils or with a set of dies, the latter often being so
designed that the metal can be drawn out to the approximate length and width, and then placed
in the dies for the final shaping stage.

Press forging

• In press forging, the metal is shaped not by means of a series of blows as in drop forging.
• But by means of a single continuous squeezing action. This squeezing is obtained by means of
presses.
 • Owing to the continuous action of the press, the material gets uniformly deformed throughout its
entire depth.

• The impressions obtained in press forging are clear compared to that of the likely jarred
impressions which are likely in the drop forged components.

The press is generally of vertical type and the squeezing action is carried completely to the centre part of
the being pressed.

Forging presses are of two types:

• Mechanical

• Hydraulic

• Mechanical presses may be either of screw type used for brass forging only; or crank type. Presses
can be readily automated.

• Hydraulic presses are used for heavy work and mechanical press for light work.

• Mechanical presses operate faster than the hydraulic presses, but the hydraulic presses are
designed to provide greater squeezing force.

• For press forging operation, the drive should be capable of giving huge force which is needed at the
end of the stroke when the metal is forced into desired shape.

• For this purpose copper alloys are well suited as these flow easily in the die and are readily
extruded.

Hand forging

• Under the action of the compressive forces due to hammer blows, the material spreads
laterally i.e., in a direction at right angles to the direction of hammer blows.

• Obviously brittle material like cast iron cannot be forged as it will develop cracks under the
blows from hammer.

• An ordinary blacksmith uses an open-hearth using coke (or sometimes steam coal) as fuel for heating
the metal.

• When it has become red-hot, blacksmith’s assistant (called striker on hammerman) uses a hand
held hammer to deliver blows on the metal piece while the blacksmith holds it on an anvil and
manipulates the metal piece with a pair of tongs.

• This type of forging is called “hand forging” and is suitable only for small forgings and small quantity
production.
Machine forging

• For specific jobs like mass manufacture of bolts and nuts from bar stock, special forging
machines have been developed.

• These machines work alongside a furnace in which one end of bar is heated for some length.

• The heated end of bar is than fed into the machine. With the help of dies and a heading tool,
the hexagonal head of the bolt is forged by “upsetting”.

• These machines are in reality horizontal mechanical presses which can be operated by a foot pedal.
 • The die consists of two halves and a heading tool.

• After the bolt head is forged, the bolt of required length can be had by shearing the bar at an
appropriate place.

Advantages

• Forging improves the structure of metal and hence its mechanical properties.
• Forging distorts the previously created uni-directional fibre in such a way as to strengthen the component.
• Owing to intense working, flaws are seldom found and the workpiece has a high reliability.
• Forgings are easily welded.
• Rapid duplication of components.
• Surface of the forging is relatively smooth.
• Minimum weight per strength and better resistance to shock.
• Forgings can be held to within fairly close tolerances.

Disadvantages

• The initial cost of dies and the cost of their maintenance is high. • In hot forging, due to high temperature of metal, there is
rapid oxidation or scaling of the surface resulting in poor surface finish.
• Forging operation is limited to simple shapes and has limitations for parts having under cuts, re-entrant surfaces, etc.
• Forgings are usually costlier than castings.

Rolling process

• In this process, metals and alloys are plastically deformed into semi finished or finished products by being pressed between
two rolls which are rotating.

• The metal is initially pushed into the space between two rolls, thereafter once the roll takes a ‘‘bite’’ into the edge of the
material, the material gets pulled in by the friction between the surfaces of the rolls and the material.

• The material is subjected to high compressive force as it is squeezed (and pulled along) by the rolls.

• This is a process to deal with material in bulk in which the cross-section of material is reduced and its length increased.

• The final cross-section is determined by the impression cut in the roll surface through which the material passes and into
which it is compressed.

Types of rolling mill

• Two High Mills

• Three High Mills

• Four High Mills

• Cluster Mills
Two high roll mill
• It comprises of two heavy rolls placed one over the other. The rolls are supported in bearings
housed in sturdy upright frames (called stands) which are grouted to the rolling mill floor.

• The vertical gap between the rolls is adjustable. The rolls rotate in opposite directions and
are driven by powerful electrical motors.

• Usually the direction of rotation of rolls cannot be altered, thus the work has to be fed into rolls
from one direction only.

• If rolling entails more than one ‘pass’ in the same set of rolls, the material will have to be brought
back to the same side after the first pass is over.
• Since transporting material (which is in red hot condition) from one side to another is difficult and
time consuming (material may cool in the meantime), a ‘‘two high reversing mill’’ has been
developed in which the direction of rotation of rolls can be changed.

• This facilitates rolling of material by passing it through back and forth passes.

Three high roll mill

• A three high rolling mill arrangement is shown in above slide.

• It consists of three rolls positioned directly over one another as shown.

• The direction of rotation of the first and second rolls are opposite as in the case of two high mill.

• The direction of rotation of second and third rolls are again opposite to each other. • All
three rolls always rotate in their bearings in the same direction.

• The advantage of this mill is that the work material can be fed in one direction between the first
and second roll and the return pass can be provided in between the second and third rolls.

• This obviates the transport of material from one side of rolls to the other after one pass is over.

Four high roll mill

• this mill consists of four horizontal rolls, two of smaller diameter and two much larger ones.
 • The larger rolls are called backup rolls. The smaller rolls are the working rolls, but if the backup rolls
were not there, due to deflection of rolls between stands, the rolled material would be thicker in
the centre and thinner at either end.

• Backup rolls keep the working rolls pressed and restrict the deflection, when the material is
being rolled.

• The usual products of these mills are hot and cold rolled plates and sheets.

Roll product technology

Blooms: It is the first product obtained from the breakdown of Ingots. A bloom has a cross section ranging in size
from 150 mm square to 250 mm square or sometimes 250 × 300 mm rectangle.

Billet: A billet is the next product rolled from a bloom. Billets vary from 50 mm square to 125 mm square.
Slab: Slab is of rectangular cross-section with thickness ranging from 50 to 150 mm and is available in lengths up
to 112 metres.

Plate: A plate is generally 5 mm or thicker and is 1.0 or 1.25 metres in width and 2.5 metres in length.

Sheet: A sheet is up to 4 mm thick and is available in same width and length as a plate

Flat: Flats are available in various thickness and widths and are long strips of material of specified cross-section.

Foil: It is a very thin sheet.

Bar: Bars are usually of circular cross-section and of several metres length. They are common stock (raw material)
for capstan and turret lathes.

Wire: A wire is a length (usually in coil form) of a small round section; the diameter of which specifies the
size of the wire.