PHY113: General Physics III: Heat

and Thermodynamics

Dr. O. F. OJO
 COURSE CONTENTS

Thermal conductivity

 First Law of Thermodynamics

Transfer of Thermal Energy
Thermal energy can be transferred by three
main mechanisms:
i. conduction
ii. convection
iii. radiation.
Conduction of heat is the process by which heat
is transferred through a material, the average
position of the particles of the material
remaining the same. It involves transfer of heat
energy from one atom to another by contact.
During conduction, the energy is transferred by
interactions among atoms or molecules, where
the atoms or molecules are not themselves
transported.
If one end of a solid bar is heated, the atoms in
the heated end vibrate with greater energy than
do those at the cooler end. The interaction of the
more energetic atoms with the less energetic
atoms causes this energy to be transported
along the bar.
Thermal conductivity
The ability of a material to conduct heat is
measured by its thermal conductivity.

A material that readily transfers heat

energy by conduction is a good thermal
conductor and has a high value of
thermal conductivity.

Substances with high thermal

conductivities are good conductors of
heat; those with low thermal
conductivities are good insulators.
Consider a solid bar of length L and cross-sectional area A
with its ends maintained at temperatures T1 and T2.
Assuming that heat flows only along the bar.
Experimentally, it is found that the net amount of heat
(dQ) that passes in a given time from the hot end to the
cold end depends directly on the temperature difference
(T2 – T1), the area of cross-section (A) and the time of
observation (dt), and inversely on the length of the bar (L).

𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏
dQ = KAdt ……..i
𝑳

𝒅𝑸 𝒅𝑻
= -KA …………….ii
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝑳
 𝒅𝑸 𝒅𝑻 K = thermal conductivity in watt per
= -KA
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝑳 meter kelvin (W/mK)
𝐝𝐓
is temperature gradient
𝐝𝐋
in kelvin per meter (K/m)
The negative sign accounts for the direction of heat flow,
given that heat flows from high to low temperature.
Heat Flux is defined as the amount of heat that flows per
second across a unit area of surface
𝟏 𝒅𝑸
qz = ………… iii
𝑨 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑻
qz = - K ………….iv
𝒅𝑳
Example
Given a metal rod with a thermal conductivity
of 50 W/mK and a temperature difference of
20 K across a 2-meter length, calculate the heat
transfer rate if the cross-sectional area is 0.01
m².

K = 50 W/mK, dT = 20K, L= 2m , A = 0.01 m²

𝒅𝑸 𝒅𝑻
= KA
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝑳

𝟐𝟎
= 50 x 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝒙 =5W
𝟐
Class Exercise 1
A metal sheet has a thermal conductivity
of 80 W/mK and thickness of 20 cm. If the
heat transfer rate through a 200 cm² area
is 12W, calculate the temperature
difference across the sheet.
 Solution

K = 80 W/mK
L= 20 cm = 0.2 m
A = 200 cm² = 0.02 m²
q = 12 W

𝒅𝑻
q= KA
𝒅𝑳
𝒅𝑻
12 = 80 x 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒙
𝟎.𝟐

𝟏𝟐 𝒙 𝟎.𝟐
dT = = 1.5 K
𝟖𝟎 𝒙 𝟎.𝟎𝟐
Class Exercise 2
A wall with a thermal conductivity of 0.04
W/mK has a thickness of 0.3 m and a
temperature difference of 15 K across it. If the
wall has an area of 107 mm², calculate the total
quantity of heat transferred through the wall in
2 hours.
Solution
K = 0.04 W/mK
L= 0.3 m
A = 107 mm² = 10 m²
T = 15 K
t = 2 hours = 2 x 60 x 60 = 7200 seconds
𝒅𝑸 𝒅𝑻
= KA
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝑳
𝒅𝑸 𝟏𝟓
= 0.04 x 𝟏𝟎 𝐱
𝒅𝒕 𝟎.𝟑

𝟏𝟓
Q = 0.04 x 10 x 7200 x
𝟎.𝟑
= 144,000J or 144 kJ
Class Exercise 3

If an exploration well is drilled in granite

and encounters a temperature of 200°C at
a depth of 1.5 km, what is the heat flux at
the site? (Take surface temperature to be
25°C and thermal conductivity of granite
to be 2.4W/mK)
 Solution
K = 2.4 W/mK, T1 = 25°C, T2 = 200 °C, dL = 1.5 km =
1500m

𝒅𝑻
qz = K
𝒅𝑳

𝟐.𝟒 𝒙 (𝟐𝟎𝟎−𝟐𝟓)
qz = = 0.28W/m2 = 280 mW/m2
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
Class Exercise 4
A metal plate with a thermal conductivity
of 34 W/mK and thickness of 0.5 m
separates two rooms. If the temperature
difference between the rooms is 10 K and
the plate has a surface area of 5 m²,
calculate the quantity of heat required to
maintain this temperature difference for
4 minutes
Class Exercise 5

The wall of a house 7m wide and 6m

high is made from 0.3 m thick brick
with thermal conductivity of 0.6
W/mK. The surface temperature on
the inside of the wall is 16°C and that
on the outside is 6°C. find the heat
flux through the wall.
Convection is the process by which heat is transferred
in a fluid by the actual movement of the heated fluid
from the hotter to the colder. Convection occurs
because of the heating and consequent thermal
expansion of fluids in a gravity field; heat, which is
supplied at the base of the circulation system, is the
energy that drives the system. Heated fluid of lower
density tends to rise and to be replaced by colder fluid
of high density, coming from the margins of the
system.
Convection process
Radiation is a form of heat transfer by which
thermal energy moves through electromagnetic
waves, mostly infrared waves, from one object to
another without the need for a physical medium
During radiation, the energy is transferred through
space in the form of electromagnetic waves that
move at the speed of light. Infrared waves, visible
light waves, radio waves, television waves, and X rays
are all forms of electromagnetic radiation that differ
from one another in their wavelengths and
frequencies.
 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics
that deals with the conversion of one form
of energy into another, especially the
conversion of heat into other forms of
energy.
It deals with study of the relationship
between heat, work, temperature and
energy.
Thermodynamic Terms
System: A thermodynamic system is a
region or space under study in which one
or more thermodynamic processes take
place.
Surroundings: The mass or region outside
the system.
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings
System, Surroundings and Boundary
Thermodynamic Systems
Systems may be considered to be closed or open
system, depending on whether a fixed mass or a
fixed volume in space is chosen for study

Closed system: it consists of a fixed amount of

mass and no mass can cross its boundary. But
energy in the form of heat or work can cross the
boundary
Open system: In open system both mass and
energy can cross the boundary

Isolated system: A special form of closed system

where energy is not allowed to cross the
boundary
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Thermal contact: This is when objects are in touch such
that heat flows from one body to another

Thermal equilibrium: This is when there is no net flow or

transfer of heat from one body to another and the two
bodies have the same temperature. Two systems are in
thermal equilibrium if and only if they have the same
temperature
If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Also known as Law of Conservation of Energy, states
that energy can neither be created nor destroyed;
energy can only be transferred or changed from one
form to another.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the change
in internal energy of a system equals the total heat
transferred into the system minus the net work done by
the system.
volum
It is mathematically expressed as:
ΔU = ΔQ – ΔW ……………… v
But ΔW = PΔV
ΔU = ΔQ – PΔV ……………. Vi

Where U = internal energy, W= work done, Q = heat, P =

pressure and V = volume
Heat (Q):
Positive (+): When heat is added to the system (the system absorbs
heat).
Negative (−): When heat is removed from the system (the system
releases heat).
Work (W):
Positive (+): When work is done by the system on the surroundings
(e.g., when a gas expands and does work on a piston).
Negative (−): When work is done on the system by the surroundings
(e.g., when a gas is compressed by an external force).
Examples:
3000 J of heat is added to a system and 2500 J
of work is done by the system. What is the
change in internal energy of the system?

Solution
ΔU = Q-W
ΔU = 3000-2500
ΔU = 500 Joule

The sign conventions :

Q is positive if the heat added to the system
W is positive if work is done by the system
Q is negative if heat leaves the system
W is negative if work is done on the system
Class Exercise 6
A gas expands at a constant pressure of 1.0 x 105
Pa. Its volume increases from 0.1 m3 to 0.15 m3
How much work is done in the expansion?
Solution 4

K = 34 W/mK
L= 0.5 m
A = 5 m²
T = 10 K
t = 4 minutes = 4 x 60 = 240 seconds

𝒅𝑸 𝒅𝑻
= KA
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝑳
𝒅𝑸 𝟏𝟎
= 34 x 5 𝐱 = 3400
𝒅𝒕 𝟎.𝟓

Q = 3400x 240 = 816000 J or 816 kJ

Solution 5

K = 0.6W/mK, T1 = 16°C,
T2 = 6 °C, L = 0.3 m

𝒅𝑻
qz = K
𝒅𝑳

𝟏𝟔 −𝟔
qz = 0.6 x
𝟎.𝟑

= 20 W/m2
Solution 6

W = PΔV

ΔV = V2 – V1

= 0.15 – 0.1 = 0.05 m3

W = 1.0 x 105 x 0.05

= 5 x 103 J