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2020/21 Academic Year Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

UNIT 5
5. INTRODUCTION TO ELETRONICS
Electronics is the study and design of systems that use the flow of electrons through such
components as semiconductors, resistors and capacitors.

Thermionic emission
If a metal is heated up, conduction electrons move faster and some of the more energetic
electrons can escape from the surface of the metal. The effect is known as thermionic emission.
Thermionic emission is discovered by Thomas Edison in 1883.

Thermionic emission provides a controllable supply of electrons in a vacuum. Such beams of

electrons have great importance in oscilloscope, TV video part, computer monitor window and
x-ray devices.

For example, if tungsten filament is heated up to 2000 , it will emit electrons. Tungsten is used
to make the filament in light bulbs because of its extremely high melting point.

Cathode Electron flow Anode

heater 6V Glass tube

+
Electron flow

Vacuum

100V

Fig. 5.1 thermionic diode

In fig. 5.1 above there are two electrodes in the vacuum tube. The cathode (negative electrode) is
tungsten filament. With no heat supply there is no current. When it is heated, the electrons will
be emitted from cathode and attracted towards anode (positive electrode). Thus current will flow.
If air replaces the vacuum, there will not be flow of electrons; instead air molecules collide with
the filament and the filament will be burned. Therefore, the vacuum tube protects the electrons in
the cathode ray beam from collision with air molecules.

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

5.1 Vacuum tubes
Thermionic diode, x-ray tube and cathode ray oscilloscope are vacuum tube devices.

A) Thermionic diode
The name diode refers to the fact that the device has two electrodes_ an anode & a cathode.
When cathode is heated, electrons will be emitted from it and be attracted towards anode.
The connection should be the negative terminal of the source with cathode and that of the
positive terminal with anode. If the connection is reversed, current will not flow. Why?
Before the invention of silicon diodes vacuum diodes were used in converting AC voltage to DC.
Nowadays, the function of thermionic diodes is replaced by semiconductor diodes.
NB: - Cathode rays are beam of electrons moving through a vacuum at high speed. They are
emitted from cathode and attracted by anode. They are produced by electron gun. Electron gun
consists of cathode and anode.

B) X-ray tube
By thermionic emission, electrons are emitted from cathode and accelerated through a potential
difference of 100KV toward anode with high speed. When fast moving cathode rays are
suddenly stopped, x-rays are produced. Most of the beams energy is released as heat rather than
x-rays, so the anode gets very hot. To minimize this wastage of energy two things must be done.

1. The anode is made of a large block of copper to conduct the heat away
2. The tip of the anode is made from tungsten because of its high melting point.

NB: - X-rays are used in hospitals to produce photographs of bones which can be checked for
breaks or fractures. They give more reliable result than ultrasound when checking for broken
bones.

C) Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)

CRO is a special kind of vacuum tube used in test equipment, radar, and TV receivers to present
a visual display of information.

In CRO the beam of electrons produces a spot on a fluorescent screen at the end of the tube. It
helps to look waves and signals on a fluorescent screen. The screen is made from fluorescent
substances which emit visible light at the point where the electron beam strikes.

 Deflecting plates:- are used to deflect the beam of electrons.

1. Y-plates: - move the beam of electrons in a vertical direction. This can take place when
y-input terminals are connected with external AC voltage source. The vertical movement
can be amplified by turning the gain control.
2. X-plates: - move the beam of electrons in horizontal direction. This can be done by a
circuit called time base.
 Cathode: - releases free electrons when it absorbs enough heat from heater.
“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

  Anode: - accelerates electrons away from the cathode.
 Fluorescent Screen: - visualizes the point where the beams of electrons strike it by
glowing the phosphorous coating.
A close examination of the picture on most color TV tubes will reveal that the picture is an
assemblage of tiny spots, each less than a millimeter across. When the screen is lit, some of
the spots are red (R), some green (G), some blue (B); the mixtures of these primary colors
at a distance provide a complete range of colors, plus white.
 Glass envelope or Vacuum tube: - protects the electrons in the cathode ray beam from
collision with air molecules.

Some uses of CRO

CRO has the following uses.

1. It can display different types of wave forms

2. It can measure short time interval
3. It can be used as a voltmeter to measure the potential difference of the source

The voltage of AC varies between positive (maximum) and negative (minimum). If the time
base is switched ON, the shape of the curve sine wave is formed. If the time base is switched
OFF, it is represented by a vertical line. Read the text book on page 160.

Calculating the period, frequency and voltages of AC’s using CRO

By using CRO an unknown voltage and frequency can be measured by comparing it with
known values.

A) Measuring peak voltage

Amplitude

5 10

Gain control Time base

Fig. 5.2

The sensitivity- the size of deflection caused by voltage applied across y-plates of CRO can be
adjusted by using gain control. It is calibrated in .

In fig. 5.2 the y-input of oscilloscope is connected with AC source. The gain control points at
. This means that the spot is deflected 1cm in the vertical direction with each 5V voltage.

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

 The voltage of an alternating current varies between a positive maximum and a negative
minimum. If time base is switched OFF, it is represented by a vertical line on the screen of a
CRO. On the other hand, if time base is switched ON, the shape of a line becomes a sine wave.
The peak voltage is represented by the amplitude. When the amplitude is 2cm, then

B) Measuring period and frequency

To discover more about a signal being studied a voltage called a time base is applied to the x-
plates. This pulls the spot across the screen from left to right at a steady rate. It is calibrated in
to show how long the spot takes to cross each cm of the screen.

In fig. 5.2 above the time base is placed at . This means that to move the spot a distance of
1cm horizontally it takes 10ms. The peak to peak distance is 4cm and thus

Time base: pulls the spot across the screen from left to right at a steady rate. When the time
base is applied to a signal made by a direct current, the trace changes from dot to a line. The
time base control can be calibrated in ms/cm to show how long the spot takes 1ms to the right.
This can be very useful in measuring distances if, for example, traces of SONAR signal and its
echo are studied.

5.2 Conductors, semiconductors and insulators

Based on their electrical conductivity materials can be classified as conductors, semiconductors
and insulators.
Conductors have free electrons and thus they can conduct electricity. For example, metals are
electrical conductors.

Some materials become super conductors ( ) at low temperatures. Once a current is started
in a super conducting loop, it continues to flow indefinitely without a source of emf.
Experiments with super conducting currents have lasted more than two years without any
measurable change in current. Mercury’s critical temperature is 4.15K, at this temperature its
resistivity is zero.
Insulators don’t conduct electric current as their valence electrons are tightly bound with the
nuclei. Non metals, rubber, plastic, ceramic etc. are insulators which are used in covering wires
for electrical safety.

Semiconductors are insulators at absolute zero temperature (0K or They can

conduct current at room temperature ( . That is why silicon and germanium are named as
semiconductors.

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

Types of semiconductors
A. Intrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductors. An intrinsic semiconductor has few free
electrons at room temperature. Its conductivity increases when it is heated.

When an intrinsic semiconductor is heated, its resistance decreases as the number of free
electrons increases. When a semiconductor is heated, the electron leaves the atom and the
semiconductor becomes positively charged. The positive charge is called hole.

When semiconductors get temperature (heated), hole-electron pairs will be generated. Both
holes and free electrons are not included from outside. Hence, we call them pure or intrinsic
semiconductors. An electron that is freed from its covalent bond by heat is called thermal
carrier. The current due to thermal carriers in semiconductors is called intrinsic current.

If we connect an intrinsic semiconductor with a battery, the electrons and holes move in opposite
directions, and the semiconductor exhibits intrinsic conduction.

Look at fig. 5/13 and 5/14 from your text book on page 165.

B. Extrinsic semiconductors
Pure semiconductor materials (such as silicon) are virtually never used in electronic devices.
Instead, controlled amounts of impurities such as Arsenic or Indium are added.

Extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has been doped. Doping is the phenomena of
introducing impurity atoms into a pure semiconductor crystal. At zero Kelvin (0K) current can
flow through extrinsic semiconductors.

Following are the 3 different methods of doping a semiconductor.

1. The crystal is heated in an atmosphere containing dopant atoms. The dopant atoms
diffuse into the hot crystal.
2. The impurity atoms are added in the molten state of a semiconductor
3. The intrinsic semiconductor is bombarded by ions of impurity atoms

There are two types of doping, acceptor doping and donor doping or p-type semiconductors and
N-type semiconductors.

P-type semiconductors
When a trivalent atom (such as B or Ga) is added in a semiconductor crystal such as silicon or
germanium, holes (missing electron) will be produced. Holes serve as current carriers.

The trivalent atoms in p-type (positive type) semiconductors are acceptor atoms since they trap
electrons. The majority and minority charge carriers in p-type semiconductors are respectively
holes and free electrons.
“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

 Si hole

Si B Si

Si

Fig. 5.3 P-type lattice

N-type semiconductor
It is formed when a pentavalent impurity (arsenic or phosphorous) is added to a semiconductor
material. Since electrons are charge carriers, the material formed is said to be N-type (negative
type) semiconductor.

In N-type semiconductor, electron current is majority current and hole current is minority
current. The pentavalent atoms in N-type semiconductor are called donors since they release free
electrons.

Si free electron

Si As .
Si Si
Fig. 5.4 N-type lattice

NB:- P-type and N-type semiconductors are electrically neutral.

The P-n junction diode

P-n junction is the region where the P-type crystal meets the N-type crystal. At the junction when
they meet, some of the N-type electrons move or fall into the P-type holes. This movement is
known as diffusion current. This diffusion current cause the P-type to become slightly negative
whiles the N-type slightly positive. This leaves a depletion zone in the boundary.

Depletion layer or region is a charge carrier free region. The pair of ions formed in the
depletion layer doesn’t move like electrons and holes rather fixed in place, immobile. The
electrons and holes have combined to make neutral silicon atoms. As a result, the depletion
region becomes an insulating barrier to the flow of current. The charges of the ions are opposite
to the charge of the mobile charge carriers of the side in which they are formed. The depletion
layer charge (ions) on the P-type side is negative and that on the N-type side is positive.

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

 P-type N-type

+ + + + - + - - - -
+ + + + - + - - - -
+ + + + - + - - - -
Depletion layer

Fig. 5.5 PN-junction

Electric field is produced in the depletion layer and therefore charge carriers can’t move freely.
It prevents further diffusion of electrons and holes through the junction.

The depletion region is affected by external voltages. It can grow and become a stronger
insulator, or disappear to allow current to flow. The depletion region can change quickly because
it is thin (0.5 millionths of a meter) and electrons are small and fast.

If you need to move a charge across the depletion layer, you need to apply an external potential
difference between the two ends of the junction that overcomes the depletion layer field. The
minimum potential difference needed to let a charge across the depletion layer is known as
barrier potential. It is on the average 0.3V for germanium (Ge) and 0.6V for silicon (Si).

The depletion layer field assists minority charge carriers to cross the junction to a region where
there are majority charge carriers and prevents majority charge carriers from crossing the
junction.

Forward and reverse biasing

Bias is a voltage or current applied to a device. Biasing is a connection of a PN-junction with a
battery in electric circuits. There are two types of biasing- forward biasing and reverse biasing.

A) Forward biased

It is connecting the positive (+) terminal of the battery to the P-type region and negative (-)
terminal to the N-type region of diode, allowing conduction of current.

In such type of biasing both electrons and holes are repelled toward the depletion region. As a
result, the depletion region gets smaller or narrower. The larger the opposing voltage gets, the
smaller the depletion region becomes. The current stays at zero until the voltage reaches a bias
voltage of 0.6V for silicon diodes. When the applied voltage becomes greater than 0.6V, the
depletion region goes away completely and thus diodes have low resistance. Once the depletion
region is gone, electrons are free to carry current across the junction and the semiconductor
becomes a conductor.

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

B) Reverse biased
It is connecting the positive (+) terminal of the battery to the N-type region and negative (-)
terminal of the battery to the P-type region of diode, preventing conduction of current. Actually,
in reverse bias small current will flow because of minority carriers (electrons for P-type and
holes for N-type) and small leakage current results. In this connection, the depletion layer
becomes wide because the charge carriers from either side are attracted by the battery terminals.
Therefore, except minority charge carriers, majority charge carriers can’t cross the junction.

Increasing reverse voltage doesn’t allow current to flow through the diode. When the voltage
exceeds breakdown voltage ( ), there is slight leakage.

P N P N

a) Reverse biased b) Forward biased

Fig. 5/6 biasing a diode

I-V characteristics of semiconductor diodes

Characteristic of a PN junction diode is a graph between the voltage applied across the terminal
of a PN junction diode and the current that flows in the diode. Once the voltage gets higher than
the bias voltage, diodes have low resistance.

Reverse bias Forward bias

Voltage across diode

0.6V

Doesn’t conduct; slight leakage Conducts

Fig. 5/7 Current versus voltage graph

The PN-junction diode can conduct current in one direction but not in the reverse or other
direction. In the forward direction, silicon requires about 0.6V before conduction will start, but
after that the current is usually limited by the resistance of the rest of the circuit.

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

 In reverse bias, the electric field at the junction is enhanced and very few charges are able to
cross the junction. This results in very small current.

Some semiconductor devices and their circuit symbols

NO. Device name Circuit symbol Function of the device

1 Diode P Allows current to flow only in one direction

N
2 Light dependent Conducts current in bright light. In the dark, it has very high
resistor (LDR) resistance. Students remind LDR as light decreases resistance.

3 Thermistor Its resistance depends on temperature change. In PTC

thermistor when temperature increases so does its resistance.
4 Variable resistor A variable resistor is a potentiometer with only two connecting
wires. This is useful when we don’t know what resistance
value is required in a circuit.
5 Light emitting diode When current flows in forward direction, it emits light.
(LED)
6 Transistor It has three parts i.e. emitter, base and collector and used for
current and voltage amplification.
7 Photodiode It is reverse biased diode (don’t conduct). It is a PN junction
diode made of photosensitive semiconductor. It starts to
conduct when light shines on it.

8 Photovoltaic cell It is a device whose resistance changes with a change in

brightness of light. It has high resistance at dark and low
resistance at bright light. The solar cell is based on photo-
voltaic effect.

Rectification using diodes

Rectification is the process of conversion of AC to DC. This is done by diodes. Hence, diodes
are called as rectifiers. Diodes allow current to flow only in one direction. Why rectification?
Because most electronic circuits need DC rather than AC. TV, tape recorder, Lap top computers,
battery chargers, radio and CD players need low voltage but they operate with a 220V AC
supply. The reason is that DC power supply is inserted in such appliances; step down transformer
to lower the voltage and rectifier to change AC to DC and capacitor to smooth the output
potential difference. Moreover, adapters use a circuit of diodes to turn AC to DC.

There are two types of rectification namely, half wave and full wave rectifications.

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

1. Half wave rectification
In half wave rectification, the positive (+) half cycle is forward biased and the negative (-) half
cycle is reverse biased. Thus, current only flows in the positive (+) half cycle but not in the
negative (-) half cycle.

+
+ AC
0 time
0_ time -
Output voltage
Input voltage supplied by the source

Fig. 5/8 half wave rectifier

Half wave rectifiers are usually limited to low power applications. The direction of conventional
current in diodes is from anode to cathode (or from P to N).

Question: Why capacitors are used in half wave rectifier circuits? (Read p.174 of the text
book)

2. Full wave rectification

There are two types of full wave rectifiers. These include bridge and center tap rectifiers. The
diagram below shows a bridge rectifier. Voltage
Voltage
time
time

AC Input voltage DC Output voltage

Fig. 5/9 bridge rectifier

In fig. 5/9 during the positive (+) half cycle, & are forward biased and & are
reverse biased. Thus, the direction of current is from:

During the negative (-) half cycle, & are forward biased and & are reverse
biased. Therefore, the direction of current is from:

The arrangement shown in the figure below is called center tap rectifier. It is a full wave
rectifier.

A - +
“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

 B +

Fig. 5/10 Center tap rectifier

In fig. 5/10 during the positive half cycle, is forward biased and current will flow through
& and will go to the central low potential point and the circuit will be completed.

During the negative half cycle, current will flow through & R and again will go to the central
low potential point and the circuit will again be completed.

Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)

Transistor means transfer resistor. There are two types of transistors namely BJT and FET. At
this grade level we will only focus on BJTs.

BJT is a 3 layer semiconductor device. It is formed when one type of semiconductor (P or N

type) is sand witched between two layers of the other type. Or, it is formed when two diodes are
joined back to back. There are two types of BJTs i.e. NPN and PNP transistors. Diode
representation of transistors is:

NPN and PNP

They are called as BJT as both negative electrons and positive holes play a part in conduction
through a transistor.

P N P N P N

a) PNP transistor b) NPN transistor

Fig 5/11 block diagram of transistors

a) PNP E b) NPN

Fig. 5/12 circuit symbol of transistors

A transistor has three parts or terminals namely emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

A) Emitter ( E) :- is highly doped, rich in current carriers. Its job is to send its carriers into
base (B) and then onto collector (C). It produces holes in PNP and electrons in NPN.
Emitter lead is the one with arrow.
B) Base (B) :- is slightly doped (center layer) and thin (very narrow) layer, acts as a control
region. Base can allow none, some or many carriers to flow from emitter (E) to collector
(C). If voltage greater than 0.6V is applied to base (B) terminal, current will flow from base
(B) to emitter (E).
C) Collector ( C) :- is moderately doped and wide layer, collects carriers.

NB:- The arrow on the circuit symbol of a transistor indicates the way conventional current
should flow through it. It should also be noted that current will actually be the flow of electrons
in the opposite direction to the arrow.

Quick quiz 1. Can current flow through transistors? Yes. How? If we apply a small voltage such
as a voltage greater than 0.6V to the base connection, current will flow through it.

Transistor biasing
Biasing refers to placing voltages across the terminals of a device. It seems that two diodes back
to back never allow current flow but applying small voltage to the base connection allows
current flow in the transistor. This is the feature which makes the transistor so valuable as an
electrical component.

Whichever the transistor is, in whatever circuit you use it, you should use the forward-reverse
biasing condition. That is, EB (emitter base) junction forward biased and CB (collector base)
junction reverse biased.

For a pnp transistor, the heavily doped P-type emitter emits holes that flow across the EB-
junction into the base. Because the base is very thin, most of the holes flow across the base into
the collector. However, some of the holes recombine in the base, producing a positive charge that
inhibits the further flow of current. To prevent this, some of the holes that do not reach the
collector are drawn off the base as a base current ( ) in a circuit connected to the base. is
usually only a small fraction of . However, a small changes in produces a large change in
the
ON OFF

E P n P
C
P
B

Fig. 5/13 PNP transistor in forward biasing

Since the base (B) is very narrow, most of holes will be swept through the base and the collector
(C) bias attracts the carriers coming from the emitter (E). This tends to make the collector current
( almost as high as the emitter current (
Base current controls collector current and emitter current.
“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

Collector voltage ( has only a small effect on collector current over most of operating range.
All charge carriers or holes don’t pass from emitter (E) to collector (C). They will combine with
electrons in the base region so there must be a current between the base and emitter.

Transistor characteristics
The three operation modes of transistors are:
1. Common emitter (EB is input & EC is the output)
2. Common collector(CB is input & EC is the output) and
3. Common base (BE is input & BC is the output) operation modes
Therefore, from the three terminals one of them can be common to both.
A transistor has two circuits. One is the input circuit and the other the output circuit.

B C Out In

Output

Input E In Out

a) Common E b) Common B c) Common C

Fig. 5/14 transistor circuitry

Variation in collector current ( with increasing voltage ( (For common

emitter configuration)
To plot the output characteristics, base current ( is maintained constant. At each fixed value
of , is adjusted in steps and the corresponding values of are recorded. For each different
values of , is plotted versus in the graph shown below.

(mA)

15
10
5 against
VCE (V)
0.6V

Fig. 5/15

The I versus V graph for a transistor depend on 3 variables. For a given value of the
relationship between the voltage ( and current ( , between collector and emitter is similar
to the relationship for a resistor. The difference is that the collector-emitter voltage must still
exceed a .6V bias voltage for the transistor to become fully active.

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

If is held constant, varies with increasing . Although there is a sufficient voltage
between C and E, the dominant influence on the collector current is what is being fed into the
base. (Refer the text book from page 180-184)

Fig. 5/15 is a characteristic graph for common emitter configuration. The characteristics of
common emitter configuration are:

 The input is base emitter (B-E) and the output is emitter collector (E-C) circuit.
 The input signal controls and in turn controls .
 Input current is and the output current is
 The current gain is greater than one because .

Transistors as switch and as amplifiers

A) Transistor as a switch

Transistors can be used as switches because they can be turned on with a base current or input
voltage to produce low resistance path (the switch is on) or they can be turned off by removing
base current or input voltage to produce a high resistance (the switch is off). If , no
current flows in the transistor circuit.

A transistor may not be able to switch on and off really large currents. This is done by a relay, an
electrically operated switch. A transistor might be able to switch off in a time of around ,
while a relay may require something nearly one second.
Transistors are widely applied because they are small, inexpensive, reliable, capable of high
speed operation, easy to control and relatively efficient.

B) Transistors as amplifiers
One of the important uses of transistor is to amplify a signal. In electronics, the word “amplify”
means to make the voltage or current of the input signal larger without changing the shape of the
signal. For example, a voltage gain of 5 means, Vo=5VI.
Amplifiers make sounds louder and signal levels greater, and in general, provide a function
called gain. Amplifier gain is determined by dividing output by input.

, ,

Where,

NB: - an amplifier can show a voltage loss and yet still significant power gain. Likewise, another
amplifier might have a current loss and still have power gain.
In common base configuration, the EB junction is forward biased and the CB junction is reverse
biased. This forward bias makes the resistance of EB junction to be low as compared with the
“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

resistance of CB junction. A reverse biased junction has high resistance. helps to limit the
base current to a suitable level. Look at the given figure.

Reverse bias C
N Reverse biased (high resistance)

P B

Forward bias N E
Forward biased (low resistance)
Fig. 5/16

The large difference in junction resistance makes transistor capable of power gain.

Power,

If are equal i.e. , then

Question:- 1. Calculate the base resistance for the simple amplifier circuit given in the text book.
(Page 181, figure 5/54).

Using LDR, LED, thermistor, photovoltaic cell and transistor LDR and LED
Light dependent resistor (LDR) Conducts current in bright light whereas in the dark conditions,
it has very high resistance thus preventing current flow.

Let us consider a circuit containing LDR, transistor and speaker to make burglar alarm. If a light
shone on the sensor or LDR, when the room is supposed to be dark, an alarm would sound.

LED emits light when current flows in forward direction. In a forward biased diode, the energy
produced by the recombination of electrons and holes at the junction can be emitted as light. If
the energy is in the visible region, we can see it. Such a diode is called LED. These diodes are
made from the semiconductors gallium arsenide or indium phosphide. Si or Ge diodes emit
radiation in the infrared region. The brightness can be controlled by RL. LEDs are used in camera
flashes, automotive head lamps, mobile phone head lamps etc.

Light RL

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

 Fig. 5/17 Light emitting diode

NB: The reverse process of LED is called the photovoltaic effect. Here, the material absorbs
photons, and electron-hole pairs are created.

Thermistors or thermal resistors

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature more so
than in standard resistors. Thermistors are of two types, PTC thermistor and NTC thermistor.

In PTC (positive temperature coefficient) thermistor, the resistance increases with increasing
temperature. In NTC (negative temperature coefficient) thermistor, the resistance decreases with
increasing temperature.

They are widely used in fire alarm systems. A simple fire alarm system has a thermistor and a
bell in series with a power supply. When the switch is closed, the electron flow is limited by the
high resistance of the thermistor. If a fire occurs and the temperature in the room increases, the
resistance of the NTC thermistor becomes much lower. As the resistance drops in the thermistor,
the voltage available to the fire bell increases until it is enough to make the bell ring.

Photovoltaic cell
It is a device in which its resistance changes with a change in brightness of light. It has very high
resistance in the dark, but as light (natural or artificial) increases, the resistance of the cell drops
and so current flows in the circuit.

Solar cell is a pn-junction diode in which one of the P or N regions is made very thin (so that the
light energy is not greatly absorbed before reaching the junction) is used in converting light
energy to electrical energy. Such diodes are called solar cell. In the solar cell, the thin region is
called the emitter and the other base. By shining the light or the emitter, we can get a current in
the resistance RL. The magnitude of the current depends on the intensity of light.

Unlike a photodiode, a solar cell is not given any biasing. It supplies emf like an ordinary cell.
The solar cell is based on photovoltaic effect. When light of suitable frequency is made incident
on an open circuited solar cell, an emf is produced across its terminals. This emf is called
photovoltaic emf. The effect is called photovoltaic effect.
NB: We can use a set of solar cells to charge storage batteries in day time. These batteries can
be used for power during night. Outdoor lights that automatically turn on at dusk and off at dawn
are a low cost way to protect your family and property against thieves.

+
Light P RL
n
-
“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

 Fig. 5/18 solar cell

Digital systems
A digital system is a system which deals with systems which vary in a way similar to switches.
A switch has only two states, on and off.

ON=1, high (usually 5V)

OFF=0, low (usually 0V)

The name digital system is given as it is described by the digits 0 and 1.Numbers are written in
calculators, digital watches and microcomputers by using digital system.

Logical circuits
Logic circuits are designed to compare inputs and produce specific output when all the input
conditions are met. Logic circuits assign voltages to the two logical conditions of True and False.

Logic gate is an electronic device that performs logical operations on two inputs to produce a
single logic output. Inputs may be either 1 or 0. Input 1 means 5V and input 0 means 0V.

There are five gates that are commonly used in logic circuits. These are AND, OR, NOT, NAND
and NOR gates.

Logic gate Symbol

AND

OR

NOT

NAND

NOR

A) AND gate

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

The output of AND logic gate is similar with series combination of two switches. If we assume Z
as a bulb, it can be on only if both A and B are on.

A B

5V Z

Fig. 5/19

In AND gate, the output becomes high if all inputs are high; otherwise low. The Boolean
expression for the AND gate is given by:

Therefore, the truth table for AND gate is shown in the following table.

NB:-Truth table is a list of all possible input combinations, showing what you get each time at
the output.

Input A Input B Output (Z=A.B)

0 0

0 1

1 0

1 1

B) OR gate
The OR gate could be pictured as two switches in parallel.

5V B
Z

Fig. 5/20

The output of OR gate becomes low when all inputs are low otherwise high. The Boolean
expression for OR gate, if the inputs are A and B and Z output is given by:

The truth table for OR gate is shown in the table below.

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

 Input A Input B Output (Z=A+B)

0 0

0 1

1 0

1 1

C) NOT gate
NOT gate has single input and its output is its opposite.

NOT gate can be expressed by the following circuit.

A Z

Fig. 5/21

In the above figure when the switch is at rest state, the contacts are closed and current can flow,
so the output is active. When the switch is pressed, the contacts open, so no current flows and the
output is inactive.

The Boolean expression for NOT gate is given by:

The truth table for NOT gate is :

Input A Output Z

Combination of logic gates

NAND gate is the combination of NOT and AND gates. The output of NAND gate is the
opposite of AND gate. NOR gate is the combination of two logic gates i.e. NOT and OR.
The Boolean expression for NAND and OR gates are given by:

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

 Or ----------For NAND gate

Or -------For NOR gate

Input A Input B Output Output

NAND NOR

0 0 1 1

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0

The total number of possible combinations of binary inputs is determined by using the formula

Where, N is the total number of possible combinations

Represents the number of inputs

If there are three inputs, the total number of possible combinations will be 8. Because

NB: - more than one logic gate may be combined to increase the range of control tasks that can
be performed.

The action of logic gates

The following are circuits that are constructed by using logic gates.

1. A simple burglar alarm

2. A thermostat for a hot water tank
3. Relay
4. A security lock to get behind the counter at a bank
5. An automatic plant waterer

Read about the action of logic gates from page 189-191 from the text book.

Integrated circuits

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10

Logic gates that are grouped together in circuits are called integrated circuits. An IC can function
as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, computer memory, or microprocessor. Look at fig.
5/85 on page 191 in the text book.

“ፈጣሪ የተወደዱ ልጆቻችንን ፣ሀገራችንን እና ህዝባችንን ይጠብቅልን”

Physics Lesson Note for Grade 10