MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I

Lecturer Notes 11

aft
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Matindih L. K.

Dr
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS, MULUNGUSHI
UNIVERSITY

2022/2023

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 1 / 181

Lecture Notes 6 Outline

1 Trigonometric Functions

aft
2 Circular Measure-Angles

3 Arcs and Arc Length

4 The Six Trigonometric Functions of Right Triangle

Dr
5 Trigonometric Functions of a General Angle

6 Trigonometric Identities

7 Periodicity and Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 2 / 181
11. Trigonometry

aft
The study of trigonometry, which means “triangle measurement," began
more than 2000-years ago, partially as a means of solving surveying
problems. Early trigonometry used the length of a line segment between
two points of a circle as the value of a trigonometric function. In the
sixteenth century, right triangles were used to define a trigonometric
Dr
function. In this chapter, we will use a modification of these approaches.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 3 / 181

11.1 Circular Measure - Angles
In geometry, an angle is defined simply as the union of two rays that have

aft
a common endpoint. In trigonometry and many advanced mathematics
courses, it is beneficial to define an angle in terms of a rotation.

Definition 1 (Angle)
An angle is formed by rotating a given ray about its endpoint to some
terminal position.

The original ray is the initial side of the angle, and the second ray is the
Dr
terminal side of the angle. The common endpoint is the vertex of the
angle.

There are several methods used to name an angle. One way is to employ
Greek letters. For example, the angle shown in Figure 1 can be designated
as α or as ∠α. It also can be named ∠O, ∠AOB or ∠BOA.
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 4 / 181
 aft
Figure 1
Dr
If you name an angle by using three points, such as ∠AOB, it is traditional
to list the vertex point between the other two points.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 5 / 181

Angles formed by a counterclockwise rotation are considered positive
angles,and angles formed by a clockwise rotation are considered negative
angles, see Figure 2.

aft
Dr
Figure 2

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11.1.1 Degree Measure

aft
The measure of an angle is determined by the amount of rotation of the
initial side. An angle formed by rotating the initial side counterclockwise
exactly once until it coincides with itself (one complete revolution) is
defined to have a measure of 360 degrees, which can be written as 360o .

Definition 2 (Degree)
1
One degree is the measure of an angle formed by rotating a ray of a
Dr
complete revolution. The symbol for degree is o .
360

The angle shown in Figure 3 has a measure of 10 .

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 7 / 181

 aft
Figure 3

The angle β shown in Figure 4 has a measure of 30o . We will use the
notation β = 30o to denote that the measure of angle β is 30o .
Dr
Figure 4

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 8 / 181

11.1.2 Radian Measure
Another commonly used system angle measurement is the radian or
circular measure. This system does not depend on the choice of any

aft
particular number. To define a radian, first consider a circle of radius r
and two radii OA and OB. The angle θ formed by the two radii is a
central angle. The portion of the circle between A and B is an arc of the
circle and is written AB.
d We say that AB d subtends the angle θ. The
length of AB is s, Figure 5.
d

Dr
Figure 5
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 9 / 181
Definition 3 (A Radian)
One radian is the measure of the central angle subtended by an arc of
length r on a circle of radius r . See Figure 6.

aft
Dr
Figure 6: Central angle θ has a measure of 1 radian.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 10 / 181

Definition 4 (Radian Measure)
Given an arc of length s on a circle of radius r , the measure of the central
angle subtended by the arc is

aft
s
θ= radians(rad).
r

Example 5
Find the central angle in radians subtends by an arc of length 12
centimeters on a circle with a radius of 8 centimeters.
Dr
Solution.
s 12cm 3
θ= rad = rad = rad.
r 8cm 2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 11 / 181

Recall that the circumference of a circle with radius r is given by the
equation C = 2πr see figure 7.

aft
Dr
Figure 7

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 12 / 181

The radian measure of the central angle θ subtended by the circumference
is

aft
2πr
θ= = 2π.
r

In degree measure, the central angle θ subtended by the circumference is

360o . Thus we have the relationship 360o = 2π radians. Dividing each
side of the equation by 2 gives

180o = π rad.
Dr
From this last equation, we can establish the following conversion factors.

180o

 To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by π rad .
 
π rad
 To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by 180o .

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 13 / 181

Example 3
Convert (i) 36o to radian measure and (ii) 65 π to degree measure.

aft
Solution.
(i) For 36o , we know that 180o = π rad, hence,

π rad π
36o = × 36 = rad.
180 5
Dr
(ii) For 65 π rad, since π rad = 180o we have,

5
6
5
π rad = π rad ×
6
180o
π rad
= 150o .

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 14 / 181

11.2 Arcs and Arc Length

aft
s
Consider a circle of radius r . By solving the formula θ = r for s, we have
an equation for arc length.

Definition 4
Let r be the length of the radius and θ be the non-negative radian
measure of a central angle of the circle. Then the length of the arc s that
subtends the central angle is
Dr s = r θ.
See Figure 8

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 15 / 181

 aft
Dr
Figure 8: s = r θ.

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Example 5
Find the length of an arc that subtends a central angle of 120o in a circle
with a radius of 10 centimeters.

aft
Solution.
The formula s = r θ requires that θ be expressed in radians. We first
convert 120o to radian measure and then use the formula s = r θ.

π 2 2
θ = 120o = 120 × θ = πrad = π
180 3 3
Hence
Dr
2 20π
s = r θ = 10cm × π = cm
3 3

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 17 / 181

11.3 The Six Trigonometric Functionsof Right
Triangle

aft
When working with right triangles, it is convenient to refer to the side
opposite an angle or the side adjacent to (next to) an angle. Figure 9
shows the sides opposite and adjacent to the angle and, the hypotenuse.

Dr Figure 9: Adjacent and opposite sides of ∠θ

Six ratios can be formed by using two lengths of the three sides of a right
triangle. Each ratio defines a value of a trigonometric function of a given
acute angle . The functions are sine(sin), cosine(cos), tangent(tan),
cotangent(cot), secant(sec),
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS)
and cosecant (csc).
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Definition 6 (Trigonometric Functions of an Acute Angle)
Let θ be an acute angle of a right triangle as in Figure 9. The values of
the six trigonometric functions of θ are:

aft
length of opposite side length of hypotenuse
sin θ = csc θ =
length of hypotenuse length of opposite side

length of adjacent side length of hypotenuse

cos θ = sec θ =
length of hypotenuse length of adjucent side

tan θ =
Dr
length of opposite side
length of adjacent
cot θ =
length of adjacent side
length of opposite side

We will write opp, adj, and hyp as abbreviations for the length of the
opposite side, adjacent side, and hypotenuse, respectively.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 19 / 181

Example 7
Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of θ for the triangle
given in Figure 10below.

aft
Dr Figure 10

Solution.
Use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of the hypotenuse.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 20 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
p √
Hyp = 42 + 32 = 25 = 5

aft
From the definitions of the trigonometric functions,

opp 3 adj 4 opp 3

sin θ = = cos θ = = tan θ = =
hyp 5 hyp 5 adj 4

hyp 5 hyp 5 adj 4

csc θ = = sec θ = = cot θ = =
opp 3 adj 4 opp 3
Dr
Given the value of one trigonometric function of the acute angle it is
possible to find the value of any of the remaining trigonometric functions
of θ.
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 21 / 181
Example 8
Given that θ is an acute angle and cos θ = 85 , find tan θ.

aft
Solution.
Here,

5 Adj
cos θ = =
8 Hyp
This is a right triangle with adjacent length of 5 units and a hypotenuse of
length 8 units. Use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of the
opposite side.

Opp =
Dr q
hyp 2 − adj 2 =
p
82 − 52 =
√
64 − 25 =
√
39
Therefore,
√
39
tan θ = .
5
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 22 / 181
11.4 Trigonometric Functions of a General Angle
The applications of trigonometry would be quite limited if all angles had
to be acute angles. Fortunately, this is not the case. In this section we

aft
extend the definition of a trigonometric function to include any angle.
Consider angle θ in Figure 11 in standard position and a point R on the
terminal side of the angle.

Dr
Figure 11

We define
Matindih the trigonometric
L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) functions of any
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METHODS I according 2022/2023
to the 23 / 181
Definition 9
Let R = P(x , y ) be any point, except the origin, on the terminal side of an

aft
angle θ in standard position. Let r = d(O, P) the distance from the origin
to P. The six trigonometric functions of θ are

y x y
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ = , x 6= 0
r r x

r r x
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ = , y 6= 0
y x y

where r =
p
Dr
x 2 + y 2.

The value of a trigonometric function is independent of the point chosen

on the terminal side of the angle.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 24 / 181

11.4.1 Trigonometric Functions of Quadrant Angles
Suppose the arm OR of unit length (r = 1) in Figure 12 can be rotate

aft
about O in an anticlockwise direction and make an angle θ with respect to
the positive x -axis. We divide the complete revolution into four (4) parts
called the quadrants and take the positive y -axis as 90o . Let (x , y ) be the
coordinates of R. x and y will be positive or negative depending on which
quadrant R lies in.

Dr
Figure 12

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 25 / 181

The six trigonometric functions of θ are

aft
y
sin θ = y cos θ = x tan θ = , x 6= 0
x

1 1 x
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ = , y 6= 0
Dr y x y

Note that | sin θ | and | cos θ | are less than or equal to 1 as both | y | and
| x | are less than or equal to 1, but that tan θ can have any value.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 26 / 181

 1. First Quadrant: 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90o : In this quadrant see Figure 13,

aft
Dr
Figure 13

The six trigonometric functions are all positive:

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 27 / 181

 aft
+y
sin θ = +y cos θ = +x tan θ = , x 6= 0
+x

1 1 +x
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ = , y 6= 0
Dr +y +x +y

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 28 / 181

 2. Second Quadrant: 90 < θ ≤ 180o : In this quadrant (see Figure 14),
the angle θ is liked to the corresponding angle (or reference angle)
α = 180o − θ in the first quadrant.

aft
Dr
Figure 14

The six trigonometric functions are:

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 29 / 181

 aft
sin θ = +y = sin (180o − θ) cos θ = −x = − cos(180o − θ)

y 1
tan θ = − = − tan(180o − θ) csc θ = = csc(180o − θ)
x +y

1 x
sec θ =
−x
Dr
= − sec (180o − θ) cot θ = −
y
= − cot (180o − θ)

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 30 / 181

 3. Third Quadrant: 180 < θ ≤ 270o : In this quadrant (see Figure 15),
the angle θ is liked to the corresponding angle (or reference angle)
α = θ − 180o in the first quadrant.

aft
Dr
Figure 15

The six trigonometric functions are:

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 31 / 181
 aft
sin θ = −y = − sin (θ − 180o ) cos θ = −x = − cos(θ − 180o )

−y 1
tan θ = = tan(θ − 180o ) csc θ = = − csc(θ − 180o )
−x −y

1 −x
sec θ =
−x
Dr
= − sec (θ − 180o ) cot θ =
−y
= cot (θ − 180o ).

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 32 / 181

 4. Forth Quadrant: 270 < θ ≤ 360o : In this quadrant (see Figure 16),
the angle θ is liked to the corresponding angle (or reference angle)
α = 360o − θ in the first quadrant.

aft
Dr
Figure 16

The six trigonometric functions are:

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 33 / 181
 sin θ = −y = − sin (360o − θ) cos θ = +x = cos(360o − θ)

aft
−y 1
tan θ = = − tan(360o − θ) csc θ = = − csc(360o − θ)
x −y

1 x
sec θ = = sec (360o − θ) cot θ = = − cot (360o − θ).
x Dr −y

In the next example we are asked to evaluate two trigonometric functions

of the angle. The key step is to use our knowledge about trigonometric
functions and their signs to determine the quadrant in which θ lies.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 34 / 181

Example 10
Given that tan θ = − 57 and sin θ < 0, find cos θ and csc θ.

Solution.

aft
The terminal side of angle θ must lie in the fourth quadrant, that is the
only quadrant in which sin θ < 0 and tan θ are both negative. Because
7 y
tan θ = − = −
5 x
and the terminal side of θ is in fourth quadrant, we know that y must be
negative and x must be positive. Thus the preceding equation is true for
y = −7 and x = 5. Now

Hence
Dr r=
q
52 + (−7)2 =
√
74

√ √
5 5 74 r 74
cos θ = √ = and csc θ = − =
74 74 y −7
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 35 / 181
11.4.2 Trigonometric Functions of Special angles

aft
In Example 7, the lengths of the legs of the triangle were given, and you
were asked to find the values of the six trigonometric functions of the
angle θ. Often we will want to find the value of a trigonometric function
when we are given the measure of an angle rather than the measure of the
sides of a triangle. For most angles, advanced mathematical methods are
required to evaluate a trigonometric function. For some special angles,
Dr
however, the value of a trigonometric function can be found by geometric
methods. These special acute angles are 30o , 45o and 60o .

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 36 / 181

The Spacial Angles 30o and 60o
Without loss of generality, consider an equilateral Triangle ABC with sides
of length 2 as shown below. Let CD be a perpendicular bisector of AB,

aft
√
then AD = DB = 1 and by Pythagoras Theorem, CD = 3. ∠A = 60o
and ∠ACD = 30o .

Dr
Figure 17
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 37 / 181
 π
The values or ratio of the six trigonometric functions of 30o or

aft
6 are

√ √
o 1 o3 o 1 3
sin 30 = cos 30 = tan 30 = √ =
2 2 3 3

√ √
2 2 2 3 3 √
o
csc 30 = = 2
1
Dr o
sec 30 = √ =
3 3
o
cot 30 =
1
= 3.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 38 / 181

 π
The values of the six trigonometric functions of 60o or

aft


3 are

√ √
o 3 o 1 o 3 √
sin 60 = cos 60 = tan 60 = = 3
2 2 1

√ √
2 2 3 2 1 3
o
csc 60 = √ =
3 3
Dr o
sec 60 = = 2
1
o
cot 30 = √ =
3 3
.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 39 / 181

The Special Angle 45o

Without loss of generality, consider an isosceles right-angled triangle ABC

aft
with sides AB = √BC = 1 as shown below. Then by by Pythagoras
Theorem, AC = 2, and ∠A = ∠C = 45o .

Dr
Figure 18

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 40 / 181

 aft
π
The values or ratio of the six trigonometric functions of 45o or


4 are

√ √
o 1 2 o 1 2 1
sin 45 = √ = cos 45 = √ = tan 45o = =1
2 2 2 2 1

√ √
o 2 √ o 2 √ 1
csc 45 = = 2 sec 45 = = 2 cot 45o = = 1.
1
Dr 1 1

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 41 / 181

Example 11
Find the exact value of sin2 45o + cos2 60o .

aft
Solution.
Substitute the values of sin 45o and cos 60o and simplify

√ !2  2
2 o 2 o 2 1 2 1 3
sin 45 + cos 60 = + = + = .
2 2 4 4 4
Dr
Using the special ratios above, the ratios for other angles related to the
special angles (i.e., as its reference angle) can be found in a similar form if
required, as can be seen in the example that follows.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 42 / 181

Example 12
Evaluate each of the following

(i) cos 210o sin 210o and tan 210o

aft
(ii) cos 135o sin 135o and tan 135o

(iii) cos 300o sin 300o and tan 300o

(iv) cos 480o sin 480o and tan 480o

Solution. Dr
(i) The angle θ = 210 is in the third quadrant and so, the reference angle
is 210o − 180o = 30o . Hence,

√
o o o o 3
cos 210 = − cos (210 − 180 ) = − cos 30 = − .
2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 43 / 181

 aft
Solution.

1
sin 210o = − sin (210o − 180o ) = − sin 30o = −
2

√
o o o 1 3 o
tan 210 = tan (210 − 180 ) = tan 30 = √ = .
Dr 3 3

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 44 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(ii) The angle θ = 135 is in the second quadrant and so, the reference

aft
angle is 180o − 135o = 45o . Hence,

√
o o o o 2
cos 135 = − cos (180 − 135 ) = − cos 45 = − ,
2

√
o o o o 2
sin 135 = sin (180 − 135 ) = sin 45 = ,
2
Dr
tan 135o = − tan (180o − 135o ) = − tan 45o = −1.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 45 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(iii) The angle θ = 300 is in the fourth quadrant and so, the reference

aft
angle is 360o − 300o = 60o . Hence,

1
cos 300o = cos (360o − 300o ) = cos 60o = ,
2

√
o o o o 3
sin 300 = − sin (360 − 300 ) = − sin 60 = − ,
2
Dr √
tan 300o = − tan (360o − 300o ) = − tan 60o = − 3.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 46 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(iv) The angle θ = 480 is in the second quadrant:To find the reference

aft
angle first subtract 360o from 480o giving 120o . Then subtract 120o
from 1800 giving 60o as a reference angle. Hence,

1
cos 480o = − cos (180o − [480o − 360o ]) = − cos 60o = − ,
2

√
o o o o o 3
sin 480 = sin (180 − [480 − 360 ]) = sin 60 = ,
Dr √
2

tan 480o = − tan (180o − [480o − 360o ]) = − tan 60o = − 3.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 47 / 181

11.4.3 Negative Angles
If the arm OR rotation in a clockwise direction (Figure 19), it will describe
a negative angle −θ. To find the value of a function of a negative angle,

aft
convert the angle to 3600 − θ in degrees or 2π − θ, if working in radians.

Dr
Figure 19
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 48 / 181
 aft
Thus,

sin(−30o ) = sin(360o − 30o ) = sin(330o ),

π π 5π
     
tan − = tan 2π − = tan
Dr 3 3 3

and so on.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 49 / 181

11.5 Trigonometric Identities

Recall that any equation that is true for every number in the domain of

aft
the equation is an identity. The statement

1
cscθ = , sin θ 6= 0
sin θ

is an identity because the two expressions produce the same result for all
values of θ for which both functions are defined. We use the symbol ≡
Dr
meaning “identity to" or “equivalent to".

Now recall earlier, we define for an angles θ that, sin θ = y , cos θ = x and
tan θ = yx where (x , y ) were the coordinates of R and OR = 1unit , see
Figure 20

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 50 / 181

 aft Figure 20
Dr
Then, we have the following as trigonometric identities

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 51 / 181

11.5.1 Reciprocal Identities

aft
Reciprocating the sine, cosine and tangent functions gives
1 1 1
csc θ = , sec θ = , and cot θ = (6.1)
sin θ cos θ tan θ
Dr
which are called the Reciprocal Trigonometric Identities.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 52 / 181

11.5.2 Ratio Identities

aft
y
Rewriting tan θ = x and cotθ = yx , we obatin

sin θ cos θ
tan θ = , and cot θ = (6.2)
Dr cos θ sin θ

which are called the Ratio Trigonometric Identities.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 53 / 181

11.5.3 Pythagorean Identities

aft
From Figure 20, applying the Pythagoras theorem gives the equation of a
unit circle x 2 + y 2 = 1. So, replacing x with cos θ and y with sin θ, we
have

cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 (6.3)

Dividing each term of cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 by cos2 θ we have

cos2 θ
cos2 θ
sin2 θ
+ cos
Dr 1
2 θ = cos2 θ and so,

1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ (6.4)

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 54 / 181

 aft
Dividing each term of cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 by sin2 θ we have
cos2 θ 2θ
sin2 θ
+ sin
sin2 θ
= sin12 θ and so,

cot2 θ + 1 = csc2 θ (6.5)

Dr
The identities are used to transform trigonometric expressions into another
form.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 55 / 181

Example 13

aft
1 1
Write the expression cos2 x
+ sin2 x
as a single term.

Solution.

1 1 cos2 x + sin2 x 1
+ 2 = 2 =
2
cos x
Dr sin x cos2 x sin x cos2 x sin2 x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 56 / 181

Example 14
Prove each of the following

aft
1 1
(i) cot x + tan x ≡ cscx sec x (ii) 1+sin x + 1−sin x ≡ 2 sec2 x

1
(iii) tan2 x ≡ sin2 (1 − tan2 x ) (iv) sec x + tan x ≡ sec x −tan x

1−cos x sin x +tan x

(v) (cscx + cot x )2 ≡ 1+cos x (vi) 1+cos x = tan x

Solution. Dr
In each case, we take one side and convert it to the expression on the other
side. It is usually easier to start with the side which is more complicated or
involves sums of functions. This gives more scope for manipulation.

(i) cot x + tan x ≡ csc x sec x , taking the left hand side:

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 57 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
cos x sin x
L.H.S = cot x + tan x ≡ +
sin x cos x
cos2 x + sin2 x
≡
sin x cos x
1 1
≡ ×
sin x cos x
≡ cscx sec x = R.H.S
Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 58 / 181
Solution Contin’d.
1 1
(ii) For + ≡ 2 sec2 x we take the more complected L.H.S:

aft
1+sin x 1−sin x

1 1 1 − sin x + 1 + sin x
L.H.S = + ≡
1 + sin x 1 − sin x (1 + sin x )(1 − sin x )
2
≡
(1 + sin x )(1 − sin x )
2
≡
Dr ≡
1 − sin2 x
2
cos2 x
≡ 2 sec2 x = R.H.S

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 59 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(iii) For tan2 x ≡ sin2 (1 + tan2 x ), we take the right side of the identity as
it is more complicated than the lift side. We will try to verify the

aft
identity by rewriting the right side so that it involves only sines and
cosines.

!
2 2 2 sin2 x
R.H.S = sin (1 − tan x ) ≡ sin 1+
cos2 x
!
2 cos2 x + sin2 x
≡ sin
cos2 x
Dr ≡ sin2

2

1
cos2 x


≡ tan x = L.H.S

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 60 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
1
(iv) For sec x + tan x ≡ sec x −tan x , multiply the numerator and

aft
denominator of the right side of the identity by the conjugate of
sec x − tan x , which is sec x + tan x .

1 sec x + tan x
R.H.S = ≡
sec x − tan x (sec x − tan x )(sec x + tan x )
sec x + tan x
≡
sec2 x − tan2 x
Dr ≡
sec x + tan x
1
≡ sec x + tan x = L.H.S

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 61 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(v) For (cscx + cot x )2 ≡ 1−cos x
1+cos x we take the left side of the identity
which seems more complicated than the right side. We will try to
verify the identity by rewriting the left side so that it involves only

aft
sines and cosines.

2
1 cos x 1 − cos x 2
  
(csc x − cot x )2 ≡ − ≡
sin x sin x sin x
(1 − cos x )2
≡
sin2 x
(1 − cos x )2
Dr ≡

≡
1 − cos2 x
(1 − cos x )2
(1 − cos x )(1 + cos x )
1 − cos x
≡
1 + cos x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 62 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(vi) The left side of sin1+cos
x +tan x
x = tan x is more complicated than the right
side. We will try to verify the identity by rewriting the left side so

aft
that it involves only sines and cosines.

sin x sin x cos x +sin x

sin x + tan x sin x + cos x cos x
≡ ≡
1 + cos x 1 + cos x 1 + cos x
sin x cos x + sin x
≡
cos x (1 + cos x )
sin x (cos x + 1)
Dr ≡

≡
cos x (1 + cos x )
sin x
cos x
≡ tan x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 63 / 181

Example 15
π
For 2 < x < π write tan x in terms of sin x .

aft
Solution.
sin x
Here, tan x = cos x . Solving for cos x in cos2 x + sin2 x = 1, we have

cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x
q
cos x = ± 1 − sin2 x

Since in π
2
Dr p
< x < π, cos x is negative then we have cos x = − 1 − sin2 x .
sin x sin x
tan x = = −p
cos x 1 − sin2 x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 64 / 181

11.5.4 Sum of Two Angles (A + B) Identities
Consider the figure 21 showing two angles ∠UOP = A and ∠TOU = B.

aft
Dr Figure 21

Then ∠TOP = A + B. Without loss of generality, let OT = 1 unit in

length. TP is perpendicular to OP, TU is perpendicular to OU and UR is
perpendicular to TP.
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 65 / 181
Now, ∠OSP = 90o − A = ∠TSU. So, ∠RTU = A.
PT = PR + RT = QU + RT .
Now, PT = 1 × sin (A + B), QU = OU sin (A + B) and RT = UT cos A.

aft
Observe that sin (A + B) = OU sin A + UT cos A. But then,
OU = 1 × cos B and UT = 1 × sin B, we have

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B (6.6)

Similarly, OP = OQ − PQ = OQ − RU. But OP = 1 × cos (A + B),

Dr
OQ = OU cos A and RU = UT sin A. Note that,
cos (A + B) = OU cos A − UT sin A. But OU = 1 × cos B and
UT = sin B. Then,

cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B (6.7)

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 66 / 181

 sin θ
Recall that for an angle θ, tan θ = cos θ . Then

sin (A + B)

aft
tan (A + B) =
cos (A + B)
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
=
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
sin A cos B cos A sin B
A cos B + cos A cos B
= cos
cos A cos B sin A sin B
divide each term by cos A cos B
cos A cos B − cos A cos B
tan A + tan B
=
1 − tan A tan B
Dr
Hence, the formula for tan (A + B) is

tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) = (6.8)
1 − tan A tan B

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 67 / 181

11.5.5 Difference of Two Angles (A − B) Identities

aft
In each of the identities (6.6), (6.7) and (6.8), change B to −B, and then
using the fact that sin (−B) = − sin B and cos (−B) = cos B, we have

sin (A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B (6.9)

cos (A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B (6.10)
Dr
Similarity, recall that for θ, tan θ = sin θ
cos θ . Then

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 68 / 181

 aft
sin (A − B)
tan (A − B) =
cos (A − B)
sin A cos B − cos A sin B
=
cos A cos B + sin A sin B
sin A cos B cos A sin B
A cos B − cos A cos B
= cos
cos A cos B sin A sin B
divide each term by cos A cos B
cos A cos B
Dr + cos A cos B
tan A − tan B
=
1 + tan A tan B

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 69 / 181

 aft
and so, the formula for tan (A − B) is

tan A − tan B
tan (A − B) = (6.11)
1 + tan A tan B

The sum and difference identities can be used to simplify some

Dr
trigonometric expressions.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 70 / 181

Example 16
Find the exact value of each of the following

(i) cos(60o + 45o ) (ii) tan 15o (iii) sin 465o (iv) cos 105o

aft
Solution.
In each case, we applying the sum and difference of angle identities of
trigonometric functions:

(i)

cos(60o + 45o ) = cos 60o cos 45o − sin 60o sin 45o
Dr =
  √ !
1
2 2
2
−
√ ! √ !

2
3
2
2

√ √ √ √
2 6 2− 6
= − =
4 4 4

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 71 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(ii)

aft
tan 60o − tan 45o
tan 15o = tan (60o − 45o ) =
1 + tan 60o tan 45o
√
3−1
= √
1 + 3(1)
√ √ √
3−1 ( 3 − 1)( 3 − 1)
=√ = √ √
3+1 ( 3 + 1)( 3 − 1)
√
Dr =
4−2 3
3
.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 72 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(iii) For sin 465o , observe that 465o is in the second quadrant in which
sine is positive. Hence,

aft
sin 465o = sin (465o − 360o )
= sin 105
= sin (180o − 105o )
= sin 75
= sin(60o + 45o )
= sin 60o cos 45o + cos 60o sin 45o
Dr =
√
√ ! √ !   √ !

2
3

√
2
2
+
1
2 2
2

6+ 2
= .
4

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 73 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(iv)

aft
cos 105o = − cos (180o − 105o ) = − cos 75o
= − cos (45o + 30o )
= −(cos 45o cos 30o − sin 45o sin 30o )
√ ! √ ! √ ! 
2 3 2 1
=− +
2 2 2 2
√ √
2 6
= −
Dr =
√4
2− 6
4
√4

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 74 / 181

Example 17
Write each expression in terms of a single trigonometric function.

aft
tan 4x +tan x
(i) sin 5x cos 3x − cos 5x sin 3x (ii) 1−tan 4x tan x

Solution.
(i)

sin 5x cos 3x − cos 5x sin 3x = sin(5x − 2x ) = sin 2x

(ii)
Dr tan 4x + tan x
= tan(4x + x ) = tan 5x .
1 − tan 4x tan x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 75 / 181

 aft
Example 1
Verify the identity cos(π − x ) = −cosx .

Solution.

cos(π − x ) = cos π cos x + sin π sin x

Dr = (−1) cos x + (0) sin x = −cosx

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 76 / 181

Example 2
cos 4x sin 4x cos 5x
Verify the identity − = sin x cos x .

aft
sin x cos x

Solution.

cos 4x sin 4x cos 4x cos x − sin 4x sin x

− =
sin x cos x sin x cos x
cos(4x + x )
= Use the identity for cos(A + B)
sin x cos x
Dr =
cos 5x
sin x cos x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 77 / 181

11.5.6.1 Multiple Angle Identities

aft
By using thesum identities, we can derive multiple angle identities such as
f (2A), f A2 and so on where f is a trigonometric function.
Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 78 / 181
11.5.5.1 Double-Angle Identities
To find the sine and cosine of a double angles we use the sum of two
angles trigonometric identities:

aft
Theorem 18 (Double-Angle Identities)
The double angle trigonometric identities are:

(i) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

(ii) cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 A

(iii) tan 2A =
Dr
2 tan A
1−tan2 A

Proof.
(i) To find the sine of a double angle, substitute A for B in the identity

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 79 / 181

Proof Contin’d.

aft
for sin (A + B). That is form sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B, we
have,

sin (A + A) = sin A cos A + cos A sin A

Hence,
Dr sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A (6.12)

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 80 / 181

Proof Contin’d.
(ii) A double-angle identity for cosine is derived in a similar manner.
From cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B,we have

aft
cos (A + A) = cos A cos A − sin A sin A

So,

cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A (6.13)

From the double-angle identity of cos 2A, we alternative have two

Dr
other forms: Using cos2 A = 1 − sin2 A, we obtain

cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A = (1 − sin2 A) − sin2 A = 1 − 2 sin2 A

Hence,

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 81 / 181

Proof Contin’d.

aft
cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A (6.14)

Also, using sin2 A = 1 − cos2 A, we obtain

cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A = cos2 A − (1 − sin2 A) = 1 − 2 cos2 A

= 2 cos2 A − 1

and so,
Dr cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1 (6.15)

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 82 / 181

Proof Contin’d.
(iii) The double-angle identity for the tangent function is derived from the

aft
identity for tan (A + B) with A = B.

tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan A + tan A
=⇒ tan (A + A) =
1 − tan A tan A
Hence, Dr 2 tan A
tan 2A = (6.16)
1 − tan2 A

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 83 / 181

The double-angle trigonometric identities are often used to write a

aft
trigonometric expression in terms of a single trigonometric function

Example 19
Write 4 sin 5x cos 5x in terms of a single trigonometric function.

Solution. Dr
4 sin 5x cos 5x = 2(2 sin 5x cos 5x ) = 2(sin 10x ) = 2 sin 10x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 84 / 181

Example 20
Express

(i) cos 3x in terms of cos x (ii) sin 4x in terms of sin x

aft
Solution.
In each case, we make use of the Pythagorean and double angle identities
(i)

cos 3x = cos(2x + x ) = cos 2x cos x − sin 2x sin x

= (2 cos2 x − 1) cos x − (2 sin x cos x ) sin x
= (2 cos3 x − cos x ) − (2 sin2 x cos x )
Dr = (2 cos3 x − cos x ) − 2(1 − cos2 x ) cos x
= 2 cos3 x − cos x + 2 cos3 x − 2 cos x
= 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x

(ii) Left for the reader as an exercise.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 85 / 181

Example 21
Verify the identity csc 2x ≡ 21 (tan x + cotx )

aft
Solution.
Work on the right-hand side of the equation

!
1 1 sin x cos x 1 sin2 x + cos2 x
 
(tan x + cot x ) = + =
2 2 cos x sin x 2 cos x sin x
1
=
Dr =
2 cos x sin x
1
sin 2x
= csc 2x .

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 86 / 181

11.5.5.2 Power-Reducing Identities

The double-angle identities can be used to derive the following

aft
power-reducing identities. These identities can be used to write
trigonometric expressions involving even powers of sine, cosine, and
tangent in terms of the first power of a cosine function.

Theorem 22

1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x 1 − cos 2x

sin2 x = , cos2 x = and tan2 x =

Proof.
Dr
2 2 1 + cos 2x

From the double-angle identity cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A, solving for sin2 A, we

obatin the first power-reducing identity;

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 87 / 181

Proof Contin’d.

1 − cos 2x
sin2 x = (6.17)
2

aft
Similarly, from the double-angle identity cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1, solving for
cos2 A, we obatin the second power-reducing identity;

1 + cos 2x
cos2 x = (6.18)
2
The identity for can be tan2 A derived by using the ratio identity, as shown
below;
Dr 1−cos 2x
sin2 x 1 − cos 2x
tan2 x = = 2
1+cos 2x =
cos2 x 2
1 + cos 2x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 88 / 181

Example 23
Write sin4 x in terms of the first power of one or more cosine functions.

aft
Solution.
2
1 − cos 2x 1

4 2 2
sin x = (sin x ) = = (1 − 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x )
2 4
1 1 + cos 4x
 
= 1 − 2 cos 2x
4 2
1 2 − 4 cos 2x + 1 + cos 4x
Dr  
=
4 2
1
= (3 − 4 cos 2x + cos 4x )
8

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 89 / 181

11.5.5.3 Half-Angle Identities

aft
The following identities, called half-angle identities, can be derived from
the double angle identities or power-reducing identities by replacing 2A
with A in the since of double angles or A with A2 and taking the square
root of each side in the sense of power-reducing identities. Two additional
identities are given for tan A2 as in the two theorems that follows.
Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 90 / 181
Theorem 24 (Half-Angle Identities in the Sense of Double
Angles -Identities)

aft
The half angle trigonometric identities are

(i) sin A = 2 sin A2 cos A2

A A A
(ii) cos A = cos2 2 − sin2 2 = 2 cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 2

2 tan A2
(iii) tan A = 1−tan2 A2
Dr
Proof.
The proof is left to the reader as an exercise.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 91 / 181

Theorem 25 (Half-Angle Identities in the Sense of Power
-Reducing Identities)
The half angle identities are

aft
q
(i) sin A2 = ± 1−cos A
2
q
(ii) cos A2 = ± 1+cos A
2
q
(iii) tan A2 = ± 1−cos A
1+cos A = sin A
1+cos A = 1−cos A
sin A

A
The choice of the plus or minus sign depends on the quadrant in which
Dr 2
lies.
Proof.
(i) From sin2 A = 1−cos2
2A
, replacing A with A
2 and taking the square
root of each side, we get

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 92 / 181

Proof Contin’d.
s
A 1 − cos A
sin = ±
2 2

aft
(ii) From cos2 A = 1+cos2
2A
, replacing A with A
2 and taking the square
root of each side, we get
s
A 1 + cos A
cos = ±
2 2
(iii) From tan2 A = 1−cos 2A
1+cos 2A , replacing A with
A
2 and taking the square
root of each side, we get
Dr s
A 1 − cos A sin A 1 − cos A
tan = ± = =
2 1 + cos A 1 + cos A sin A

The power-reducing identities and half-angle identities can be used to

verify some identities.
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 93 / 181
Example 26
Find the exact value of cos 105o .

aft
Solution.
Because 105o = 12 (210o ) we can find cos 105o by using the half-angle
identity for with cos A2 . The angle lies in the second Quadrant, and the
cosine function is negative in there.Thus cos 105o < 0q and we must select
the minus sign that precedes the radical in cos 2 = ± 1+cos
A
2
A
to produce
the correct result.

cos 105o = cos

Dr
210o
2
s


√
3

=−
s
1 + cos 2100

s √
2− 3
2
s
=−
√
s
1 − cos 30o
2
q √
1− 2 2 2− 3 2− 3
=− =− =− =−
2 2 4 2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 94 / 181

Example 27
If sin x = − 35 , 180o ≤ x ≤ 270o , find the exact value of

(i) cos x2 (ii) tan x2

aft
Solution.
To apply the half-angle identities, we need to find cos x . We can use the
identity cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x to find cos x , but first we need to determine the
sign of cos x . Because 180o ≤ x ≤ 270o , we know that cos x < 0. Thus

√ !2
2
Dr 2
cos x = 1 − sin x = 1 − −
2
3
=
16
25
=⇒
s
cos x = −
16
25
=−
4
5

Multiply each part of 180o ≤ x ≤ 270o by 12 to obtain 90o ≤ x ≤ 135o .

Therefore, x2 lies in the second quadrant. Thus cos x2 < 0 and
tan x2 < 0.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 95 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(i) Using the half-angle identity for cos x2 with a minus sign in front of
the radical, we obatin

aft
v
s u 
u1 + −4
 s
1
√
x 1 + cos x t 5 5 1 10
cos = − =− =− = −√ = − .
2 2 2 2 10 10

q
(ii) Using the half-angle identity tan x2 = −
Dr 1−cos x
1+cos x = sin x
1+cos x . Hence,

x sin x − 53 −3
tan = =   = 15 = −3.
2 1 + cos x 1 + − 54 5

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 96 / 181

Example 28
x sin x
Verify the identity 2cscx cos2 2 = 1−cos x .

Solution.

aft
x 1 + cos x
 
2cscx cos2 = 2cscx
2 2
1 + cos x
=
sin x
1 + cos x (1 − cos x )
= · by conjugate principle
sin x (1 − cos x )
1 − cos2 x
Dr =

=
sin x (1 − cos x )
sin2 x
since 1 − cos2 x = sin2 x
sin x (1 − cos x )
sin x
=
1 − cos x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 97 / 181

11.5.7 Sum and Product of Trigonometric Functions
Identities

aft
Some applications require that a product of trigonometric functions be
written as a sum or difference of these functions. Other applications
require that the sum or difference of trigonometric functions be
represented as a product of these functions. .
Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 98 / 181
11.5.7.1 Product-to-Sum Identities
The product-to-sum identities are particularly useful in some types of

aft
trigonometric problems. These identities can be derived by using the sum
or difference identities.

Theorem 29 (Sum-to-Product Identities)

For any angles A and B,

1
sin A cos B = [sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)]
Dr 2
1
cos A sin B = [sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)]
2
1
cos A cos B = [cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)]
2
1
sin A sin B = [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]
2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 99 / 181

Example 30
Verify the identity cos 2x sin 5x = 12 [sin 7x + sin 3x ]

aft
Solution.
Applying the product-to-sum identity
cos A sin B = 12 [sin (A + B) − sin (A − B)], we see that the angles A = 2x
and B = 5x . Hence,

1
cos 2x sin 5x = [sin (2x + 5x ) − sin (2x − 5x )]
2
Dr 1
= [sin 7x − sin (−3)x ]
2
1
= [sin 7x + sin 3x ] Since sin (−3)x = − sin 3x
2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 100 / 181

11.5.7.2 Sum-to-Product Identities

The sum-to-product identities can be derived from the product-to-sum

aft
identities.

Theorem 31
For any angles θ and φ, we have

θ+φ θ−φ
sin θ + sin φ = 2 sin cos
2 2
Dr sin θ − sin φ = 2 cos

cos θ + cos φ = 2 cos

θ+φ
2
θ+φ
sin

cos
θ−φ
2
θ−φ
2 2
θ+φ θ−φ
cos θ − cos φ = −2 sin sin
2 2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 101 / 181

Example 32
Express sin 4θ − sin θ as the product of two functions

aft
Solution.
x −y
Using the sum-to-product identity sin x − sin y = 2 cos x +y
2 sin 2 , we get

4x + x 4x − x
sin 4x − sin x = 2 cos sin
Dr 2 2
5x 3x
= 2 cos sin
2 2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 102 / 181

Example 33
Verify the identities below: cos 4x + cos 2x = 2 cos 3x cos x

aft
Solution.
x −y
Using cos x + cos y = 2 cos x +y
2 cos 2 , we obatin

4x + 2x 4x − 2x
cos 4x + cos 2x = 2 cos cos
2 2
6x 2x
Dr = 2 cos
2
cos
= 2 cos 3x cos x
2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 103 / 181

11.7 Periodicity and Graphs of Trigonometric
Functions

aft
In this section, we look at discuss concepts of periodic functions and their
application to sketching graphs of Trigonometric functions.
Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 104 / 181
11.7.1 Periodic Functions

aft
We encounter many recurring patterns in everyday life. For instance, the
time of day repeats every 24 hours. If f (t) represents the present time of
day, then 24 hours later the time of day will be exactly the same. Using
mathematical notation, we can express this concept as

Dr f (t + 24) = f (t)

The function f is said to be periodic in that it continually repeats itself.

The period of f is 24 hours, the time it takes to complete one full cycle.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 105 / 181

Definition 34 (Periodic Function)

aft
A function f is periodic if there exists a positive constant p such that for
all t in the domain of f .

f (t + p) = f (t)
The smallest such positive number p for which f is periodic is called the
period of f .
Dr
The unit circle can be used to show that the sine and cosine functions are
periodic functions.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 106 / 181

First, note that the circumference of the unit circle is 2π. Thus, if we start
at any point P(x , y ) = P(cos t, sin t) on the unit circle and travel a
distance of 2π units around the circumference, we will be back at point P.

aft
Hence,

(cos (t + 2π), sin (t + 2π)) equals (cos t, sin t).

Equating the first components gives us cos (t + 2π) = cos t, and equating
the second components yields cos (t + 2π) = cos t.
Dr
Hence, the sine, cosine, secant and cosecant functions are periodic
functions with a period of 2π:

sin(t + 2π) = sin t cos(t + 2π) = cos t

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 107 / 181

 aft
1 1
csc(t + 2π) = = = csc t
sin(t + 2π) sin t

1 1
sec(t + 2π) = = = sec t
cos(t + 2π) cos t

Although it is true that tan(t + 2π) = tan t the period of the tangent
Dr
function is not 2π. Recall that the period of a function is the smallest
value of p for which f (t + p) = f (t). Let us examine Figure 22,

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 108 / 181

 aft
Dr Figure 22

which shows that if you start at any point P(x , y ) on the unit circle and
travel a distance of π units around the circumference, you will arrive at the
point π. By definition,
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 109 / 181
 aft
y −y y
tan t = and tan (t + π) = = = tan t.
x −x x

The tangent and cotangent functions are periodic functions with a period
ofπ:

sin(t + π) = tan t
Dr cot(t + π) = cot t

Thus we know that tan (t + π) = tan t for all t. A similar argument can
be used to show that for all t, cot (t + 2π) = cot t.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 110 / 181

The following theorem illustrates the repetitive nature of each of the

aft
trigonometric functions of a real number.

Theorem 35
For any real number t and integer k,

sin (t + 2kπ) = sin t, cos (t + 2kπ) = cos t, tan (t + kπ) = tan t

Dr
csc (t + 2kπ) = csc t, sec (t + 2kπ) = sec t, cot (t + kπ) = cot t

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 111 / 181

11.7.2 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

aft
The trigonometric functions can be graphed on a rectangular coordinate
system by plotting the points whose coordinates belong to the function.
Generally, to sketch the graph of any trigonometric function, we need first
to know the period, amplitude and phase shift of the given function.
Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 112 / 181
11.7.2.1 Graph of the sine and Cosine functions

aft
Table 23 lists some ordered pairs of the graph of y = sin θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

Figure 23
Dr
In Figure 24, the points from the table are plotted and a smooth curve is
drawn through the points. We could use decimal approximations for π on
the x -axis, but it is more convenient to simply
√ label the tick marks on the
3
x -axis in terms of π. Note: The y -value 2 ≈ 0.897

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 113 / 181

 aft
Figure 24: y = sin x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
Dr
Because the domain of the sine function is the real numbers and the
period is 2π, the graph of sin x is drawn by repeating the portion shown in
Figure 24. Any part of the graph that corresponds to one period 2π is one
cycle of the graph of y = sin x (see Figure 25).

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 114 / 181

 aft Figure 25
Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 115 / 181
Table 26 lists some ordered pairs (x , y ) of the graph of y = cos x for
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.

aft
Dr Figure 26

In Figure 27, the points from the table are plotted and a smooth curve is
drawn through the points.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 116 / 181

 aft
Figure 27: y = cos x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
Dr
Because the domain of y = cos x is the real numbers and the period is 2π,
the graph of y = cos x is drawn by repeating the portion shown in Figure
27.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 117 / 181

Any part of the graph corresponding to one period (2π) is one cycle of
y = cos x (see Figure 28).

aft
Dr Figure 28

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 118 / 181

 aft
The maximum value M reached by both sin x or cos x is 1, and the
minimum value m is −1. The amplitude of the graph of sin x or cos x is
given by

1
Amplitude = (M − m)
2

the amplitude of the graph is the coefficient of

Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 119 / 181
Recall that the graph of y = af (x ) is a vertical stretching if | a |> 1 or
shrinking if 0 ≤| a |≤ 1 of the graph of y = f (x ). For example, Figure 29

aft
shows the graph of y = 3 sin x that was drawn by stretching the graph of
y = sin x .

Dr
Figure 29: Graph of y = 3 sin x a stretch of y = sin x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 120 / 181

 aft
The amplitude of y = 3 sin x is 3 because

1 1
Amplitude = (M − m) = (3 − (−3)) = 3
2 2

Note that for y = sin x and y = 3 sin x the amplitude of the graph is the
coefficient of sin x .
Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 121 / 181
This suggests the following theorem

aft
Theorem 36 (Period and amplitude of sin x and cos x )
For the functions y = a sin bx and y = a cos bx , the

2π
(i) Period is |b|

(ii) Amplitude is | a |
Dr
Proof.
Proof is left as an exercise to the reader.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 122 / 181

Example 37
Sketch the graphs of
(i) y = 3 sin x (ii) y = −2 sin x (iii) y = − 12 sin x3
2π π
(iv) y = cos 3 x (v) y = −2 cos 4 x

aft
Solution.
(i) For y = 3 sin x , a = 3 and b = 1. Hence, amplitude is | a |=| 3 |= 3
2π
and period is |b| = 2π
|1| = 2π.

Dr
Figure 30

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 123 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(ii) For y = −2 sin x , a = −2 and b = 1. Hence, amplitude is
2π
| a |=| −2 |= 2 and period is |b| = 2π
|1| = 2π. Thus,

aft
Dr
Figure 31: y = −2 sin x

Clearly, the graph of y = −2 sin x is the reflection of the graph of

y = 2 sin x in the x -axis.
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 124 / 181
Solution Contin’d.
(iii) For y = − 12 sin x3 , a = − 12 and b = 31 . Hence, amplitude is
| a |= − 12 = 1
and period is 2π
2π
|b| == 6π. The zeros in the
2 | 13 |

aft
interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 6π are 0, 3π and 6π. So the graph has x -intercepts
at (0.0), (3π, 0) and (6π, 0).Because − 12 < 0, the graph is the graph
of y = 21 sin x3 reflected across the x -axis.

Dr
Figure 32: y = − 12 sin x3
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 125 / 181
Solution Contin’d.
(iv) For y = cos 2π 2π
3 x , a = 1 and b = 3 . Hence, amplitude is
| a |=| 1 |= 1 and period is |b| = 2π
2π
= 3.
| 2π3 |

aft
Dr
Figure 33: y = cos 2π
3 x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 126 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
(v) For y = −2 cos π4 x , a = −2 and b = π4 . Hence, amplitude is
2π
| a |=| −2 |= 2 and period is |b| = 2π = 8.
| π4 |

aft
Dr
Figure 34: y = −2 cos π4 x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 127 / 181

11.7.2.2 Graph of the Tangent Function

aft
Table 35 lists some ordered pairs (x , y ) of the graph of y = tan x for
0 ≤ x ≤ π2 .

Dr Figure 35

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 128 / 181

In Figure 36, the points from the table are plotted and a smooth curve is
drawn through the points. Notice that as x increases on 0, π2 , y = tan x

increases on [0, ∞). The y values increase slowly at first and then more
rapidly as x −→ π2 from the left. The line given by x = π2 is a vertical

aft
asymptote of the graph

Dr
π
Figure 36: y = tan x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 129 / 181

Because the tangent function is an odd function, its graph is symmetric
with respect to the origin. We have used this property to produce the
graph of y = tan x for − π2 ≤ x ≤ π2 shown in Figure 37.

aft
Dr
Figure 37: y = tan x , − π2 ≤ x ≤ π
2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 130 / 181

Recall earlier that the period of tan x is π. Thus a complete graph of tan x
can be produced by replicating the graph in Figure 37 to the right and left,
as shown in Figure 38

aft
Dr
Figure 38

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 131 / 181

 aft
The following definition concerning tangent functions can be developed
using methods that are analogous to those we used to determine the
amplitude and period of a sine and cosine functions.

Definition 38
The period of y = a tan bx is
π
Dr |b|
.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 132 / 181

Example 39

aft
1
Graph one period of the functions y = 3 tan x .

Solution.
The graph of y = 31 tan x can be produced by shrinking the graph of
1 π


y = tan x toward the x -axis by a factor of
 3 
. The point 4 , 1 is on the
π 1
graph of y = tanx . Thus we know that 4 , 3 is on the graph of
y= 1
3 tan x
Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 133 / 181
Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
1
Figure 39: y = 3 tan x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 134 / 181

11.7.2.3 Graph of the Contagent Function
A graph of the cotangent function y = cot x is shown in Figure 40. Notice

aft
that its graph is similar to the graph of y = tanx in that it has a period of
and is symmetric with respect to the origin.
vspace0.5cm

Dr
Figure 40

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 135 / 181

 aft
The graph of y = a cot bx is drawn by stretching | a |≥ 1 or shrinking
| a |< 1 the graph of y = cot x . The graph is reflected across the x -axis
when a < 0 Figure 40 shows the graphs of two cotangent functions.The
π
period of y = cot x is π and the period of y = a cot bx is |b| . One cycle of
π π


the graph of |b| is completed on the interval 0, b
Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 136 / 181
Example 40
Graph one period of the function y = 2 cot x3 .

aft
Solution.
The function y = 2 cot x3 is of the form y = a cot bx with a = 2 and
b = 13 . The period is given by |b|
π
= π1 = 3π. Thus one period of the
3
graph will be displayed on any interval of length 3π. In the graph below,
we have chosen to sketch the function over the interval 0 ≤ π ≤ 3π. The
graph passes through
Dr 
π
4b
and
,a =

π


4(1/3)
,2 =
3π
4

,2
 

3π 3π 9π
     
, −a = , −2 = , −2
4b 4(1/3) 4

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 137 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
π π
The graph has an x - intercept at x = 2b = 2(1/3) = 23 π.

aft
Dr Figure 41

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 138 / 181

11.7.2.1 Graph of the Cosecant Function

aft
Because csc x = sin1 x the value of csc x is the reciprocal of the value of
y = sin x . Therefore, csc x is undefined when sin x = 0 or when x = kπ
where k is an integer. The graph of y = csc x has vertical asymptotes at
kπ Because y = csc x has period 2π the graph will be repeated along the
x -axis every 2π units. The graphs of both y = csc x and y = sin x are
shown in Figure 42. Note the relationships among the x -intercepts of
Dr
y = sin x and the asymptotes of y = csc x .

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 139 / 181

 aft
Dr Figure 42

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 140 / 181

Figure 43 shows one cycle of the graph of y = a csc bx for both a and b
positive.

aft
Dr
Figure 43

Note from the graph the following properties of the function.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 141 / 181
 2π
(i) The period is |b|

(ii) The vertical asymptotes of y = a csc bx are located at the zeros of

aft
y = a sin bx
 
π 3π


(iii) The graph passes through 2b , −a and 2b , a

(iv) If a < 0 then the graph is reflected across the x -axis.

One procedure for graphing y = a csc bx is to begin by graphing
y = a sin bx .
Dr
(v) The vertical asymptotes of the graph of the cosecant function pass
through the x -intercepts of the graph of the sine function.

(vi) The maximum values of the sine function are the relative minimum
values of the cosecant function, and the minimum values of the sine
function are the relative maximum values of the cosecant function.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 142 / 181

Example 3
Sketch the graph of y = 2csc4x .

aft
Solution.
For the equation y = 2csc4x , a = 2 and b = 4. The period is
2π 2π π
= = .
|b| |4| 2
Dr
Now, First sketch the graph of y = 2 sin 4x and draw vertical asymptotes
through the x -intercepts. Now sketch the graph of y = 2csc4x using the
asymptotes as guides for the graph,

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 143 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr Figure 44

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 144 / 181

Example 41

aft
Graph one complete period of y = 2 csc π2 x .

Proof.
Graph one period of y = 2 sin π2 x and draw vertical asymptotes through the
x -intercepts. Use the asymptotes as guides to draw the cosecant function.

The maximum values of y = 2 sin π2 x are the relative minimum values of

Dr
y = 2 csc π2 x , and the minimum values of y = 2 sin π2 x are the relative
maximum values of y = 2 csc π2 x .

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 145 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 45

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 146 / 181

11.7.2.5 Graph of the Secant Functions

aft
Because sec x = cos1 x the value of sec x is the reciprocal of the value of
cos x .Therefore, sec x is undefined when cos x = 0 or when x = π2 + kπ
where k is an integer. The graph of y = sec x has vertical asymptotes at
x = π2 + kπ. Because y = secx has period 2π, the graph will be replicated
along the x -axis every 2π units. The graph of both y = cos x and
y = sec x are shown in Figure 46. Note the relationships among the
Dr
x -intercepts of y = cosx and the asymptotes of y = sec x .

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 147 / 181

 aft
Dr Figure 46

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 148 / 181

The procedure for graphing y = a sec bx is analogous to the procedure
used to graph y = a csc bx functions. First, graph y = a cos bx to
determine its x -intercepts and its maximum and minimum points.

aft
Dr
Figure 47

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 149 / 181

Note that, the graph has the following properties

(i) The vertical asymptotes of the graph of the secant function pass

aft
through the x -intercepts of the graph of the cosine function.

(ii) The maximum values of the cosine function are the relative minimum
values of the secant function, and the minimum values of the cosine
function are the relative maximum values of the secant function.
2π
(iii) The period is |b| .
Dr
(iv) The vertical asymptotes of y = a sec bx are located at the
x -intercepts of y = a cos bx .
 
π 2π


(v) The graph passes through (0, a), b , −a and b ,a .

(vi) If a < 0 then the graph is reflected across the x -axis.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 150 / 181

Example 42

aft
Graph y = −3 sec 12 .

Solution.
For the equation y = −3 sec 12 x , a = −3, and b = 1
2 Hence, the period is
2π 2π
|b| = | 1 | = 4π.
2

Now, first sketch the graph of y = −3 cos 21 x and draw vertical asymptotes
Dr
through the x -intercepts. Now sketch the graph of y = −3 sec 21 x using
the asymptotes as guides for the graph,

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 151 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 48: y = −3 sec 12 .
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 152 / 181
11.7.3 Graphs of Translations of Trigonometric
Functions

aft
Recall further that, the graph of y = f (x ) ± c is a vertical translation of
the graph of f (x ). For the graph of y = f (x ) − c is the graph of y = f (x )
shifted c units down; the graph ofy = f (x ) + c is the graph of y = f (x )
shifted c units up.

Similarly, the graph of y = f (x ± c) is a horizontal translation of the

graph of y = f (x ). For the graph of y = f (x − c) is the graph of shifted c
Dr
units to the right; the graph of y = f (x + c) is the graph of y = f (x )
shifted c units to the left.

These general properties about graphs of a non trigonometric functions

can be extended to graphs of trigonometric functions in the some manner
as follows:

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 153 / 181

Theorem 43
(i) The graph of y = a sin(bx + c) + d and y = a cos(bx + c) + d have

aft
2π c
Amplitude =| a | Period = and Phase Shift = −
|b| b

To graphs of y = a sin(bx + c) + d and/or y = a cos(bx + c) + d,

shift the graph of y = a sin bx and/or y = a cos bx horizontally − bc
units and vertically d units.

(ii) The graph of y = a tan(bx + c) and y = a cot(bx + c) have

Dr Period =
π
|b|
and Phase Shift = −
c
b
To graphs of y = a tan(bx + c) + d and/or y = a cot(bx + c) + d,
shift the graph of y = a tan bx and/or y = a cot bx horizontal − bc
units and vertically d units.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 154 / 181

Example 44
Sketch the graphs of each of the following y = 2 sin πx − 3.

aft
Solution.
In the equations y = 2 sin πx − 3, a = 2 and b = π, c = 0 and d = −3.
Hence,
2π 2π
Amplitude =| a |= 2 Period = = =2
Dr |b| π
and
c 0
Phase Shift = −
=− =0
b π
and a vertical shift is 3 units to the down.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 155 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 49

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 156 / 181

Example 45
Sketch the graphs of each of the following

π π



(i) y = 2 sin x − (ii) y = 3 cos 2x +

aft
4 3

Solution.
π
, a = 2, b = 1, c = − π4 and d = 0.


(i) In the equation y = 2 sin x − 4
Hence,
2π 2π
Amplitude =| a |= 2 Period = = = 2π
Dr |b| 1
and

c −π π
=− 4 =
Phase Shift = −
b 1 4
π


Hence, the graph of equation y = 2 sin x − 4 is the graph of
y = 2 sin x translated π4 units to the right.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 157 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 50

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 158 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
π π

aft
(ii) In the equation y = 3 cos 2x + 3 , a = 3, b = 2, c = 3 and d = 0.
Hence,
2π 2π
Amplitude =| a |= 3, Period = = =π
|b| 2
and
π
c π
=−3 =−
Phase Shift = −
b 2 6
Dr π


Hence, the graph of equation y = 3 cos 2x + 3 is the graph of
y = 3 cos 2x translated π6 units to the left.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 159 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 51

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 160 / 181

Example 46
1 π


Sketch the graphs of each of the following y = 2 sin x − 4 − 2.

aft
Solution.
For the equation y = −2 + 21 sin x − π
, a = 21 , b = 1, c = − π4 and


4
d = −2. Hence,
1 2π 2π
Amplitude =| a |= , Period = = = 2π
2 |b| 1
and
Dr Phase Shift = −
c
b
−π
=− 4 =
1
π
4
Hence, the graph of equation y = −2 + 12 sin x − π4 is the graph of

y = 21 sin x translated π4 units to the right and 2 units downwards.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 161 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
3 y
y = sin x
y = sin x − π4

aft
2
y = 21 sin x − π4

y = 12 sin x − π4 − 2


1

x
-2π -1.5π -1π -0.5π 0.5π 1π 1.5π 2π

Dr −1

−2

−3

−4
Figure 52
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 162 / 181
Example 5
Sketch the graphs of each of the following y = 3 cot (3x − 2)

aft
Solution.
For y = 2 cot (3x − 2), a = 2, b = 3 and c = −2. Hence,

π π c −2 2
Period = = and Phase Shift = − = − =
Dr |b| 3 b 3 3

Hence, the graph of equation y = 3 cot (3x − 2) is the graph of

y = 3 cot 3x translated 23 units to the right.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 163 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 53

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 164 / 181

11.7 Equations involving trigonometric Functions

Algebraic methods and trigonometric identities are used frequently to find

aft
the solutions of trigonometric equations. Algebraic methods that are often
employed include solving by factoring, by squaring each side of the
equation, and by using the quadratic formula. The number of solutions to
a Trigonometric equation depends on the interval of definition.
To solving a basic trigonometric equations such as sin θ = k, for k ∈ R,

(i) first determine the quadrants in which θ lie.

Dr
(ii) find the corresponding angle say α in the first quadrant to which θ is
linked: solve the equations sin α =| k |.

(iii) Determine the corresponding angles for those quadrants.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 165 / 181

Example 47
Solve sin x = 12 .

aft
Solution.
For the equation sin x = 21 , the graph of y = sin x , along with the line
y = 12 is shown in the figure 54.

Dr
Figure 54

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 166 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
The x values of the intersections of the two graphs are the solutions of
sin x = 12 . The solutions in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π are x = π6 (or 30o )
and x = 5π o
6 (or 150 ).

aft
If we remove the restriction 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, there are many more solutions.
Because the sine function is periodic, with a period of 2π, other solutions
are obtained by adding 2πk, with k as an integer, to either of the previous
solutions. Thus the solutions of sin x = 12 are

π 5π
x= + 2πk or x = + 2πk, k ∈ Z.
Dr 6 6
That is, for k = 0±1, ±2, ±3, · · · , we have

π 11π 13π −23π 25π 5π 7π 17π 19π 29π

x= − , ,− , ··· , ,− , ,− , ,··· .
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 167 / 181

Example 48
Solve 2 sin2 x cos x − cos x = 0 where 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.

aft
Solution.

2 sin2 x cos x − cos x = 0 =⇒ cos x (2 sin2 x − 1) = 0

=⇒ cos x = 0 or 2 sin2 x − 1 = 0
1
=⇒ cos x = 0 or sin2 x =
2 √
=⇒
Dr π 3π
1
cos x = 0 or sin x = ± √ = ±
2 2
π 3π 5π 7π
2

=⇒ x= , or x = , , ,
2 2 4 4 4 4

The solutions in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π are

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 168 / 181
Solution Contin’d.
π 3π π 3π 5π 7π
, , , , and .
2 2 4 4 4 4

aft
Basically, the solutions are the x -coordinates of the x -intercepts of the
graph of y = 2 sin2 x cos x − cos x on the interval [0, 2π).

Dr
Figure 55: y = 2 sin2 x cos x − cos x

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 169 / 181

 aft
Squaring both sides of an equation may not produce an equivalent
equation. Thus, when this method is used, the proposed solutions must be
checked to eliminate any extraneous solutions.

Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 170 / 181
Example 49
Solve sin x + cosx = 1 where 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.

aft
Solution.

sin x + cos x = 1 =⇒ sin x = 1 − cos x

=⇒ sin2 x = (1 − cos x )2 ( Square each side )
=⇒ sin x = 1 − 2 cos x + cos2 x
2

=⇒ 1 − cos2 x = 1 − 2 cos x + cos2 x

Dr =⇒ 2 cos2 x − 2 cos x = 0
=⇒ 2 cos x (cos x − 1) = 0 factoring

Hence,

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 171 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
2 cosx = 0 or cos x − 1 = 0
x
cos = 0 or cos x = 1
π 3π
x= , or x =0
2 2
A check will show that 0 and π2 are solutions but 3π 2 is not a solution.The
solutions are the x -coordinates of the points of intersection of
Dr
y = sin x + cos x and y = 1 on the interval [0, 2π) is shown in Figure
56

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 172 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr
Figure 56: y = sin x + cos x − 1

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 173 / 181

Example 50
For 0 ≤ x < 2π solve,

(i) 6 sin2 x = 2 + sin x (ii) 3 cos2 x − 5 cos x − 4 = 0

aft
Solution.
(i) The given equation is quadratic in form and can be factored easily.
Now, we can use factorization to solve for sin x .

6 sin2 x = 2 + sin x
Dr =⇒ 6 sin2 x − sin x − 2 = 0
=⇒ 6 sin2 x + 3 sin x − 4 sin x − 2 = 0
=⇒ 3 sin x (2 sin x + 1) − 2(2 sin x + 1) = 0
=⇒ (3 sin x − 2)(2 sin x + 1) = 0
=⇒ 3 sin x − 2 = 0 or 2 sin x + 1 = 0

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 174 / 181

Soluton Contin’d.
(ii) The given equation 3 cos2 x − 5 cos x − 4 = 0 is quadratic in form and
cannot be factored easily. However, we can use the quadratic formula

aft
to solve for cos x . In 3 cos2 x − 5 cos x − 4 = 0, a = 3, b = −5 and
c = −4. Hence,

q
√
−(−5) ± (−5)2 − 4(3)(−4) 5± 72
cos x = = .
(2)(3) 6
√
5+ 72
The equation cos x = does not have a solution because
√
5+ 72
6
cos x =
Dr
5− 72
6 and because
6
> 2 and for any x the maximum value of cos x is 1. Thus
√ √
5− 72
6 √ is a negative number (about
5+ 72
−0.59), the equation cos x = 6 will have two solutions on the
interval [0, 2π). Thus

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 175 / 181

Solution Contin’d.
√

aft
!
−1 5+ 72
x = cos ≈ 2.2027
6
or
√ !
−1 5+ 72
x = 2π − cos ≈ 4.0805
6

To the nearest 0.0001, the solutions on [0, 2π) are 2.2027 and 4.0805.
Dr
When solving an equation that has multiple solutions, we must be sure we
find all solutions of the equation for the given interval as in the next
example.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 176 / 181

Example 51
1
Solve sin 2x = 2 for 0 ≤ x < 2π.

aft
Solution.
We first solve for 2x :

1 1
 
−1
sin 2x = =⇒ 2x = sin
2 2
Dr =⇒ 2x =
π
6
π
+ 2πk or 2x =
5π
6
+ 2πk

5π
Solving for x , we have x = 12 + πk or x = 12 + πk. Substituting integers
for k, we obtain

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 177 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

π 5π

aft
k=0: x= or x =
12 12
13π 17π
k=1: x= or x =
12 12
25π 29π
k=1: x= or x =
12 12
Note that for k ≥ 2, x ≥ 2π and the solutions to sin 2x = 12 are not in the
interval 0 ≤ x < 2π. Also, if k < 0 then x < 0 and no solutions in the
Dr
interval 0 ≤ x < 2π. Thus, for 0 ≤ x < 2π the solutions are

π 5π 13π 17π
, , and
12 12 12 12

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 178 / 181

Solution Contin’d.

aft
Dr Figure 57: y = sin 2x − 1
2

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 179 / 181

References

aft
[1] Aufmann R. N, , V. C. Barker and R. D. Nation, (2011). College Algebra and
Trigonometry. 7th Edition, Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
[2] Goodman, A. W. (1969). Analytic Geometry and the Calculus, Second Edition,
Collier-Macmillan.
[3] Spiegal M. R. and Wrede M. (2002). Advance Calculus, Theories and Problems.
Schaum’s Outline Series, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies. Inc, USA.
[4] Lay C. D., (1994). Linear Algebra and its Applications, 4th edition, Boston, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Dr
[5] Lipschutz S. and M. L. Lipson, (2009). Linear Algebra, 4th edition, Schaum’s
outline Series, New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
[6] Spiegel M. R. and R. E. Mayer, (2009). College Algebra, 2nd edition, Schaum’s
outline Series, New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 180 / 181

.

aft
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

THE END OF LECTURE NOTES 11

Dr
Matindih L. K. (MU/SNAS/DMS) MSM 111-MATHEMATICAL METHODS I 2022/2023 181 / 181