GESO-1/OSOU

GESO-1: Introduction to Sociology-1

Brief Contents
Block Block Unit Unit
No No
1 Meaning, Emergence of
Discipline and Perspective Sociology,
1 2 Definition, Subject Matter
3 Nature and Scope of Sociology
4 Relationship of Sociology with
Anthropology, Political Science,
History and Economics

Block Block Unit Unit

No No
5 Society and Community
Basic Concepts 6 Associations and Institutions
2 7 Social Groups and Culture
8 Role and Status

Block Block Unit Unit

No No
9 Meaning,Definition,Characteristics
Social Stratification 10 Forms of Stratification-Caste, class
3 & gender
11 Functionalist Theories of
stratification (Parsons, Davis &
Moore)
12 Marxian & Weberian Theories of
stratification

Block Block Unit Unit

No No
13 Meaning, Definitions, Stages of
Socialization Process
4 14 Agencies of Socialization
Socialization and Social
15 Social Control: Meaning,
Control Definitions, importance of social
control
16 Agencies of Social Control:
Formal and Informal
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ODISHA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY, SAMBALPUR
Programme Name: Bachelor of Arts (Honours) in Sociology

Programme Code: BASO Course Name: Introduction to Sociology-1

Course Code: GESO-01 Semester: I

Credit: 6 Block No. 1 to 4 Unit No. 1 to16 Pages: 1 to 133

This study material has been developed by Odisha State Open University as per the state model
syllabus for under graduate course in Sociology (Bachelor of Arts Examination) under Choice
Based Credit System (CBCS)

COURSE WRITERS

Ms. Soumya Sucharita Bhanja Dr. Jnana Ranjan Prusty

Academic Consultant, OSOU Lecturer in Sociology,
Ravenshaw University, Cuttack

Ms. Karisma Sahoo Dr. Dhananjay Kumar

Academic Consultant, OSOU Assistant Professor in Anthropology,
Kalahandi University, Bhawanipatna

Ms. Sucharita Mishra Dr. Sipra Sagarika

OSOU Counsellor Assistant Professor in Sociology,
Fakir Mohan University, Balasore

OER

OER Source- https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/

http://digitalkkhsou.in/kkhsou.ac.in/eslm/E-SLM-for-
Learner/1st%20Sem/Master%20Degree/Sociology/PGSO%20S1%2002%20(Block%201).pdf

COURSE EDITORS

Mr. Pratap Kishore Mohanty Ms. Karisma Sahoo

Academic Consultant, OSOU Academic Consultant, OSOU

Ms. Soumya Sucharita Bhanja

Academic Consultant, OSOU

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Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur
(cc) OSOU, 2022. Introduction to Sociology-1 is made available under a
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 GESO-1/OSOU

GESO-1: Introduction to Sociology-1

Contents
Blocks/Units Pg. No.

BLOCK-1: DISCIPLINE AND PERSPECTIVE 1-33

Unit-1: Meaning and Emergence of Sociology: Introduction, Meaning of Sociology,

Emergence of Sociology, and Intellectual Antecedent of Sociology

Unit-2: Definition and Subject Matter: Introduction, Definition of Sociology,

Subject matter of Sociology, Significance of Sociology

Unit-3: Nature and Scope of Sociology: Introduction, Nature of Sociology, Scope of

Sociology, Methods in Sociology

Unit-4: Relationship of Sociology with Anthropology, Political Sciences, History

and Economics: Introduction, Sociology and other academic disciplines, Sociology
and Anthropology, Sociology and Economics, Sociology and Political Science,
Sociology and History

BLOCK-2: BASICS CONCEPTS 34-77

Unit-5: Society and Community: Introduction, Origin, Meaning, and definition,

Characteristics, Types of society and Man & society- interrelationships. Origin,
Meaning and Definitions, Characteristics community and Distinctions between
society and community
Unit-6: Association and Institutions: Introduction, Social Interaction and social
relationship, Social, Interaction in Everyday Life. Meaning, Definition,
Characteristics and Types of Association, Major Types and Functions of Social
Institutions
Unit-7: Social Groups and Culture: Introduction, Definition, Basic Features and
Classification of Groups. Meaning Definitions, Characteristics, Related Concepts of
Culture
Unit-8: Role and Status: Introduction, Introduction, Meaning, Definitions, Types
and Characteristics of Status. Meaning, Definitions, Types and Characteristics,
Classification and Dimensions of Role.
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BLOCK-3: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 78-102

Unit-9: Meaning, Definition and Characteristics: Introduction, meaning, characteristics,

diversity of form, consequences and importance of Social Stratification

Unit-10: Forms of Stratification: Introduction Caste, Class, Race, Ethnicity &

Gender

Unit-11: Functionalist Theories of Stratification: Introduction, Talcott Parson,

Kingsley Davis and Moore and Malvin & Tumin

Unit-12: Marxian & Weberian Theories of Stratification: Introduction, Marxian,

Weberian Theories of Stratification, Pareto: Law of the Circulations of elite and
C Wright Mills: The Power of Elite

BLOCK-4: SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL 103-133

Unit-13: Meaning, Definition and Stages of Socialization Process: Introduction,

Shared Meanings and Values, Education and Socialization, aims, objectives and stages
of social control
Unit-14: Agencies of Socialization: Introduction, Differences in Socialization,
Families, Social Class and Socialization, Sex and Gender Identity and Mass media

Unit-15: Social Control: Introduction, Meaning, Definitions, Nature, importance

and goals of social control

Unit-16: Agencies of social control: Formal and Informal: Introduction,

socialization, law, customs and education
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Block-1
DISCIPLINE AND PERSPECTIVE

Unit-1: Meaning, Emergence of Sociology

Unit-2: Definition, Subject Matter
Unit-3: Nature and Scope of Sociology
Unit-4: Relationship of Sociology with
Political Science, History and
Economics
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UNIT-1 MEANING AND EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Structure

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Meaning of Sociology
1.4 Emergence of Sociology
1.5 Intellectual Antecedent of Sociology
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Check Your Progress
1.9 Refrences

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 Learn the meaning of sociology

 Study thr emergence of sociology
 Understand the Antecedent of Sociology

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Before attempting to define what sociology is, les us look at what the popular
conceptions of the discipline seem. As may be the case with other sciences, sociology
is often misconceived among the populace. Though many may rightly and grossly
surmise that sociology is about people, some think that it is all about “helping the
unfortunate and doing welfare work, while others think that sociology is the same as
socialism and is a means of bringing revolution to our schools and colleges”.

1.3 MEANING OF SOCIOLOGY

The first social scientist to use the term sociology was a Frenchman by the name of
Auguste Comte who lived from 1798-1857. As coined by Comte, the term sociology is
a combination of two words. The first part of the term is a Latin, socius- that may
variously mean society, association, togetherness or companionship. The other word,
logos, is of Greek origin. It literally means to speak about or word. However, the term
is generally understood as study or science (Indrani, 1998). Thus, the etymological,
literal definition of sociology is that it is the word or speaking about society. A simple
definition here is that it is the study of society and culture.

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Although the term “sociology” was first used by the French social philosopher august
Comte, the discipline was more firmly established by such theorists as Emile
Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber (Nobbs, Hine and Flemming, 1978).

Before going any further, let us note that the concepts “society and “culture” are
central in sociology. While each concept shall be dealt with later in some detail, it
appears to be appropriate here to help students differentiate between these two
important concepts. Society generally refers to the social world with all its structures,
institutions, organizations, etc around us, and specifically to a group of people who
live within some type of bounded territory and who share a common way of life. This
common way of life shared by a group of people is termed as culture (Stockard, 1997).

Now, turning to the definitional issues, it is important that in addition to this

etymological definition of the term, we need to have other substantive definitions.
Thus, sociology may be generally defined as a social science that studies such kinds of
phenomena as:

 The structure and function of society as a system;

 The nature, complexity and contents of human social behavior;
 The fundamentals of human social life;
 Interaction of human beings with their external environment;
 The indispensability of social interactions for human development;
 How the social world affects us, etc

A more formal definition of sociology may be that it is a social science which studies
the processes and patterns of human individual and group interaction, the forms of
organization of social groups, the relationship among them, and group influences on
individual behavior, and vice versa, and the interaction between one social group and
the other (Team of Experts, 2000).

Sociology is the scientific study of society, which is interested in the study of social
relationship between people in group context. Sociology is interested in how we as
human beings interact with each other (the pattern of social interaction); the laws and
principles that govern social relationship and interactions; the /influence of the social
world on the individuals, and vice versa (Ibid.). It deals with a factually observable
subject matter, depends upon empirical research, and involves attempts to formulate
theories and generalizations that will make sense of facts (Giddens, 1982).

Regarding the detective and expository nature the science, Soroka (1992:34) states that
“Sociology is a debunking science; that is, it looks for levels of reality other than those
presented in official interpretations of society and people’s common sense
explanations of the social world. Sociologists are interested in understanding what is
and do not make value judgments.”
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1.4 EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

It is widely known that significant developments that had occurred in the nineteenth
century are responsible for the formation of sociology as a discipline. The survey
analysis of social conditions was extremely necessary for divisions such as political
philosophy, political reform, social and economic reform, and theories of evolution.
This propelled the emergence of sociology as a separate social science. The unfolding
of a period of intellectual progress known as the historical tradition was a crucial
feature for sociology as it popularized the idea that society is more than just a political
state. During this period, Enlightenment thinkers were able to move away from
theological influences and move towards a more progressive and causal thought
process. Moreover, social surveys became extremely important around the Industrial
Revolution as industrial societies had accelerated problems such as poverty. The use of
social surveys became a common tool for the analysis of the science of a society and it
aided the sociological investigation. Survey analysis revealed that people’s ideologies
were changing along with the societal conditions. They wanted more social and
political reforms with the rising inequality between the bourgeoisie and the
proletarians and they also moved away from theological beliefs to scientific
application to study the problems of humanity.

The Political Revolutions in France were also triggered by the development of

concepts such as historical philosophy as it pointed out the problems of society. It
showed people that social and economical conditions are as important as political
reforms. That is why societies in Western Europe especially had changed drastically as
they were becoming more aware of their social structure and norms and how
institutions were affecting the quality of life. The French Revolution set off a sequence
of revolutions throughout the nineteenth century that was a major factor for the
progress of sociology as it brought along major implications such as inequality, slums
due to population concentration in urban areas, labor-capital disputes, and so on.
While it did affect societies in a positive way as they were becoming socially aware
and a lot of positive improvements were being implemented in societies, the
revolutions also made way for chaos and anarchy in societies due to the new ills that
were taking over the states. Auguste Comte’s work was inspired by these changes in
society and he is often known as the founder of sociology. He was able to establish
sociology as a separate social science as he noticed that all social sciences tackle
specific parts of the society but he wanted to establish a social science where society
as a whole is studied and analyzed.

Comte is credited with the establishment of the first scientific study of society. This
was extremely crucial as opposed to other social sciences, sociology was able to
prominently study human social behavior. His Positive Philosophy (1830) designed a
new structure for society including a new set of rules that regulated society to solve the
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issues that were affecting the society. His collaboration with Saint Simon between
1817-23 brought about the necessity for scientific methods for the study of society.
The study of sociology was at first called social physics by Comte but over time he
changed it to sociology. His major work that was used to implement his purpose of
social development was System of Positive Politics (1851-54). It applied sociological
theories to social problems and social conditions in that period of time.The three major
factors which influence the emergence of sociology as a sphere of study began in the
late eighteenth century with the French Revolution, the period known as ‘the
Enlightenment’ and the industrial revolution.

Each one of these influences has contributed to what Karl Polanyi, the Austro-
Hungarian philosopher termed ‘the Great Transformation’ in his book of the same
name, one of the results of this ‘great transformation’ resulted in the emergence of the
science of sociology. History began to change in 1789 when the French Revolution
broke out followed by the Enlightenment – the creation of a new framework of ideas
about man, society and nature. In addition, further economic and social changes were
brought forward with the industrial revolution firstly in England and then in the whole
of Europe.

The French revolution had lasted for ten whole years and was the first modern and
ideological revolution of its kind. It had a great impact on society because it changed
its structure. It managed to eliminate the social distinctions between people and the
feudal society. The power shifted away from the Church and came to hands of the
people. This was the first time people were seen as citizens. In addition to this, the
clerical hierarchy which had existed until then gave up its rights and property. These
changes had a historical, political and social impact in the entire of Europe and not just
France.Plato and Aristotle had become exterminally manifest in the social and
historical world as a consequence of the revolution in France.

Additionally, the French Revolution brought significant changes to the family since it
was followed by the Declaration of Human Rights which stated that all humans are
born free and equal. Changes to family-related issues were also brought into force. At
the same time the Church lost much of its tremendous influence and power, which
devolved to the people. The clerical hierarchy that had existed until then gave up its
rights and property. ‘Civil marriage’ and ‘divorce’ were established. Civil marriage
was another way for people to project their doubts upon the Church. A couple blessed
by God could now follow different paths in their lives with the ‘divorce’ being
established and accepted. Education and religion were also subject to changes.

The second major event, that took place during the late 18th and early 19th century,
was Industrialisation. The Industrial Revolution began in England in 18th century
(1870) and brought several changes in societies, shaping them in the form they are
today. It was “the major shift of technological, socioeconomic and cultural conditions
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in the late 18th and early 19th century that began in Britain and spread throughout the
world” (Wikipedia, Internet encyclopaedia).

At the end of the 18th century the world was experiencing a rapid population growth
which led to an economic boom. As the demand was increasing, more workers were
needed to cover the increasing demand. Production of goods increased. This was a
different type of work before Industrialisation people were working in a traditional
forms.

Technology brought significant changes in the work place which led to great
improvement and efficiency. Machines were now helping people in production and
thereby improving time efficiency and production volume as well as the conditions
under which people worked. Technological changes included the use of iron and steel,
new energy sources. These changes in technology improved both the quality of the
products being produced as well as the work-conditions of the workers in production.
Fewer efforts were now required by the workers in terms of producing a good.
Technology also improved transportation and hence trade and commerce between
countries. Markets expanded even more since goods and raw materials that were
scarce in one country could be supplied from another. Machines became the symbols
of the new society and humanity could be seen to be all working into this machine.

In addition, the area of communication also saw great improvement during this time
period and people could now travel easier and reach their destination quicker. In the
past, the only method people could communicate between them was through letters.
This way of communication however, was both time consuming and uncertain since
the letters were often lost somewhere in between. Fortunately, during the late 18th and
early 19th century letters could be delivered faster and new ways of communication
were developed such as the telegraph. These improvements also brought people and
societies closer to one another. People moved to the cities were the markets began to
emerge.

The Enlightenment was a significant contributing factor to the emergence of sociology

in the late 18th and early 19th century. The Enlightenment is considered to be the
source of critical ideas, such as the centrality freedom, democracy, and reason as
primary values of society. It is the “creation of a new framework of ideas about man,
society and nature, which challenged existing conceptions rooted in a traditional
world-view, dominated by Christianity” (Hamilton,23). The Enlightenment was an
intellectual movement consisting of many philosophers. The most popular figures of
this new framework were Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755), Jacques Tugot (1729-
1781) and Jean Condorcet (1743-1794). They managed to challenge the traditional and
existing conceptions of the world.

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The thinkers of Enlightenment aimed to teach people stop listening and following
blindly the church’s opinion and decisions, and start thinking on their own. Challenge
what they hear and develop their critical judgment. People were now advised to try
and solve their problems on their own rather than wait for God to provide a solution
for them. This new way of thinking was a big factor in economic growth. The
iincreased education, through the emergence of upper class philosophers, the
publishing of newspapers and the emergence of new types of media resulted in the
arts, such a writing and painting to only develop, improve and flourish during that time
period.

Reaching to a conclusion, the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution and the
Enlightenment were the three major factors that contributed towards the emergence of
sociology in the late 18th and early 19th century. During this historical period,
people’s lives became much easier and better. All these changes helped people become
more open minded and created for them a life with more choices. , This important
turning point in history led to a technological and economic boom. It also resulted in
people learning to live in societies. “A person who cannot live in society, or does not
need to because he is self-sufficient, is either a beast or a God”. (Aristotle, Politics)

1.5 INTELLECTUAL ANTECEDENT OF SOCIOLOGY

The chief intellectual antecedents of sociology are summed up by Ginsberg in the

following words: Broadly it may be said that sociology has had a fourfold origin in
political philosophy, the philosophy of history, biological theories of evolution and the
movements for social and political reform which found it necessary to undertake
survey of social conditions.
Over the time, there had grown the intellectual tradition described as the historical
tradition or the philosophy of history, which believed the general idea of progress. To
combat the influence of theology on history, the thinkers of the Enlightenments
introduced the idea of causality into history of philosophy, elaborated the theory of
progress. But philosophy of history as a distinct branch of speculation is a creation
eighteenth century.
The philosophical historians introduced the new conception of society as something
more than the political society’ or the State. They were concerned with the whole
range of social institution and made a distinction between the State and what they
called ‘civil society’.
They were concerned with discussions of the nature of society, classification of
societies into types, population, family, Government, morality and law etc. In the early
part of the nineteenth century the philosophy of history became an important
intellectual influence through the writings of Hegel and Saint-Simon. The features of

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writings of philosophical historian reappeared in the nineteenth century, in the works
of Comte and Spencer.
“A second important element in modern sociology” to quote Bottom ore is provided
by social survey which itself has two sources. The first was the growing conviction of
the applicability of the methods of natural sciences to the study of human affairs.
The second was the movement for social and political reforms which made it
necessary to undertake surveys of social problems like poverty which arose in the
industrial societies of Western Europe. The social survey came to occupy an important
place in the new science of society and it was one of the principal methods of
sociological enquiThese intellectual movements, the philosophy of history, and the
social survey were themselves the product of social settings of the eighteenth and
nineteenth-century Western Europe. The Philosophy of history was not merely a child
of thought. It was born of two revolutions, the Industrial Revolution and the Political
Revolutions in France. Similarly, the social survey emerged from a new conception of
evils of industrial society.
All intellectual fields are profoundly shaped by their social setting. This is particularly
true of sociology, which is not only derived from that setting but takes the social
setting as its basic subject matter. We will focus briefly on few of the most important
social conditions of nineteenth and early twentieth century that were of type utmost
significant in the development of sociology.

The Biological Theories of Evolution

The influence of the philosophy of history was further reinforced by the biological
theory of evolution. Sociology moved towards an evolutionary approach, seeking to
identify and account for the principal stages in social evolution. It tended to be
modeled on biology, as is evident from the widely diffused conception of society as an
organism, and from the attempts to formulate general terms of social evolution.
Herbert Spencer and Durkheim are good example of this kind of writing.

Surveys of Social Conditions

Social survey forms an important element in modern sociology. It emerged due to two
reasons, one was the growing conviction that the methods of the natural sciences
should and could be extended to the study of human affairs; that human phenomenon
could be classified and measured. The other was the concern with poverty (‘the social
problem’), following the recognition that poverty was not natural but social. The social
survey is one of the principal methods of sociological inquiry.
The basic assumption, which underlines this method, is that through the knowledge of
the social conditions one can arrive at solutions to solve the social problems prevalent
in society.

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Conservative Reaction to Enlightenment

However, the Enlightenment's impact on sociological thought was indirect and

harmful. Indeed, Conservative Reactionaries to the Enlightenment such as Louis de
Bonald (1754-1840) and Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) made as much contribution to
the development of sociology asEnlightenment-influenced scientists. De Bonald was
extremely disturbed by the significant and revolutionary changes that resulted in the
formation of a highly impersonal metropolitan city life devoid of any sense of
community and argued for a return to the peace and stability of bygone eras. To that
extent, sociology—with its emphasis on society as a unit of analysis rather than the
individual; recognition of the various components of society as
interconnected and interdependent; and emphasis on the ultimate harmony and
stability of the society—can be said to have been influenced by the Conservative
Reaction. Indeed, while the objectives of sociology have been influenced by
Conservative thought (harmony, stability, and unity), the methods have been
influenced by Enlightenment thinkers who recognised that, while one cannot return to
the past, one can create a better society through the application of new knowledge
about the society (Scientific Method) (Retzer 2016). Thus, Enlightenment and
Conservative philosophy fused to become Sociology. Additionally, these intellectual
stirrings were not separated from the social environment that prevailed in Western
Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries.

1.6 LET US SUM UP

The Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Enlightenment were the
main three reasons that influenced or contributed to the emergence of sociology. The
emergence of sociology began in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The lives of
common people were much better and easier during this historical period. Due to all
the changes that occurred during this period, the people became more open-minded
and started to live a good life with several options. All these changes were an
important turning point for that period, leading to an economic and technological
boom and helping people to learn to live in societies.

1.7 GLOSSARY

 Culture-It refers to the sum of human beings' life ways, their behaviour,
beliefs, feelings, thought.
 Society- a group of people who live in a definable territory and share the same
culture.

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1.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

 What is sociology? Explain it using your own words.

 Give an account of the origin and main aim of Sociology?
 What do you mean by sociology?
 Who is the father of Sociology?
 In which year the term Sociology has conied.

1.9 REFERENCES

 Berger, P. (1963). Invitation to sociology: A humanistic perspective, Anchor

Books Double Day & Company, Inc.: New York
 Bottomore, T.B. (1962). Sociology: A guide to problems and literature, George
Allen & Unwin Ltd.: London
 3Inkeles, A. (1975). What is sociology? Prentice-Hall: New Delhi.
 https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/sociology-subject-matter-scope-
and-schools-of-sociology-2915-words/8482
 https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/health/ephti/library/lecture_notes/
health_science_students/ln_sociology_final.pdf

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UNIT-2 DEFINITION AND SUBJECT MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY

Structure

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Definition of Sociology
2.4 Subject matter of Sociology
2.5 Significance of Sociology
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Glossary
2.8 Check Your Progress
2.9 References

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 Study the Definition of Sociology

 Understand the subject matter of sociology
 Learner the significance of sociology

2.2 INTRODUCTION

This unit will focous on the definition and subject matter and significance of
sociology. Sociology is a new social science. French sociologist Auguste Comte
coined the term sociology in 1839. The term ‘sociology’ is derived from the Latin
word ‘societus’ meaning ‘society’ and the Greek word ‘logos’ meaning study or
‘science’. Etymologically sociology means the ‘science of society’ sociology concerns
itself with an analysis and explanation of social phenomena. It studies social life,
actions, behaviours and incidents.

2.3 DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is the study of social relationships, groups and societies. Its subject matter is
our own behaviour as social beings. Sociologists differ in their opinions about the
definition of sociology. Sociology has been defined as the science of society. Some
others have defined sociology as the scientific study of social relationships or
activities. But what defines sociology is not what it studies i.e. group or family, but
how it studies a chosen thing. In this context, it is necessary to discuss some of the
definitions of sociology.

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1. Auguste Comte, “sociology is the science of social phenomena subject to natural
and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation”.
2. Alex inkles, “Sociology is the study of systems of social action and their
interrelations”. 1. Emile Durkheim “Sociology is the science of social institutions”.
3. Max-Weber, “sociology is the science which attempts an interpretative
understanding of social action”.
4. Morris Ginsberg, “sociology is the study of human interactions and inter-relations
their conditions and consequences”.
5. Morris Ginsberg, “sociology is the science that deals with social groups, their
internal forms or modes of organization, the processes that tend to maintain or change
these forms of organization and relations between groups”.
6. H.P. Fairchild, “sociology is the study of the relationships between man and his
human environment”.
7. J.F. Culler, “sociology may be defined as the body of scientific knowledge about
human relationships.
8. G.A. Lundberg, “sociology is a body of related generalizations about human social
behaviour arrived at by scientific method”.
9. R.E. Park and F.W. Burgess, “sociology is the science of collective behaviour”.
10. P.A. Sorokin, “sociology is a generalizing science of socio-cultural phenomena
viewed in their generic form, types and manifold interconnections”.
11. Arnold Green, “sociology is the synthesizing and generalising science of men in
all his social relationships”.
12. Kimball Young, “sociology deals with the behaviour of men in groups”.
13. Gillin and Gillin, “sociology in its broadest sense may be said to be the study of
interactions arising from the association of living beings”.
14. G.Duncan Mitchell, “sociology is a science for scientific social development”

2.4 SUBJECT MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY

There is no special field of sociology since its subject matter has been parcelled out to
a number of social science like political science, economics, psychology,
anthropology, and history etc. Another criticism against sociology is that it borrows
from other social sciences. It is argued that sociology is a hotch-potch of different
social sciences.

It may be stated here that these arguments are totally incorrect and need no
consideration. Today sociology is not only a distinct science with subject matter of its
won but it has also acquired that high status which entitles it to be called the “mother
of all social sciences”. Sociology has a distinct position among other social sciences.

Sociology is a special kind of abstraction, lit has its own perspective and its own
system of explanation of human behaviour. While discussing the position of sociology

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among other social sciences, Maclver has rightly remarked that the social sciences
have the spheres within sociology just as associations have the spheres within
community.

Sociology has produced a great deal of valuable information’s about social institutions
such as family, property, church and State; about social traditions, about social
processes, about social classes, about changes in social habits, customs and fashions;
about social control, about crime and suicide. None of these topics is adequately
treated elsewhere.

Sociology, no doubt, borrows” its subject matter from other social sciences, but it
gives this subject matter completely a new form. Sociology adopts completely
different system of explanation of subject matter. Sociology borrows raw materials,
applies a technique and creates what is called society and a distinct discipline to study
its structure and processes. In the words of Motwani, “Sociology like an edifice is both
the principle of coordination of facts of social life into an organic whole and also an
independent science, the end result of such integration”.

Sociology is a science with its own subject matter, ‘social life as a whole’ and deals
with more general principles underlying all social phenomena. Social phenomena is
the subject matter of sociology. The basic social phenomena, the unit for sociological
analysis is commonly identified as interaction between two or more human beings.
Where there is interaction, the participants are said to be in social relationship. Human
interaction and interrelation become the subject matter of sociology.

When relationships endure, they form social groups. The social group is commonly
recognized to be one of the major; subjects of sociological study. The social group is a
system that is a structure consisting of parts which, without losing their identity and
individuality, constitute a whole transcending the parts.

The individuals who form the social group stand in patterned relationship, so that to
each person is ascribed a definite social position called ‘status’. Social groups often
from hierarchies within society. This phenomena is called stratification. Today social
stratification is a field of intensive research in sociology.

Another basic area of study in sociology consists of the social ‘Processes’. Among the
social processes, cooperation is basic in social life. Other social processes in
sociological study are conflict, competition, assimilation, accommodation,
communication, socialization etc.

Sociology also gives emphasis on study of culture, which is usually taken to be the
sum total of relatively stable and standardized ways of thinking and acting operative in
a given society.
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Change in culture and in social structure constitutes major area of study developed in
sociology. The principal mechanism of social and cultural change have been well
known since long back. A number of detailed propositions concerning the conditions
of invention and of the acceptance and diffusion of inventions belong to the domain of
contemporary sociology.

Sociology has been concerned with the development and functions of basic social
institutions such as family and kinship, religion, property, political, educational and
economic institutions.

Sociology has its own methodology for research. Contemporary sociology is more
rational and empirical. Very few sociologists today deny that enumeration,
measurement and refined statistical procedures are desirable techniques to be used in
any investigation. Sociology has welt developed theories. Theoretical sociology
emerged historically as illustrated in the broad theoretical schemes of August Comte,
Herbert Spencer, Lester F. Ward and other pioneers.

Theoretical sociology has also been developed by Peter Blaui, George Homans,
Charles Loomis, P. Sorokin, R.K. Merton, Talcott Parsons and others. Over the years
sociologists have developed and refined several Inroad theories to account for the
nature of society.

Some sociologists take a ‘Macroscopic’ (broad view) and large scale phenomena such
as the working of entire societies or worldwide trends (modernization), historical
phenomena etc. Other Sociologists study small-scale social phenomena such as the
behaviour of the individuals and small groups, for example family relationships. Such
studies are called ‘micro-sociology’.

The application of sociological perspective to different fields of human relationships

has given birth to many branches of sociology Of these the most important branches
are rural sociology, urban sociology, sociology of crime, sociology of education,
political sociology, sociology of religion, industrial sociology, historical sociology,
sociology of art etc. From time to time new fields of enquiry in sociology is emerging
out and there is no doubt that this trend in sociology will continue.

2.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Generally, learning sociology provides us with what sociologists call the sociological
imagination. Sociological imagination is a particular way of looking at the world
around us through sociological lenses. It is a way of looking at our experiences in light
of what is going on in the social world around us. This helps us to appreciate the social
and non-biological forces that affect, influence and shape our lives as individuals,
groups, and communities (Giddens, 1982). Sociological imagination helps us look
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beyond individual psychology to the many and varied facets of social and cultural
forces, and "the recurring patterns in peoples' attitudes and actions, and how these
patterns vary across time, cultures and social groups." (Henslin and Nelson, 1995).
Learning sociology helps us understand how social forces influence our goals,
attitudes, behavior, and personality. We become more sensitive towards the social
issues. Furthermore, learning sociology helps to cast aside our own biased
assumptions, stereotypes and ethno-centric thinking and practices to become more
critical, broad- minded and respectful in our interpersonal and inter- group
relationships. By learning sociology, we can be more humane and people – centered;
we give high value to human dignity.

In general, sociology increases our self-knowledge. Learning sociology can provide us

with selfenlightenment. When we learn sociology, we gain more knowledge about the
conditions of our own lives, and about the way our society and social system function.
As such knowledge increases, we can be more empowered to influence the direction of
forces and circumstances that affect our lives. We can also be more responsive to the
various policies set by governments; and can suggest our own policy initiatives and
alternatives (Giddens, op cit).

In addition to the aforementioned theoretical benefits, sociology has certain practical

benefits. There is what we call applied sociology, the application of sociological
knowledge, principles, methods, concepts and theories to provide the solutions to the
contemporary social pathologies. Sociology plays practical roles to tackle social
pathologies.

Sociological knowledge is highly applicable in dealing with today's most crucial social
problems, and in facilitating developmental activities in socioeconomic sectors.
Before closing this section, it is important to note why health/ medical sciences
students need to take a course in introductory sociology. The following are some of the
arguments for the necessity of such a course:
1. Health, disease and illness are as much sociocultural in their nature as they are
physical.
2. So far, despite certain steps being taken, the dominant trend in the medical/ health
sciences training is to highly focus on the biomedical and ecological dimensions of
health and disease. However, given the bio-psycho-social nature of human being and
health, this is very partial. This restricted approach to health disease does not provide
the students with appropriate and whole picture about the issue. Such highly narrow
focus in the training of heath professionals and design of health policies and strategies
is not appropriate.
3. In the objective realties of developing societies such as Ethiopia human health and
well-being are deeply linked to sociocultural factors such as the entrenched poverty,

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the roles of traditional values and institutions in shaping people’s worldviews about
health and disease

2.6 LET US SUM UP

Sociology is the systematic study of society and social interaction. In order to carry out
their studies, sociologists identify cultural patterns and social forces and determine
how they affect individuals and groups. They also develop ways to apply their findings
to the real world. Studying sociology is beneficial both for the individual and for
society. By studying sociology people learn how to think critically about social issues
and problems that confront our society. The study of sociology enriches students’ lives
and prepares them for careers in an increasingly diverse world. Society benefits
because people with sociological training are better prepared to make informed
decisions about social issues and take effective action to deal with them.

2.7 GLOSSARY

 Rational -based on or in accordance with reason or logic

 Emperical-based on what is experienced or seen rather than on theory
 Abstarct-existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete
existence

2.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

 How would you define Sociology?

 Define Sociology and discuss its importance as a course of study.
 ‘Sociology is the science of society’. Discuss.
 Is Sociology a Science with its own subject- matter? Discuss fully?
 What is the significance for studing Sociology in India?
 Socioogy has been defined in many ways by various sociologists. What are
your views on the subject-matter of Socioogy?

2.9 REFRENCES

 Berger, P. (1963). Invitation to sociology: A humanistic perspective, Anchor

Books Double Day & Company, Inc.: New York
 Bottomore, T.B. (1962). Sociology: A guide to problems and literature, George
Allen & Unwin Ltd.: London
 3Inkeles, A. (1975). What is sociology? Prentice-Hall: New Delhi.
 https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/sociology-subject-matter-scope-
and-schools-of-sociology-2915-words/8482

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 https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/health/ephti/library/lecture_notes/
health_science_students/ln_sociology_final.pdf

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UNIT-3 NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY

Structure

3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Nature of Sociology
3.4 Scope of Sociology
3.5 Methods in Sociology
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Glossary
3.8 Check Your Progress
3.9 Refrences

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 Study the Nature of Sociology

 Understand the Scope of Sociology
 Learner the Methods in Sociology

3.2 INTRODUCTION

Sociology is scientific in nature. In other words, sociology tries to make a scientific

study regarding the social actions or the social events. This statement might have
raised a question that what is a scientific study.

When one tries to understand a phenomenon systematically and logically then it can be
called a scientific study. In other words, scientific study must be based on facts and the
subjective feelings of a researcher must not influence the study. Secondly, the study
must employ appropriate methods to unravel facts and analyze them for logical
conclusions. Such conclusions or generalizations must be empirically verifiable,
reliable and valid with respect to the phenomena under investigation.

Now, since sociology deals with human beings and the values that people in societies
hold, the methods used in sociology is slightly different from methods used by natural
sciences. The subject matter of natural sciences, for example that of Physics or
Chemistry, is non-living particles. These particles do not have any consciousness of
their own. However as already mentioned, the subject matter of sociology is human
being who has a consciousness of his/her own and tends to behave differently when
he/she comes to know that his/her behavior is being observed. Moreover, human
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beings cannot be studied in a laboratory and to understand their real nature,
sociologists have to study them in a natural setting. But one thing is common about all
the sciences (including sociology) that observation must be done in a scientific way.
This means an observer must be able to note down accurately whatever he or she is
observing. Thus, a sociologist must be able to keep away his/her pre-conceived
notions while researching. For example a researcher might have some earlier notion
about a particular society which he or she is trying to study, but while studying, he or
she must note whatever he/she has observed and not what he/she ‘feels’ about that
society. Robert Bierstedt in his book “The Social Order” described some of the
characteristics of sociology which are discussed below

3.3 NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY

Before discussing the nature of Sociology, it is better to know about the nature of a
subject. The nature of a subject refers to its internal characteristics which help one to
understand what kind of science it is.

Every branch of knowledge has its own nature. Thus, Sociology as a branch of
knowledge had its own nature or characteristic which distinguishes it from other social
sciences and helps to understand what kind of science it is.

The nature of Sociology is as follows:

(1) Sociology is an independent science:

Sociology is not treated and studied as a branch of any other science like philosophy,
history. Now it has emerged into an independent science. As an independent science it
has its own field of study.

(2) Sociology is a social science and not a physical science:

All the sciences are divided into two categories: natural sciences and social sciences.
Natural sciences study physical phenomena where as social sciences study social
phenomena. Social sciences include Economics, Political Science, and Anthropology
etc. Sociology belongs to the family of social sciences. As a social science it
concentrates its attention on man, his social behaviour, activities and social life. In
other words, it studies man as a social being.

(3) Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science:

The aim of applied science is to apply the acquired knowledge into life and to put it to
use. But the aim of pure sciences is the acquisition of knowledge and it is not bothered
whether the acquired knowledge is useful or can be put to use. Sociology is a pure

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science, because it aims at the acquisition of knowledge about human society, hot the
utilisation of the knowledge.

(4) Sociology is an abstract science and not a concrete science:

This doesn't mean that Sociology, is an art and not a science. It only refers that
Sociology is not interested in concrete manifestations of human events. It is more
concerned with the form of human events and their patterns. Similarly, Sociology does
not confine itself to the study of this society or that particular society. It simply means
that Sociology is an abstract science, not a concrete science.

(5) Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline:

Sociology "confines itself about what is, not what should be or ought to be." As a
science it is silent about questions of value. It does not make any kind of value
judgment. It only means Sociology as a discipline cannot deal with problems of good
and evil, right and wrong.

(6) Sociology is a generalising and not a particularising science:

Sociology does not study each and every event that takes place in society. It makes
generalization on the basis of some selected events. For example, not by studying or
examining all the secondary groups but by observing a few secondary groups, a
sociologist makes generalization of secondary groups.

(7) Sociology is a general science and not a special socialscience:

The area of inquiry of Sociology is general and not specialised. Social sciences like
Political Science, History, Economics, etc. study human interaction but not all about
human interactions. But Sociology does not investigate special kind of phenomena in
relation to human life, and activities but it only studies human activities in a general
way.

(8) Sociology is both a rational and empirical science:

Empiricism is the approach that emphasizes experiences and the facts that result from
observation and experimentation. On the other hand, rationalism stresses reason and
theories that result from logical inference. The empiricist collects facts, the rationalist
co-ordinates and arranges them. In sociological theory both are significant. Thus,
Sociology is both a rational and empirical science.

3.4 SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY

Ever since the beginning of Sociology, Sociologists have shown a great concern in
man and in the dynamics of Society. Therefore, the subject matter of sociology, which
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it covers to study, became very wide. Here, a general outline of the subject matter of
sociology is given:

The major concern of sociology is sociological analysis. It means that sociologists

seek to provide an analysis of human society and culture with a sociological
perspective.

Sociology has given sufficient attention to the study of primary units of social life. In
this area, it is concerned with social acts and social relationships, groups of all
varieties, communities (urban, rural and tribal), associations, organizations and
populations.

• Sociology has been concerned with the development, structure and function of
a wide variety of basic social institutions such as the family and kinship, religion
economy, polity, legal and educational institutions.

• The social processes such as co-operation, competition, accommodation and

assimilation, social conflict, social change, social differentiation and stratification,
socialization, social control and deviance assume prominence in sociological studies.

• Sociology has placed high premium on the method of research also. Sociology
has tended to become more and more rational and empirical rather than philosophical
and idealistic.

• Sociologists are concerned with the task of “formulating concepts, propositions

and theories.”

• In the present era of explosion of knowledge, sociologists have ventured to

make specializations also. Thus, today a good number of specialized fields of inquiry
are emerging out. Sociology of knowledge, sociology of history, sociology of
medicine, sociology of culture, sociology of religion, sociology of education etc.,
represent such specialized fields.

The field of sociological inquiry is so vast that any student of sociology equipped with
intellectual ingenuity and rich sociological imagination can add new dimensions to the
discipline of sociology as a whole.

Every subject has its own scope and subject matter. Sociologists differ among
themselves regarding the scope of sociology. As a result, there is no unanimity of
opinion amongst scholars about the scope of sociology. Some sociologists opine that
sociology studies everything and any- thing under the sun, whereas, others opine that
the scope of sociology is very limited as it studies only those things which are not
studied by other social sciences. V.F. Calberton opines “since sociology is so elastic a
science, it is difficult to determine just where its boundaries begin and end, where
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sociology becomes social psychology and where social psychology becomes sociology
or where economic theory becomes sociological theory, something which is
impossible to decide”. However, an attempt has been made to demarcate the exact
scope of sociology.

There are two schools of thought with different viewpoints regarding scope and
subject matter of sociology- formal school and synthetic school. According to the
formal school, sociology was conceived to be a social science with a specifically
defined field. This school had George Simmel, Ferdinand Tonnies, Alfred Vierkandt
and Leopord Von Wiese as its main advocates. On the other hand, the synthetic school
with Emile Durkheim, L.T Hobhouse and Pitirim Sorokin advocated a synthesis in the
form of coordination among all social sciences.

Formal School of Sociology: The formal school of Sociology argued in favour of

giving sociology a definite subject matter to make it a distinct discipline. It
emphasized the study of forms of social relationships and regarded sociology as an
independent discipline. According to Simmel, sociology is a specific social science
which describes, classifies, analyses and delineates the forms of social relationships or,
in other words, social interactions should be classified into various forms or types and
analyzed. Simmel argued that social interactions have various forms. He carried out
studies of such formal relationships as cooperation, competition, sub and super-
ordinate relationships and so forth. Vierkandt maintained that sociology should be
concerned with the ultimate forms of mental or psychic relationship which knit the
people together in a society. According to Max Weber, the aim of sociology is to
interpret or understand social behaviour. But social behaviour does not cover the
whole field of human relations. Indeed, not all human interactions are social.
Sociology is concerned with the analysis and classification of types of social
relationships.

Synthetic School of Sociology: The Synthetic school of Sociology wanted sociology

to be a synthesis of the social sciences and thus, wanted to widen its scope. According
to Durkheim, sociology has three principal divisions, namely-Social morphology,
Social Physiology and General Sociology. Social morphology is concerned with the
geographical or territorial basis of the life of the people such as population, its size,
density and distribution etc. Social physiology deals with the genesis and nature of
various social institutions, namely religion, morals, law and economic institutions etc.
In general sociology, the main aim is to formulate general social laws. Hobhouse
perceived sociology as a science which has the whole social life of man as its sphere.
Its relations with the other social sciences are considered to be one of mutual exchange
and mutual stimulation. Karl Mannheim divides sociology into two main sections-
Systematic and General sociology and Historical Sociology. Systematic sociology
describes one by one the main factors of living together as far as they may be found in
every kind of society. Historical sociology deals with the historical variety and
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actuality of the general forms of society. Ginsberg has summed up the chief functions
of sociology as it seeks to provide a classification of types and forms of social
relationships especially of those, which have come to be defined as institutions and
associations. It tries to determine the relation between different parts of the factors of
social life; for example, the economic and political, the moral and the legal, the
intellectual and the social elements. It endeavors to disentangle the fundamental
conditions of social change and persistence and to discover sociological principles
governing social life.

From the above discussion, we may conclude that the subject matter of sociology is
social life as a whole and it deals with the more general principles underlying all social
phenomena. Thus, the scope of sociology is very wide. It is a general science but it is
also a special science.

3.5 METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY

In order to unravel truth regarding social world, sociologists employ different

methods. Some of those methods are discussed briefly:

Survey method: This method involves systematic collection of facts regarding a

group of people residing in a particular geographical, cultural or administrative area,
for example census survey. Social surveys are usually conducted to elicit social facts
regarding different aspects (attitudes, opinions or behavior pattern) of a particular
society. This method usually covers a wider area. Therefore, a researcher generally
makes use of a questionnaire to elicit data which is relevant for his/her study. A
questionnaire consists of a set of questions which are relevant for a researcher’s study.
A questionnaire is sent to the respondents either through mail or is given directly by
hand. The respondents are supposed to answer the questions and send it back. By
analyzing the responses, the research comes to a conclusion.

Historical method: This method assumes that the contemporary social condition of a
particular society has its roots in its past social life. Therefore, a researcher begins to
study the events, processes and institutions which a particular society had earlier. For
example: Karl Marx analyzed the problems in modern capitalist society by analyzing
the earlier stages of a modern society.

Comparative method: In this type of research, a researcher tries to compare different

societies or different groups within the same societies to understand man’s social
behavior in different contexts. For example: Max Weber compared eastern religions
with western religions in order to understand why capitalism emerged in western
societies.

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Case study method: In this method a particular phenomenon is analyzed through
intensive analysis of an individual, group or community. This method involves study
of every minute detail of the unit (individual, group or community) under study.

Statistical method: This method tries to understand a social phenomenon by the use
of mathematical calculations. Studies involving migration, standard of living, divorce,
marriage, crime, suicide, etc. extensively make use of this method.

Content analysis: In this method, the researcher tries to understand a particular

phenomenon by analyzing a text available in the published works including
newspapers and magazines. For example : if a researcher tries to study how the
mainstream media represents north-east India, then a researcher may start looking for
the number of times the national dailies have reported about the events in the north
east. A researcher may also start analysing the words which came to be associated with
the region. If more positive words are used then it would indicate a positive
representation of the north east. But if negative words are used more, then it would
indicate a negative representation of the region.

Ethnography: This method tries to describe the social life of a particular group rather
than explaining it. In other words, a researcher tries to note what the person whom
he/she is trying to study understands about their social world and the meanings that
they attach to their practices in daily life.

3.6 LET US SUM UP

 Sociology is scientific in nature.

 Survey method involves systematic collection of facts regarding a group of people
residing in a particular geographical, cultural or administrative area.
 In historical method, a researcher begins to study the events, processes and
institutions a society had earlier.
 In comparative method, a researcher tries to compare different societies or
different groups within the same societies to understand man’s social behaviour.
 In Case study method, a particular phenomenon is analyzed through intensive
analysis of an individual, group or community.
 Statistical method tries to understand a social phenomenon by the use of
mathematical calculations.
 In content analysis, a researcher tries to understand a particular phenomenon by
analyzing newspapers and magazines.
 All the aspects of a society- economic, political, and social -form the subject
matter of sociology.

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3.7 GLOSARRY

 Rational -based on or in accordance with reason or logic

 Emperical-based on what is experienced or seen rather than on theory
 Abstarct-existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete
existence

3.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

 Is Sociology a corpus of social sciences or a specialism?

 Discuss the nature of Sociology.
 Describe the scope of sociology as a specialised social science.
 Explain the various methods of sociology.
 In what sense sociology is a science.
 Make a summary analysis of the Sociaological Method

3.9 REFERENCES

 Berger, P. (1963). Invitation to sociology: A humanistic perspective, Anchor

Books Double Day & Company, Inc.: New York
 Bottomore, T.B. (1962). Sociology: A guide to problems and literature, George
Allen & Unwin Ltd.: London
 3Inkeles, A. (1975). What is sociology? Prentice-Hall: New Delhi.
 https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/sociology-subject-matter-scope-
and-schools-of-sociology-2915-words/8482
 https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/health/ephti/library/lecture_notes/
health_science_students/ln_sociology_final.pdf

24
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UNIT-4 RELATIONSHIP OF SOCIOLOGY WITH ANTHROPOLOGY,

POLITICAL SCIENCE, HISTORY AND ECONOMICS

Structure

4.1 Learning Objectives

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Sociology and other academic disciplines
4.3.1 Sociology and Anthropology
4.3.2 Sociology and Economics
4.3.3 Sociology and Political Science
4.3.4 Sociology and History
4.4 Let Us Sum Up
4.5 Glossary
4.6 Check Your Progress
4.7 References

4.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to—

 discuss the relationship between Sociology and Anthropology

 discuss the relationship between Sociology and Economics
 explain the relationship between Sociology and Political Science
 understand the relationship between Sociology and History

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The meaning, nature and scope of sociology will be better understood in the light of its
relationship with other social sciences. For a complete understanding of human social
life it is necessary to study not only one but all the aspects minutely. Sociology is a
social science and a science of society. As a social science, it attempts to study social
life as a whole. But for the complete study of social life as a whole sociology requires
the help of other social sciences. Different social sciences are interrelated and one
can’t make a sharp distinction between them. Any such attempt to study society as a
totality suggests that its study should be done as a whole. But in recent years it is
recognized that sociology synthesizes other social sciences but it is at the same time as
special science having its own individual view point. It is also considered as the
mother of all social sciences. All other social sciences depend on sociology because no
aspect of human life can be detached from its social aspect. Besides, no social science
is in a position to give a complete picture of society. Sociology endeavors to study
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social life as a whole by taking help from other social sciences. Hence, there exists a
very close and intimate relationship between sociology and other social sciences. In
this context the study of interrelationships among social science is very important.

4.3 SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES

4.3.1 Sociology and Anthropology

Sociology is the mother of all social sciences. Hence it has close and intimate
relationship with Anthropology. The relationship is so close that Anthropologists like
A.L. Kroeber consider Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters. They often appear
as two names for the same subject. R. Redfield recognizes the closeness between these
two social sciences. Sociology is a science of society. It studies behaviour of man in
groups. The term Sociology has been derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’ means
society, companion or association and the Greek word ‘logos’ means study or science.
Hence Sociology is concerned with the association of human beings. It is a science
that deals with social groups. Similarly the term Anthropology is derived from tow
Greek words ‘anthropos’ meaning man and ‘logos’ meaning study or science.

Accordingly anthropology means study of man. As a science of man it deals with man,
his works and behaviour. Anthropology studies the biological and cultural
development of man. Anthropology has a wide field of study which can be broadly
divided into four main divisions such as physical anthropology, archeology, cultural
anthropology and social anthropology. Physical anthropology studies bodily
characteristics of early man and thereby tries to understand both primitive and modern
cultures. Archeology studies cultures of pre-historic period. This study facilitates
sociologists to make a comparative study of present social structure. It is concerned
with the early periods of human existence. It reconstructs the origin, spread and
evolution of culture by examining the remains of the past societies. Social
anthropology deals with the behaviour of man in social institutions. Social
anthropology and sociology are one and the same. Evan Pritchard considers social
anthropology as a branch of Sociology.

However there exists a very close and intimate relationship between Sociology and
Anthropology. Both contribute to the growth of each other. Both have a symbiotic
relationship. Anthropology studies primitive man in a pre-literate society whereas
sociology studies man in modern complex societies. Anthropology is holistic in nature
because it studies all aspects of man in a social setting; whereas this is not possible in
sociology because of its vastness and complexity of modern life. However their close
relationship can be known from the following. Anthropology contributes to the growth
of Sociology. Without the help of anthropology the study of Sociology can’t be
complete. It is a part of Sociology. Anthropology provides knowledge about ancient
societies.
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To have a comprehensive understanding of present society Sociology takes the help of
anthropology. Contributions of many Anthropologists like R.Brown, Linton, Mead and
Pritchard enriches sociological knowledge. The origin of family, marriage, religion
etc. can be better understood through anthropological knowledge. Sociology accepts
the concepts like cultural area, cultural traits, and cultural lag etc. from anthropology.
Sociology accepts the anthropological conclusion that racial superiority is not
responsible for mental development. ‘Thus Sociology is greatly benefited by
anthropological studies. Similarly, Sociology contributes richly towards the growth of
anthropology. Anthropology accepts many concepts of Sociology. Research and
contributions of many Sociologists like Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer is of great
help to anthropology.

Anthropologists greatly benefited by the Sociological researches. Ideas and

conclusions of Sociology contribute to the research in anthropology. Thus, there exists
a close and intimate relationship between Sociology and Anthropology. Both study
human society and both are concerned with all kinds of social groups like families,
friends, tribes etc. Many of the ideas and concepts are used in both the discipline.
Hence both are interrelated and interdependent. However, in spite of the inter-
relationship, both differ from each other.

Differences:

(1) Sociology is a science of society whereas anthropology is a science of man and

his behaviour.
(2) The scope of Sociology is very wide whereas the scope of Anthropology is very
limited.
(3) Sociology studies society as a whole whereas anthropology studies man as a part
of society.
(4) Sociology studies civilizations which are vast and dynamic on the other han d
Anthropology studies cultures which are simple and primitive.
(5) Sociology studies modern, civilized and complex societies whereas Anthropology
studies ancient and pre-literate societies.
(6) Sociology is concerned with social planning whereas anthropology is not
concerned with social planning. On the basis of social planning sociology make
suggestion for future but anthropology do not make any suggestion for future.
(7) In the words of Kluckhon, “The Sociological attitude has tended towards the
Practical and Present, the anthropological towards pure understanding of the
past.”

4.3.2 Sociology and Economics

Sociology is mother of all social sciences. Hence, it has close relationship with all
social sciences and so also with Economics. The relationship of Sociology with
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Economics is very close, intimate and personal. There exists close relationship
between these two because economic relationship bears a close relation to social
activities and relationships. Likewise, social relationship is also affected by economic
relationships. Economic activities to a great extent are social activities. Hence both are
mutually related. Sociology is a science of society. It is concerned with the association
of human beings.

Sociology is the study of human inter-actions and inter-relations their conditions and
consequences. But Economics deals with economic activities of man. It is a science of
wealth and choice. According to Prof.Robbins, Economics is a social “science which
studies human behaviour in relation to his unlimited ends and scare means which have
alternatives uses. “It is concerned with the activities of man such as production,
consumption, distribution and exchange. It also studies the structure and functions of
different economic organizations like banks, markets etc. It is concerned with the
material needs of man as well as his material welfare.

However, there exists a great deal of inter-relationship between these two sciences.
Both are interdependent and inter-related with each other. Due to this inter-
relationship Thomas opines that, “Economics is, in fact, but one branch of Sociology.
“Similarly, Silverman opines Economics is regarded as offshoot of Sociology which
studies the general principles of all social relations. Their inter-relationships are as
follows:

Economics takes the help of Sociology. For its own comprehension economics takes
the help of sociology and depends on it. Economics is a part of Sociology hence
without the help from Sociology, Economics can’t understand itself completely.
Economics is concerned with material welfare of man which is common welfare.
Economic welfare is a part of social welfare. For the solution of different economic
problems such as inflation, poverty, unemployment etc, Economists takes the help of
Sociology and takes into account the social events of that particular time. At the same
time society controls other economic activities of man. Economics is greatly benefited
by the research conducted by Sociologists like Max Weber, Pareto etc. Some
economists also consider economic change as an aspect of social change. Economics
draws its generalization basing on the data provided by Sociology. Thus, Economics
cannot go far or develop without the help of Sociology.

Similarly, Sociology also takes the help from Economics. Economics greatly enriches
sociological knowledge. Economic factors greatly influence each and every aspects of
social life. Economics is a part of sociology hence without the help of economics we
can’t understand sociology properly. Knowledge and research in the field of
economics greatly contributes to sociology. Each and every social problem has an
economic cause. For the solution of social problems like dowry, suicide etc
Sociologists take the help form economics. Marx opines economic relations constitute
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the foundation of Society. Economic factors play a very important role in every aspect
of our social life; that is why, Sociologists concerned with economic institutions. For
this reason sociologists like Spencer, Weber, Durkheim and others have taken the help
from economics in their analysis of social relationships. Thus both sociology and
economics are very closely related with each other. There are some problems which
are being studied by both sociologists and economics. Economic changes results in
social changes and vice versa. However, in spite of the above closeness, inter-
relationship and inter-dependence both the sciences have certain differences which are
described below:

Differences:

1) Sociology is a science of society and social relationships whereas economics is

science of wealth.
2) Sociology is a much younger science which has very recent origin whereas
economics is comparatively old.
3) Sociology is an abstract science whereas economics is concrete in nature.
4) Sociology is a general social science whereas economics is a special social
science.
5) Sociology is concerned with the social activities of man whereas economics is
concerned with the economic activities of man.
6) Society is studied as a unit of study in Sociology whereas man is taken as a unit of
study in economics.
7) Both Sociology and economics differ from each other in respect of the methods
and techniques they use for their study.

4.3.3 Sociology and Political Science

As a mother of social science, Sociology has close and intimate relationship with all
other social science. Hence, it has close relationship with political sciences as well.
Their relationship is so close and intimate that led G.E.C. Catlin to remark “Political
Science and Sociology are two faces or aspects of the same figure. “Similarly other
scholars could not find any difference between the two disciplines. Sociology is a
Science of society. It is a science of social groups and social institution. It is a general
science of society. It studies human interaction and inter-relations their conditions and
consequences. Political Science is a science of state and government. It studies power,
political processes, political systems, types of government and international relation. It
deals with social groups organized under the sovereign of the state. In the words of
Paul Junet, “Political Science is that part of social science which treats the foundation
of the state and principles of government. “It studies the political activities of man. It
only studies the organized society.

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However, their interrelationship can be known from their interdependence and mutual
relationship. Sociology depends on political science. In the words of Morris Ginsberg,
“Historically, Sociology has its main roots in politics and philosophy of history.”
Sociology is greatly benefited by the books written by political scientists like Plato,
Aristotle and Kautilya such as The Republic, The Politics and Arthasastra respectively.
Each and every social problem has a political cause. Political Science is a part of
Sociology. Hence sociology depends on Political Science to comprehend itself. To
understand different political events sociology takes the help from political science.
Sociology draws its conclusions being dependent on political science. Any change in
the political system or nature of power structure brings changes in society. Hence
Sociology takes the help of political science to understand the changes in society.
Hence both are interdependent.

Similarly, political science also depends on Sociology. Political Science is a part of

sociology. To understand the part, it is necessary to understand the whole. Almost all
political problems have a social cause and for the solution of these political problems
political science takes the help of sociology. State frames its rules, regulations and
laws on the basis of social customs, tradition and values. Without Sociological
background, the study of political science will be incomplete. Political Scientists are
largely benefited by the researches and research methods of the Sociologist. Some
consider political science as a branch of Sociology. State is considered as a social
group hence is a subject of Sociology.

Besides, there are some common topics which are being studied by both the subjects.
These topics include among other things War, Propaganda, authority, communal riots
and law. With the help of both political science and sociology, a new subject comes
into existence which is known as political sociology. Some political events like war
are also significant social events. Thus both political science and sociology contribute
to each other. But in spite of their interrelationship and interdependence both the
sciences differ from each other in the following way.

Differences:

(1) Sociology is a science of society and social relationship whereas political

science is a science of state and government.
(2) The scope of sociology is very wide but scope of political science is limited.
(3) Sociology is a general science but political science is a special science.
(4) Sociology studied organized, unorganized and disorganized society whereas
political science studies only politically organized society.
(5) Sociology studies the social activities of man whereas political science studies
political activities of man.
(6) Sociology is a new or young science but political science is an old science.

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(7) Sociology studies man as a social animal whereas political science studies man
as a political animal.
(8) Sociology studies both formal and informal relations whereas political science
studies only formal relations.
(9) Sociology analyses both conscious and unconscious activities of man whereas
political science analyses only conscious activities of man.
(10) Sociology deals with all forms of association whereas political science deals
with only one form of association named state.

4.3.4 Sociology and History

As a mother of social sciences, sociology has close and intimate relationship with all
other social sciences. It has close relationship with history, because present society
bears symbols of past. Relationship between the two is so close and intimate that
scholars like G. Von Bulow have refused to acknowledge sociology as a science
distinct from history. Sociology is the science of society. It is a study of systems of
social action and their interrelations. Sociology is a science of social groups and social
institutions.

History studies the important past events and incidents. It records men’s past life and
life of societies in a systematic and chronological order. It also tries to find out the
causes of past events. It also studies the past political, social and economic events of
the world. It not only studies the past but also establishes relations with present and
future. That is why it is said that “History is the microscope of the past, the horoscope
of the present and telescope of the future. However, both the sciences are closely
interrelated and interdependent on each other. Both study the same human society.
Their mutual dependence led G.H. Howard to remark that, “History is past Sociology
and Sociology is present history,” Both take help from each other. At the same time
one depends on the other for its own comprehension. History helps and enriches
Sociology. History is the store house of knowledge from which Sociology gained a lot.
History provides materials sociologists use. History is a record of past social matters,
social customs and information about different stages of life. Sociology uses this
information. Books written by historians like A. Toynbee are of great use for
Sociologists. To know the impact of a particular past event sociology depends of
history.

Similarly Sociology also provides help to history and enriches it. A historian greatly
benefited from the research conducted by Sociologists. Historians now study caste,
class and family by using sociological data. Sociology provides the background for the
study of history. Now history is being studied from Sociological angle. Every
historical event has a social cause or social background. To understand that historical
event history need the help from Sociology and Sociology helps history in this respect.
Sociology provides facts on which historians rely on. Thus history and Sociology are
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mutually dependent on each other. History is now being studied from Sociological
angle and Sociology also now studied from historical point of view. Historical
sociology now became a new branch of Sociology which depends on history.
Similarly, Sociological history is another specialized subject which based on both the
Sciences. But in spite of the above close relationship and inter-dependence both the
sciences differ from each other from different angles which are described below.

Differences:

(1) Sociology is a science of society and is concerned with the present society. But
history deals with the past events and studies the past society.
(2) Sociology is a modern or new subject whereas history is an older social science.
(3) Sociology is abstract whereas history is concrete in nature.
(4) The scope of Sociology is very wide whereas the scope of history is limed.
Sociology includes history within its scope.
(5) Sociology is an analytical science whereas history is a descriptive science.
(6) Attitude of sociology and history differ from each other. Sociology studies a
particular event as a social phenomenon whereas history studies a particular event
in it’s entirely.
(7) Sociology is a general science whereas history is a special science.

4.4 LET US SUM UP

Sociology is the mother of all social sciences. Hence, it has close relationship with all
other social sciences. Scholars like G. Von Bulow have refused to accept sociology as
a science district from history. Simpson opines, social sciences are united and this
unity is not imaginary.

4.5 GLOSSARY

 Anthropology is the study of the origin and development of human societies

and cultures.
 Concrete- it involves facts and descriptions about everyday, tangible objects,
 Sociology-is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and
consequences of human behavior.

4.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1: Distinguish between Sociology and History.

Q2: From which word is the term Anthropology derived?

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4.7 REFERENCES

 Abraham, Francis and John Henry Morgan. 2005. Introducing Sociological

Though t. New Delhi: Macmillan India.
 Beteille, Andre. 2002. Introduction to Sociology: Essays on Approach and
Method. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
 Bottomore, T.B. Sociology: A Guide to Problems and Literature. Bombay:
Blackie and Son (India) Ltd, 1978.
 Giddens, Anthony. 1993. Sociology. UK: Polity Press.

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Block-2
BASIC CONCEPTS

Unit-5: Society and Community

Unit-6: Associations and Institutions
Unit-7: Social Groups and Culture
Unit-8: Role and Status
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UNIT-5 SOCIETY AND COMMUNITY

Structure

5.1 Learning Objectives

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Society
5.3.1 Origin of society
5.3.2 Meaning and definition.
5.3.3 Characteristics.
5.3.4 Types of society.
5.3.5Man and society- interrelationships.
5.4 Community
5.4.1 Origin
5.4.2 Meaning and Definitions
5.4.3 Characteristics. .
5.4.4 Distinctions between society and community
5.5 Let Us Sum Up
5.6 Glossary
5.7 Check Your Progress
5.8 References
5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to –

• know the meaning of society
• study the relationship society and man
• know about some of the basic concepts like community

5.2 INTRODUCTION

Society is an important basic concept of sociology. Sociology is the science of society.

Hence, for proper understanding of sociology, it is necessary to understand society.
Besides, the existence of man is tied up to that of society.

5.3 SOCIETY

Society is as old as human being itself. Interactions and relationships among human
beings are studied by sociology. These human interactions and relationships are taking
place in society. As a member of society and as a student of sociology one need to
acquaint oneself with truest sociological meaning of the term society from the outset.
Hence, an attempt is made to explain the sociological meaning of the term society.
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5.3.1 Origin of Society

Society is as old as human being itself. It is believed that human beings organized to
end the state of anarchy. It emerged out of men’s existence. A number of theories
attempted to explain the origin of society. These are
1. Divine origin Theory : According to this theory society was created by God. As God
created everything so he created the society. This theory during sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries took the form of Divine Right Theory.
2. Force Theory : According to this theory, society is created due to superior Physical
force. People were brought together and compelled to live in society through physical
force or physical coercion . Force is behind the genesis of society. Society originated
in the subjugation of the weaker by the stronger.
3. Patriarchal Theory : This theory opined that society originated due to the expansion
of family system. Society is the family writ large. Sir Henry Maine defines patriarchal
theory is the theory of origin of society in separate families, held together by the
authority and protection of the eldest male descendant.
4. Matriarchal Theory : According to this theory society originated due to the
expansion of family system. It opined that polyandry were widely prevalent in ancient
times than monogamy or polygamy. Descent is traced through mother.
5. Social contract Theory : According to this theory society was originated as a result
of contract or agreement made among people. It believes that individual precedes
society. Men created society either to end the state of anarchy or to free themselves
from the laws of nature. Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and J.J. Rousseau were the main
exponent of this theory. Hobbes opined men in the state of nature were in conflict with
each other due to his selfish nature. To protect himself from evil consequences they
organized society. Locke opined that there was no recognized society. Locke opined
that there was no recognized system of law and justice in the state of nature. To
overcome this deficiency men entered into a contract and society was created. It was a
popular theory during 16th and 18th century.
6. Evolutionary Theory : According to this theory society was created through a
gradual process of evolution. Society always moves from a less developed stage to a
more developed stage, from unorganized to organized and from less perfect to more
perfect. Auguste Comte believes in the evolutionary development of society which
passes through theological, Metaphysical and Scientific Stages. Morgan opined that
society has passed through the primitive, barbaric and civilized stages of development.
Karl Marx analyses the development of society on the basis of the system of
production which passes through the stages of primitive Communism, Slavery,
agriculture, feudalism and capitalism.
However, the above theories of origin of society do not provide a real picture of its
origin. All theories have been criticized by scholars from different angles.

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5.3.2 Meaning and definition

The term society has been derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’ which means a
companion, association or fellowship. It is because man always lives in the company
of his fellow beings. This led George Simmel to remark that sociability is the essence
of society. The term society is understood in different sense. In our day to day
discussion society is used to refer to the members of specific in group for example-
Adivasi Society, Harijan Society etc. Some other time it refers to some institutions like
Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj. At some other time society refers to an association like
consumer’s society, co-operative society or cultural society. Society is also used in the
sense of a group such as rural society or urban society.
To understand the meaning of the term society more clearly and exactly we must have
to give a look towards the definitions given by Sociologists.
(a) According to F.H.Giddings, “Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum
of formal relations in which associated individuals are bound together”.
(b) According to G.D.H. Cole, “Society is the complex of organized associations and
institutions within the community”.
(c) According to Morris Ginsburg, “A society is a collection of individuals united by
certain relations or modes of behaviors which mark them off from others who do not
enter into these relations or who differ from them in behavior.”
(d) According to J.F. Cuber, “A Society may be defined as a group of people who have
lived long enough to become organized and to consider themselves and be considered
as a unit more or less distinct from other human units.”
(e) According to MacIver and Page, “Society is a system of usages and procedures,
authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human
behavior and of liberties.”
(f) According to T. Parson, “Society may be defined as the total complex of human
relationship in so far as they grow out of action in terms of means and relationship,
intrinsic or symbolic.”
(g) According to C.H. Cooley, “Society is a complex of forms or processes each of
which is living and growing by interaction with the others, the whole being so unified
that what takes place in one part affects all the rest.”
(h) According to Leacock, “Society includes not only the political relations by which
man are bound together but the whole range of human relations and collective
activities.”
Thus, from the above analysis we conclude that from a wider angle society is
considered as both a structural as well as functional unit. It is an organization, a system
and a pattern. It is a system of rules and regulations which changes in course of time.
Society is a larger group of which individual is a member. But society is not a group of
people only rather it is a system of relationships which exists among individuals or
groups. That is why MacIver remarked that society is “a web of social relationship”
This relationships may be of different types. But no social relationship could be
possible without awareness and without social relationship there could be no society.
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5.3.3 Characteristics

A comprehensive understanding of society requires a thorough analysis of its

characteristics. But the term society could be understood both from a narrower and
broader sense. In a narrower sense society refers to a group of people but in a broader
sense it refers to the whole human society. However, society has the following
characteristics:
(1) Population : A society must have population. Without a group of people no
society could be formed. Of course, society refers not to a group of people but to
system of social relationships. But for the establishment of social relationships a group
of people is necessary. This population is a self perpetuating individuals who
reproduces itself through some sort of mating relationship. Hence it is the first
requirement of society.
(2) Likeness : Likeness is the most important characteristic of society. Famous
sociologist M
acIver opines that society means likeness. Without a sense of likeness, there could be
no mutual recognition of ‘belonging together’ and therefore no society. This sense of
likeness was found in early society on kinship and in modern societies the conditions
of social likeness have broadened out into the principles of nationality. Society
consists of like bodied and likeminded individuals. Friendship intimacy and
association of any kind would be impossible without likeness. It also helps in the
understanding of one by the other. That is why F.H. Giddings opines that society rests
on the ‘Consciousness of Kind’.
(3) Differences : Along with likeness, differences is another important characteristic
of society. Because society involves differences and it depends on it as much as on
likeness. That is why MacIver opines that “primary likeness and secondary differences
create the greatest of all institutions-the division of labour”. Because, differences is
complementary to social relationship. If people will be alike in all respect society
could not be formed and there would be little reciprocity and relationship became
limited. Family as the first society based on biological differences and differences in
aptitude, interest and capacity. Though differences is necessary for society but
differences by itself does not create society. Hence differences are sub-ordinate to
likeness.
(4) Inter-dependence : Interdependence is another important characteristic of society.
This fact of interdependence is visible in every aspect of present day society. Famous
Greek Philosopher, Aristotle remarked that ‘Man is a social animal’. As a social
animal he is dependent on others. The survival and well being of each member is very
much depended on this interdependence. No individual is self sufficient. He have to
depend on others for, shelter and security and for the fulfillment of many of his needs
and necessities. With the advancement of society this degree of interdependence
increases manifold. Family being the first society, is based on the biological
interdependence of the sexes. Not only individuals are interdependent but also the
groups, communities and societies.
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(5) Co-operation and Conflict : Both co-operation and conflict are two another
important characteristics of society. Because famous sociologist MacIver once
remarked that “Society is Co-operation crossed by conflict”. Co-operation is
essentially essential for the formation of society. Without co-operation there can be no
society. People can’t maintain a happy life without co-operation Family being the first
society rests on cooperation. Co-operation avoids mutual destructiveness and results in
economy in expenditure. Like co-operation conflict is also necessary for society.
Conflict acts as a cementing factor for strengthening social relations. In a healthy and
well developed society both cooperation and conflict co-exist. Because, with the help
of these two universal process society is formed. Conflict makes co-operation
meaningful. Conflict may be direct and indirect. However both are necessary for
society.
(6) Society is a network or web of social relationship : Social relationships is the
foundation of society. That is why famous sociologist MacIver remarked that society
is a network of social relationship. Hence it is difficult to classify social relationships.
But this social relationship is based on mutual awareness or recognition to which
Cooley call wefeeling, Giddings call consciousness of kind and Thomas as common
propensity. Without these social relationships no society could be formed. As social
relationships are abstract in nature so also the society is abstract in nature. Different
kinds of social processes like cooperation, conflict constantly takes place in society.
And the relationships established around these creates society. Hence a network of
social relationships which created among individuals constitutes society.
(7) Permanent Nature : Permanency is another important characteristic of society. It
is not a temporary organization of individuals . Society continues to exist even after
the death of individual members. Society is a co-he rent organization.
(8) Society is Abstract : Society is an abstract concept. As MacIver opines society is a
web of social relationships. We can’t see this relationship but we can feel it. Hence, it
is an abstract concept. Wright has rightly remarked that “society in essence means a
state or condition, a relationship and is, therefore, necessarily an abstraction”. Besides
society consists of customs, traditions, folkways, mores and culture which are also
abstract. Hence, society is abstract in nature.
(9) Society is Dynamic : The very nature of society is dynamic and changeable. No
society is static. Every society changes and changes continuously. Old customs,
traditions, folkways, more values and institutions got changed and new customs and
values takes place. Society changes from it’s traditional nature to modern nature.
Hence it is one of the most important characteristic of society.
(10) Comprehensive Culture : Culture is another important characteristic of society.
Each and every society has it’s own culture which distinguishes it from others. Culture
is the way of life of the members of a society and includes their values, beliefs, art,
morals etc. Culture is comprehensive because it fulfils the necessities of social life and
is culturally self sufficient. Besides, each and every society transmits its cultural
pattern to the succeeding generations.

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5.3.4 Types of society

Society may be divided into different types on different basis. Some of types of society
are mentioned below :
1. Agrarian Society.
2. Tribal Society.
3. Industrial Society.
4. Stone Age Society.
5. Copper Age Society.
6. Iron Age Society.
7. Homogeneous Society.
8. Heterogeneous Society.
9. Primitive Society.

5.3.5 Man and society- interrelationships

Sociology is mainly concerned with the study of society. Society refers to a

complicated network of social relationships by which every human being is
interconnected with his fellow. Sociology gives stress on the interactions and
relationships among human beings. This relationships and interactions takes up to that
of society. Origin of society is as old as man itself. Society is the sum total of
interactions among individuals. When more than one individual live together, mutual
relationships develop among them, society is created. This process of mutual
relationships and interactions creates among them the spirit of mutual cooperation,
harmony, competition, conflict and accommodation. Such processes are continuously
taking place in society. The relationships and interactions established around these
human activities create society.

5.4 COMMUNITY

When more than one individual live together in a definite locality or in a close
proximity with each other, mutual relationships develop among them. It is also
obvious and natural that people residing in a definite area develop likeness, co-
operation and fellow feeling among themselves. Due to their common living they
share common life, common customs, traditions, culture, sentiment and develop
common social ideas among themselves. This fact of common social living within a
limited or definite geographical area gives birth to community. In other words, when
the members of a group or a number of individual live together and share no other
particular interest but the basic conditions of common life, the group is called
community. All types of relationships exists within community. Sociologists used the
term community to refer to the unity of the common life of people.

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5.4.1 Origin and growth

The community is as old as humanity. Man has been living in community of some
type since his arrival. It is believed that community is the original and first abode of
human civilization. Individuals assemble in a group in order to attain common goals.
The human civilization itself reared up in community. During prehistoric age man has
leading a nomadic or barbarian life and was wandering here and there for food and
could not settle up anywhere. But when his mental horizon developed he learns the
skill to collect food and other needs from a particular place, mainly on river banks or
fertile areas and permanently settled there. When a group of people or families
permanently settled or lived together in a particular area which led them to share each
other’s joy and sorrows, as a result a pattern of common living is created which
marked the origin of community life. With the passage of time community life
expands with the creation of different socioeconomic, cultural and political relations
among the people of a particular area. This led to the emergence of different social,
political, economic and cultural institutions. As a result a full-fledged community was
created. Sociologists have used the term community to refer a group of people living
within a definite area and sharing the basic conditions of common life. Sociologists
like Ferdinand Tonnies, Louis wirth, Emile Durkheim, Robert Redfield and R.M.
MacIver have made important contribution for developing the concept of community
in the field of sociology.

5.4.2 Meaning and Definition

Famous sociologist R.M. MacIver made on early attempt to study community in

sociology. According to MacIver, Community is the name of settlement, Village, City,
Tribe or nation. It is a local grouping within which people carry out a full round of life
activities. It emphasizes the unity of the common life of people.
The term community has been derived from two Latin word ‘com’ and ‘Munis’ which
means ‘together’ and servicing respectively. When the members of a group live
together on a common territory and share no particular interest but the basic conditions
of common life we call it a community. It is a local grouping within which people
carry out a full round of life activities. In the words of MacIver, community is the
name of settlement, village, city, tribe or nation.
Community has three aspects : Geographical, social and Psychological. Thus, a
community requires territory, all types of relationships among members and a sense of
we-feeling. When individuals live together on a definite territory, have the feelings of
mutuality and develop all types of relationships among themselves it is called a
community. MacIver says, individuals life may be lived wholly within it. Members
have common or shared interest. They enter into definite social, economic and cultural
relations and have developed a sense of ‘we-feeling’ and a sense of community
consciousness which distinguishes them from others. But in common discourses the
term community very often wrongly used such as racial community, caste community,

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religious community etc. Here the meaning of the term community differs from the
one which is used in sociology.
The term is also used both in a narrower and broader sense. In a narrow sense
community refers to Hindu or Muslim community but in a broader sense community
may refers to a nation or world community. It also refers to a village, a town or a tribal
community. Thus, great community and small community-both exist side by side. A
community is an area of social living marked by some degree of coherence. Besides,
there must be some sense of we feeling or community sentiment among the members.

1. According to MacIver, “Community is an area of social living marked by some

degree of social coherence.”
2. According to kingsley Davis, “Community is the smallest territorial group that can
embrace all aspects of social life”.
3. According to ogburn and Nimkoff, “Community is the total organization of social
life within a limited area”.
4. According to E.S.Bogardus, “Community is a social group with some degree of
‘wefeeling’ and living in a given area’.
5. According to Arnold W.Green, “ A community is cluster of people, living within a
contiguous small area, who share a common way of life”.
6. According to G.A.Lundberg, “Community is a human population living within a
limited geographic area and carrying on a common inter-dependent life”.
7. According to karl Manheim, community is “any circle of people who live together
and belong together in such a way that they do not share this or that particular interest
only, but a whole set of interest”.
8. According to T. Parsons, “A community is that collectivity the members of which
share a common territorial area as their base of operation for daily activities”.
9. According to Morris Ginsberg, “Community is a group of social beings living a
common life including all the infinite variety and complexity of relations which result
from that common life which constitutes it “.
10. According to Sutherland, “A community is a local area over which people are
using the same languages, conforming to the same mores, feeling more or less the
same sentiments and acting upon the same attitudes”.
11. According F.L. Lumley, “A community may be defined as a permanent local
aggregation of people having diversified as well as common interests and served by a
constellation of institutions”.
12. According to H.T. Majumdar, “Community comprises the entire group
sympathetically entering into a common life within a given area, regardless of the
extent of area or state boundaries”.

Thus, community refers to a group either small or large whose members live together
in an area in such a way that they share a common life and have developed a strong
sense of community sentiment of consciousness among them which distinguishes them

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from others. It is said that communities exist within greater communities i.e a town
within a region, a region within a nation and nation within the world. Community has
four aspects ; geographical, demographic, cultural and psychological.

5.4.3 Characteristics
MacIver opined that community is a group of people who live together and share basic
conditions of common life. Hence, as a group, community has the following
characteristics or elements which distinguishes it from others. Territory, mutuality an
organized interaction are three main characteristics of community. Common beliefs,
close relationships and strong group feeling are other elements of community. on the
basis of these elements we can decide whether a group is a community or not ?

However, community has the following characteristics.

1. Population : Community must have population because it refers to a group of

people. This group may be small or large but without a group of people we can’t think
of a community. A community is formed when a group of people live together and
share a common life and organized by a strong sense of community consciousness.
Population or a group of people is the first prerequisites of community.
2. A Definite Territory : Definite Territory is the next important characteristic of
community. A group of people forms a community when it begins to reside in a
definite territory. Community is a territorial group. The territory may not be fixed
forever. A group of people like majority of community are settled and a strong bond of
unit and solidarity is derived from their living in a definite territory.
3. Community sentiment : To constitute a community the presence of sentiment among
the members is necessary. Without community sentiment a community can’t be
formed only with a group of people and a definite locality. Community sentiment
refers to a strong sense of we-feeling among the members or a feeling of belonging
together. It refers to a sentiment of common living that exists among the members of a
territory. Due to their common living within an area for a long time a sentiment of
common living is created among the members of that area. With this the members
emotionally identify themselves. This emotional identification of the members
distinguishes them from the members of other community. We-feeling, role-feeling
and dependency feeling are the elements of community sentiment.
4. Naturality : Communities are naturally organized. It is neither a product of human
will nor created by an act of government. It grows spontaneously. Individuals became
the member by birth. It grows in the lap of nature.
5. Permanence: Community is always a permanent group. It refers to a permanent
living of individuals within a definite territory. It is not temporary like that of a crowd
or association. 6. Similarity: The members of a community are similar in many
respects. They live within a definite locality and lead a common life and share some
common ends. Similarity in language, culture, customs, traditions and in many other

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thing is observed among the members of a community. These similarity resulted in the
development of community sentiment.
7. Wider ends: A community have wider ends. Members of a community associate not
for the fulfillment of a particular end but for a variety of ends. This is natural for a
community.
8. Total organized social life: A community is always marked by total organized social
life. A community includes all aspects of social life. Hence, a community is a society
in miniature.
9. A particular name: Every community has a particular name by which it is known to
the world. Members of a community is also identified by that name.
10. No legal status: A community has no legal status because it is not a legal person. It
has no rights and duties in the eyes of law. It is not created by the law of the land.
11. Concrete nature: A community is concrete in nature as we can its existence.

5.4.4 Types

Community may be divided into the following types :

1. Great community : Great communities are characterized by diversity of

organizations and specialization of division of labour. Relationships among
individuals become impersonal. Nation, Metropolis are example of great community.
2. Little Community : Village, tribe are examples of little community. Little
community develops within great community. Smallness, distinctiveness,
homogeneity and self-sufficiency are main features of little community. Little
communities are gradually disappearing due to industrialization, organization and
development of Metropolis.
3. Rural Community : These communities are found in rural areas. Village and tribes
are example of rural community.
4. Urban community : These community are found in urban areas. Cities, towns and
Metropolis are examples of urban community.
5.4.5 Distinctions between society and community
The term society and community are two important concept used in Sociology. There
exists both similarities as well as differences between the two. But in a wider sense
both society and community is a social group. However, following differences is
observed between the two.
(1) A group of individual is necessary for both society and community. But society
refers to a system or network of relationships that exists among these individuals,
Whereas community refers to a group of individual living within a definite locality
with some degree of we-feeling.
(2) Society has no definite locality or boundary because it refers to a system of social
relationships. Hence it is universal or pervasive. On the other hand a community
always associated with a definite locality.

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(3) Community sentiment is another important factor from which society and
community can be distinguished from each other. Community sentiment is an essential
characteristic of community. Without which a community can’t be constituted. But a
society may or may not have community sentiment. Society is more concerned with
organization but community is concerned with life from which organization develops.
(4) Society is abstract whereas community is concrete in nature. Community has its
own physical existence but society exists only in the minds of individuals who
constitute it. Community refers to a group of people who live in a definite locality but
society refers to a system of social relationships.
(5) Society is a broader concept whereas a community is narrower concept. Because,
there exists more than one community within a society. Hence community is smaller
than society.
(6) Society is based on both similarities as well as differences. But community is based
only similarities among it’s members.
(7) Society has wider ends but the ends of community are general or common.
(8) Size of a community may be small or big like a village community or a nation
community but the size of a society is always large.

5.5 LET US SUM UP

 Society refers not to a group of people but to the complex pattern of norms or
interaction or relationships that arise among them. People exist only as an agent
of social relationships.
 Population, Likeness, Differences, inter-dependence, cooperation and conflict,
comprehensive culture, usages, mutual aid, controls, liberty, some sort of
authority etc. are characteristics of society.
 Community is characterized by its territorial aspect. Like associations,
community is also formed by members of any group but in the latter, the
members live together

5.6 GLOSSARY

 Community -as a group who follow a social structure within a society (culture,
norms, values, status). They may work together to organise social life within a
particular place, or they may be bound by a sense of belonging sustained across
time and space.
 Society -refers to a group of people who live in a definable community and
share the same cultural components.

5.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

 What do you mean by society?

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 Discuss the various characteristics of society
 Who remarked that “Man is a social animal?
 Mention the Chracteristics of Community.

5.8 REFERENCES

 Inkeles, Alex, what is sociology ? New Delhi : Prentice-Hall of India 1965.

 Majumdar, D.N., and T.N. Madan, An introduction to social Anthropology,
Bombay : Asia publishing house, 1960.
 Ginsberg, M. Sociology, oxford University press, 1961.
 MacIver, R.M., and C.H. Page, sociology-An introductory analysis, Londan :
Macmillan and co.LTD., 1962.
 MacIver, R.M., Community, A sociological study, New york, Macmillan,
1928.
 Davis, kingley, Human society : The Macmillan company, 1960.

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UNIT-6 ASSOCIATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS

Structure

6.1 Learning Objectives

6.2 Introduction
6.3 Social Interaction and social relationship
6.3.1 Social Interaction in Everyday Life
6.4 Association
6.4.1 Meaning and Definitions
6.4.2 Characteristics
6.4.3 Types
6.5 Institution
6.5.1 Major Types and Functions of Social Institutions
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 Glossary
6.8 Check Your Progress
6.9 References

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After go through this unit you will be able to-

 Understand the basic meaning of associations and its characteristics

 Explain about Institution

6.2 INTRODUCTION

Sociology focuses on the study of man within a social environment. Society provides a
social environment. It shall be sufficient here to say that society provides a social
environment with some definite boundaries. Man is a social animal. He/she lives with
many other people in a society and becomes member of different community and
associations. Thus, the study of Society is of utmost importance in Society. In the
previous Block, we have learnt about the relationship between Sociology and other
Social Sciences. In this unit, we shall discuss the basic concepts in Sociology such as
Social Interaction and Social Realtionship, Association, Institution and so on and so
forth.

6.3 SOCIAL INTERACTION AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP

To understand social organizations in a society, sociologists study social structures and

the function of social events and processes. This involves studying social interaction
and relationships at broader (macro) and micro levels. Social interaction and
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relationship may be studied as they occur between the whole societies linked in the
world system down to those between two individuals. Here our focus is on social
interaction and relationship in the everyday life of individuals.

Individuals are the main components of society; they make up the building blocks; as,
in a very important sense, society is the product of the actions of individuals. We may
further state that society is a representation of the collective behavior of individual
actors. It is the product of decisions people make concerning when, how, and with
whom they are going to interact. However, individuals are social actors who act in a
social environment; their social interactions are influenced by the social environment
and existing social pattern. In other words, the actions of individuals are not haphazard
ones; they take place in patterned relationships.

Social relationship refers to any routinized, enduring patterns of social interactions

between individuals in society under the limits and influences of the social structure.
The term "social relationship" elicits two important questions: between whom does
social relationship take place? About what are social relationships? Answers to these
questions lead us to the concepts of social status and role (Henslin and Nelson, 1995).

6.3.1 Social Interaction in Everyday Life

Micro-sociology focuses on understanding and analyzing the processes and dynamics

of social interaction in every day life. Social interaction may simply mean what people
do when they are in the presence of one another. Four symbolic interactionist micro-
sociological perspectives are developed to understand social interaction in everyday
life (Henslin and Nelson, 1995). These are:

Symbolic Interaction: Symbolic interactionism as indicated earlier focuses on social

interaction as the most significant part of life in society. What interest scholars in this
perspective are symbols people use to define their worlds. Here, three important
concepts are used to explain the symbolic basis and nature of social interaction; these
are: stereotypes in every day life, personal space, and touching.

1. Stereotypes in Everyday Life: Stereotypes are the assumptions we have about

people; they determine and shape our reactions and behaviors towards people.
Our first impressions about people are shaped by the assumptions we make
about such characteristics as the person's sex, age, skin color, physical
appearance, social status, etc. The assumptions not only influence our ideas
about the person, but the way we interact with that person.
2. Personal space: Individuals have, and maintain, an important sense of
personal space in social interaction; every person has thus personal space. Our
personal spaces are open to only those whom we are intimate with such as
children, parents, close friends and spouses. Otherwise, we keep others out of
this personal space making sure that we do not touch, and are touched by,
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others. Anthropological research findings show that the use of personal space
varies form culture to culture; four different distance zones are identified, for
example, as used in North America (Ibid). These are:
I. Intimate Distance (50 centimeter from our bodies; reserved for
lovemaking, wrestling, comforting, protecting, etc.);
II. Personal Distance (extends from 50 centimeter to 120 centimeter
surrounding our bodies; these spaces are reserved for friends,
acquaintances and conversations);
III. Social Distance (extends from 120 centimeter to 3.6 meters for
impersonal or formal relationships; e.g., for job interviews); and
IV. Public Distance (this zone extends from 3.6 meters; it marks a more
formal relationship. This is used to separate dignitaries and public
speakers from the general public.)
3. Touching: Each society has rules about touching in social interaction.
Frequency of touching and the meaning people attach to it vary between and
within cultures. However, in impersonal social interactions, higher status
individuals are more likely to touch those of lower status; e.g. teacher his/ her
students; a boss his secretary, etc.

Dramaturgy: Symbolic integrationists use the term “dramaturgy” to refer to the way
individuals present themselves in everyday life. The term was coined by sociologist
Erving Goffman (1922 – 1982) to refer to dramaturgical analysis of how people act
and behave in social situations. Thus, social life is likened to a drama or stage.
Individuals are born into the stage of everyday life. Our everyday social life consists of
playing our assigned roles. Every person learns how to perform in the stage. Our
everyday life is filled with stages where we perform; each person is expected to play
his/ her drama taking many roles; e.g. a student, a wife, a mother, a daughter, a
worker, etc. The actions and roles played on the stage are called role performances
(Ibid.).

Ethno-methodology: literally means the study of people’s methods. Ethno-

methodologists study how people make sense of life. Ethno-methodology involves
uncovering people’s basic assumptions as they interpret their everyday world.
Sociologists like Harold Garfinkel (who coined the term) have made extensive studies
of how people use commonsense understandings to make sense out of their lives.
What form the bases of social interaction in our everyday life are the assumptions
individual actors have about the way life is and they way things ought to work (Ibid.)

The Social Construction of Reality: Symbolic interactionists argue that individuals

define their own reality and try to live according that definition. Reality is not
something that exists “out there”, independently. It is created socially. By “social
construction of reality“, we mean the process by which we take the various elements
available in our society and put them together to form a particular view of reality.

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Every individual’s definition of realities derives from his/ her society’s own definition.
The definitions we learn from our cultures form the basis of not only what we do, but
also what we perceive, feel or think.

6.4 ASOCIATION

An association is a social organization purposefully created to attain specific goals.

These goals may be very broad and abstract, such as healing the sick, eliminating
poverty, making profit etc. In Sociology, social organization means the
interdependence of parts, which is an essential characteristic of all enduring collective
entities, such as groups, communities and societies.

Associations and formal organizations are nearly similar. All associations have a
formal organizational aspect.

Association is “a group organised for the pursuit of an interest or group of interests in

common”. In this way, we can say family and state also as an association.

An association is defined as an organized group formed in pursuit of some common

interest with its own self-contained administrative structure and functionaries.When
people try to pursue their goal by spontaneously co-operating with others and have the
same goal, then associations are formed.

6.4.1 Definition

1. According to MacIver, An association is an organization deliberately formed for the

collective pursuit of some interest or a set of interests which its members share.” 2.
According to P.Gisbert, “Association is a group of people united for a specific purpose
or limited number of purposes.”
3. According to E. S.Bogardus, Association is usually working together of people to
achieve some purposes.”
4. According to Gillin and Gillin, An association is a group of individuals united for a
specific purpose or purposes and held together by recognized or sanctioned modes of
procedure or behaviours.”

6.4.2 Characteristics

Association is characterized by several characteristics. These characteristics are

mentioned below:

(1) A group of People: An association is basically a group of people who have some
common objectives. Without a group of people, no association can be formed. Hence a
group of people is important.

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(2) Organization: Association does not refers to any ordinary group of people rather it
refers to an organized group of people. In other words when a group of people
organize themselves for the pursuit of some common interest an association is formed.
Hence association is called as an organized group. There are certain rules which guide
the people.

(3) Common Aims and Objectives: It is the most important characteristic of

association. Because association does not refers to a mere collection of human beings
rather it refers to those group of individuals who have some common aims and
objectives. All the members tries to achieve the common objectives. Hence association
is a means to achieve the common objectives. For example people having similar
political objectives may join in a particular political party.

(4) Some rules and regulations: We know association is an organized group. Every
organized group or organization based on some rules and regulations. This body of
rules and regulations governs and guides the relations of its members. These rules and
regulations are either written or unwritten. Members or officials of an association obey
these rules and works according to these rules and regulations.

(5) Co-operative Spirit: Association is the result of co-operative spirit of some

organized individuals. Hence, the other name of association is co-operation. Here
people work together with a co-operative spirit to fulfill some common purposes. This
co-operative spirit helps them to realize their objectives. When this spirit is lacking
there is no co-operation and no association.

(6) Voluntary Membership: The membership of an association is voluntary in nature.

People voluntarily join in an association to fulfill their aims objectives. They can also
withdraw their membership when they feel so. Similarly no one can compel them to be
a member of any association. But he have to obey the rules and regulations of the
association.

(7) Degree of Permanency: The degree of permanency varies from association to

association. Some association may be temporary where as some are permanent. There
exists some long-lived association like family or state. Similarly there exists some
temporary associations like flood relief association.

6.5 INSTITUTION

Institution is an organized way of doing something. According to Kingsely Davis,

institution is a set of interwoven folkways, mores, and laws built around one or more
functions. “An institution is an organised stem of social relationships which embodies
certain common values and procedures and meets certain basic needs of the society.”
There are five basic institutions in complex societies which are the familial, religious,
government, economic and educational institutions. Institutions are the established
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forms of proceedure. In other words, when people create associations they must also
create rules and procedures for dispatching the common business and for the
regulation of the members to one another. Those rules and procedures comprise an
institution.

The difference between institution and association is that, if we are considering

something as an organised group, it is an association; if as a form of procedure, it is an
institution. Association denotes membership; institution denotes a mode or means of
service. For example, when we regard a college as a body of teachers and students, we
are selecting its associational aspect, but when we regard it as an educational system,
we are selecting its institutional features.

Horton and Hunt says that though institutions and associations are separate concepts,
they are not entirely separate from each other. An institution is a set of relationships
and a system of behaviour. Although the institution itself consists of relationships and
norms, it is people who maintain the relationships and practice the norms. Again, it is
the people who organise themselves into groups and form associations. Therefore,
association is an organized group of people while an institution is an organized system
of behaviour.

6.5.1 Major Types and Functions of Social Institutions

There are many principles around which institution are organized. The five social
institutions of major significances are:

1. Economic institutions: those that deal with economic and property relations;
2. Polity and law: Those that are concerned with social control with politics and
law government, the police, court, etc;
3. Religious institutions: Those concerned with the supernatural magic and
religion;
4. Family: those based on principles of kinship, meaning, social relations created
by descent and marriage; and
5. Educational institutions: those that deal with the need for training individuals
in the roles, values, skills, knowledge, attitudes etc which are associated with
being a citizen and a worker.

Each institution performs two types of social function. These are: (a) primary
functions, which are also called manifest, explicit, or direct functions; and (b)
secondary functions, which are also called indirect, hidden, or latent functions.
Through these functions, social institutions fulfill important needs in the society. The
primary functions of the five major social institutions are as follows.

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1. The Family

The family is the most important social unit in any society. It is the building block of
any society. The family fulfills two basic functions. These are reproduction and
socialization. Society reproduces or recreates itself through the family. Children are
born in the family to join the society. Parents play the roles of nurturing, caring for,
teaching and training children; children are expected to play the roles of good and
teachable trainees. The way parents nurture, train and care for their children vary
according toe forms of family organization. Nuclear family is a dominant form of
family organization in modern, industrialized and urban societies. It usually consists of
husband wife and dependent children. In traditional, agrarian and rural societies,
Extruded family form dominates. It consists of husband, wife/ wives, their children,
and other relatives (Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Calhoun et al. 1994).

2. Economic Institution

Every society needs to make effective use of the scarce resources. Goods and
services have to be produced to meet the basic needs such as food, clothing,
shelter, etc. Economic institutions are responsible for organizing the production,
exchange, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

3. Religious Institution

This asocial institution is responsible for meeting (providing) spiritual needs of the
members of the society. There are puzzling questions about the meaning of the human
life, human destiny, the universe, and other questions.

Religion and related institutions like magic provide explanations for these puzzling
paradoxes of life and provides meaning and purpose for life. It helps people to cope
with purposelessness, meaninglessness and sense of alienation and frustration. These
institutions also help members of society conform to social values and norms, and play
their expected social roles appropriately. They also provide a sense of social solidarity
among members of society.

4. Political Institution

(Government and Law) These social institutions are responsible for protecting the
society from internal disorder, crime and chaos; as well as from external threats and
invasion. They are responsible for maintaining peace and order at micro and macro
levels; enforcing social control; and maintaining the welfare and well-being of society.

5. Educational Institution

This social institution is responsible for providing training for the members of society.
It serves as center of knowledge production, exchange, and distribution. Generally,
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educational institutions are responsible for the vertical and horizontal transmission of
material and non-material cultures. Vertical transmission means over time from one
generation to another generation; where as horizontal transmission means over
geographical space or from one society to another. Educational institutions also play
the role of preparing members of society for the statuses and roles that re associate
with being good citizens and workers, holding various occupations.

Before ending this section it is important to note that although the foregoing way of
presenting the nature and function of social institutions is often common in some of
standard text books in introductory sociology, we also need to view them in a critical
and conflict theory approach. From such perspectives, social institutions may be
functional for some and dysfunctional (meaning positively harmful and damaging) for
other individuals and groups in a society. This is partly because they often exist and
operate in the context of class division and social stratification, unequal access to
power and resources. From this point of view, social institutions may not be functional
to al members of society equally. They may exist to promote the interests and
privileges of some sections of society (Personal communication: Dr Teketel Abebe,
Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology, Addis Ababa University).

6.6 LET US SUM UP

 Association is a group of people coming together to attain common goals.

 Associations and formal organizations are nearly similar. All associations have
a formal organizational aspect.
 Institution refers to how certain things get done. Example, when men create
associations they must also create rules and procedures for the dispatching of
thecommon business and for the regulation of the members to one another.
Such forms are distinctively institutions.
6.7 GLOSSARY

 Association - a group of people who come together to achieve any particular

purpose or goal and that too for a limited period of time.
 Institution - is a system for organizing standardized patterns of social behavior

6.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What do you mean by social interaction?

2. Define Symbolic Interaction.
3. What is Ethnomethodology?
4. Mention the Characteristics Association.
5. What is Social Instititution?

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6.9 REFERENCES

 Abraham Francis. (2006). Contemporary Sociology – An Introduction to

Concepts and Theories. Oxford University Press.
 Bhushan B. (2006). Dictionary of Sociology. New Delhi: Anmol Publications
Pvt. Ltd.
 Rawat H.K. (2007). Sociology-Basic Concepts. Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
 Mac Iver, R. M. & Page, C. H. (2001). Society – An Introductory Analysis.
New Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd.
 Bhushan, V. & Sachdeva, D. R. (2005). An Introduction to Sociology. New
Delhi: Kitab Mahal

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UNIT-7 SOCIAL GROUPS AND CULTURE

Structure

7.1 Learning Objectives

7.2 Introduction
7.3 Social Organisation
7.4 Social Group
7.4.1 Definition of a Social Group
7.4.2 Basic Features of a Social Group
7.4.3 Classification of Groups
7.4.4 Quasi-Social Groups
7.5 Culture
7.5.1 Meaning and definition
7.5.2 Definitions
7.5.3 Characteristics
7.5.4 Related Concepts
7.6 Let Us Sum Up
7.7 Glossary
7.8 Check Your Progress
7.9 References

7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After go through this unit you will be able to-

 Describe the meaning of social organization;

 Understand that humans are by nature social animals and apart from sustained
social relationship, humans would not enjoy life in isolation;
 Appreciate the influence of group life on individual behavior, and vice versa;
and the role of primary social groups in shaping the personality, attitude,
lifestyle and mentality of individuals;

7.2 INTRODUCTION

The health science student should be introduced to the idea of how we as social beings
organize ourselves and how individual persons, communities and societies are related
to one another. Human beings are social animals by nature and whatever we do or say
are related to social environment. Our lives as human beings have their meanings in
organized relationships. Whether we eat, drink, work, play, worship, recreate or learn,
we do it in social group context. No one enjoys alone outside organized network of
social interaction and relationships. Although we have the capacity for privacy, no one

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can enjoy him / herself for a sustained period of time, without inflicting upon oneself
adverse effects.

7.3 SOCIAL ORGANISATION

By social organization, we refer to the pattern of individual and group relations. The
term "organization" signifies technical arrangement of parts in a whole, and the term
"social", indicates the fact that individual and group relations are the outcomes of
social processes (Broom and Slezinky, 1973). Thus, one of sociology's main concerns
is to study and analyze the behavior of human society as it appears in its structured and
organized ways and relationships. Specifically, sociologists are here interested in
discovering and analyzing:

 The personal and group relations that influence individual behavior and social
institutions;
 How persons and groups relate to each other;
 How people organize themselves in various social situations, whether
consciously or unconsciously;
 What kind of social relationships occur in their organized behaviors; and
 How these social relationships are maintained; how they decline or
disintegrate.

7.4 SOCIAL GROUPS

In our day-to-day life and social activities, we interact with each other, belonging to a
group of some kind. The study of group is central to any sociological investigation.

7.5.1 Definition of a Social Group

The term group has a special meaning in sociology because it represents a concept that
is central to any sociological analysis. Quite several definitions have been given to the
term group by different sociologists. Generally, a social group is defied as the
collectivity or set of people who involve in more or less permanent or enduring social
interactions and relationships. Members of a social group have common basis for
interaction and shared characteristics, a feeling of identity or belongingness, shared
psychology or consciousness and a definite set of norms to govern the behaviors of the
individual participant in the group.

7.4.2. Basic Features of a Social Group

In their sociological analysis of the group behavior of human society, sociologists have
identified some essential elements of a social group. For a set or collectivity of people
to be a social group, it has to have the following essential traits or features (Calhoun et
al, 1994)
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1. Members of the group continue to interact with one another;

2. Membership requires living by norms that are special to the group;

3. Members view each other as part of the group; members feel some sense of
identification with the group and with one another; and there is a social boundary
between members and non-members;

4. Members are functionally integrated through role and status relationship in the
group structure; and

5. Others see members as group.

Social interaction among the members is relatively permanent; it is not causal.

Common interests should characterize as a basis for interaction. There are shared
values, beliefs and lifestyles. The emotional, shared consciousness is also important.
The feeling of belongingness is very important. Social norms and values govern
behavior of group members.

All of the following are examples of social groups, from the smallest possible level to
the largest possible. A dyad (made up of two persons like fiancés, husband and wife),
a family, a group of students in a dormitory, peer group, a friendship, an ethnic group,
a community, a nation, a continent, a university, an organization, etc.

7.4.3. Classification of Groups

Sociologists have classified groups into two basic classifications, namely, primary and
secondary groups. The classification of groups into primary and secondary is mainly
based on: (a) the quality of relationship between or among the members of the group,
and (b) the degree of group identity. People, for example, generally feel more loyal to
their family and close friends than to the companies for which they work (Henslin and
Nelson, 1995).

Primary Groups and Their Main Features Charles H. Cooley was the first sociologist
to use the term primary groups to describe such groups as family, neighborhood and
children's play groups. Such groups were the ''nursery of human nature'' where the
essential sentiment of human group loyalty and concern for others could be learned.
Primary groups are distinguished by some of the following characteristics:

 There is face-to-face interaction among members.

 There is high sentiment or loyalty.
 Identification (group identity) and close cooperation among members
 There is a high level of emotional, spiritual satisfaction to be derived from
involvement in primary social groups.

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 Concern for friendly relations as an end in themselves, not as a means to an
end.
 Primary groups are often small in size.
 Primary group gives its members (individuals) their ''first acquaintance with
humanity''.
 Primary groups, for a child, are a school for learning the ways of human
interaction and the give and take of working and playing together.

Secondary Groups and Their Main Features

Secondary groups are the more formal types of groups to which peoples belong. To
start with clearly definitive examples, the Federal Army, Lion’s Club, Ethiopian
Commercial Bank, etc, are secondary groups. As organizations, secondary groups do
not give people the feeling of close identity that primary groups give. Considerable
effort must be devoted to making people proud of the corporation for which they work,
and this type of pride, if it is achieved at all, is not primary group sentiment. One can
still be lost in the great organization; there is not the same sense of psychological
security.

Main features (traits) of secondary social groups include:

 There is little or no emotional involvement.

 Members are more competitive than cooperative.
 Members are less intimate.
 Group identity is less relevant.
 Economic efficiency is given higher emphasis than psychological identity.
 The group is mainly a means to an end rather than an end in itself.
 Membership is unlimited.

Some critical observations must be made concerning the classification of groups.

i) Primary and secondary groups are ideal types, i.e. types represented as
opposite poles for the sake of analysis. In concrete life situations, most
relations are not purely primary or secondary, but come some where
between, examples: school, church, etc.
ii) A second reservation about primary and secondary group classification is
that primary groups may be formed with in secondary groups.

In other words, the classification of social groups into primary and secondary should
not be taken as a sort of dichotomy. It should rather be considered as a continuum, i.e.
at the two extreme ends, there may be crystallized primary and secondary groups, and
in between the two extremes, there are mixtures of the two types.
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7.4.4 Quasi-Social Groups

Quasi-groups are those kinds of social groupings which lack the essential features of
social groups. In this kind of grouping, there may be no functional integration among
members. There are little or no structured and patterned social relationships. This kind
of social interactions is common in modern, industrial and complex societies. It is
more common in urban heterogeneous settings. They characterize individualistic
societies. Such groups lack meaningful social structures and social interaction. There
are two types of quasi groups: aggregates and categories.

Aggregates

A social aggregate is quasi-social grouping in which two or more people are physically
together at a certain time and at a certain place. There is physical proximity without
enduring social interaction. There is no shared psychological-identity. However, out of
this kind of grouping a real social group can emerge. Examples of an aggregate
include: two or more people in a- taxi, bus, air plane, an elevator, a busy city street, in
a cafeteria, a stadium, in a market, in a hospital ward, etc.

Anonymity in the midst of crowd behavior usually characterizes aggregates. Such

condition may lead to the problem of sense of alienation, dehumanization, sense of
being lost, depression, social stress and other psychosocial problems. Suicide is very
common in urban than rural areas and mental illness is more increased in societies
characterized by anonymity, individualism, and heterogeneity.

Categories

This is a quasi-group which consists of a plurality or collectively of people who are

physically dispersed, but who share common traits and interests. It refers to a social
class; or a group of people who are more or less of similar lifestyles, and physical and
psychosocial characteristics. There may be little or no social interaction, social
structure, social norms, etc; but there is the feeling of belongingness, even though the
people may never know each other. However, gradually, a meaningful social grouping
can grow out of a category. Examples of a social category include: all female students
in higher learning institutions in Ethiopia; all female engineers in Ethiopia; all students
from rural background, HIV positive persons, etc.

Sl.No Type of group Basic features Examples

1 Primary social groups Face-to-face interaction; A family; a peer

informal an personal group; a dormitory
interaction; Small size; An of students; etc
end in itself Common values,

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norms and belie system;
Feeling of unity

2 Secondary social Relatively large group size; An anti-AIDS club;

groups impersonal and formal social a university; a
interaction; a means to an hospital; etc
end; bureaucratic structure;

3 Aggregates A quasi social group; mere An anti-AIDS club;

physical proximity/ a university; a
togetherness; lack of hospital; etc
unifying features; not
functionally integrated

4 Category Quasi social group; dispersed All women aged 60

collectivity; members an above; all HIV
belonging to similar patients in the
socioeconomic background world; all rural
people in Ethiopia;
etc

5 Dyads A two-person, primary social Husband and wife;

group; a two –person peer
group; etc

7.5 CULTURE

7.5.1 Meaning and definition

Culture is man made. It is a heritage in to which a child is born. Culture is a way of

life, a mode of thinking, acting and feeling. It also refers to the distinctive way of life
of a group of people. Culture refers to a set of rules and procedures along with a
supporting set of ideas and values. Culture is a learned behaviour which passes from
one generation to another. Culture includes all that man has acquired in the mental and
intellectual sphere of norms and values which people hold. Culture is acquired by man
as a member of society and persists through tradition. Singing, dancing, talk ing, eating
etc. belong to the category of culture. Johnson points out that culture has two aspects
i.e. Explicit and implicit. The explicit aspect of culture consists of those aspects which
bearers are fully conscious. The implicit aspect of culture consists of those aspects of
culture; which bearers are not able to describe exactly. Tylor speaks about the social
aspect of culture. Acquisition of a particular way of life is known as culture. Thus,
culture is a learned behaviour, a social heritage in to which a child is born. It is an
accumulation of folkways and mores. It is an organized system of behaviour. Culture

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is superorganic and is a decision for living. There are four different dimensions of
culture. Hence, culture is a complex phenomenon. To understand this complex
phenomenon, it is necessary to analyze some of the definitions of culture.

7.5.2 Definitions

Different sociologists and scholars have defined culture in different ways. Some such
definitions are
1. According to well known anthropologist E.B. Tylor, “Culture is that complex whole
which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law custom and any other capabilities
acquired by man as a member of society”.
2. According to Robert Redfield, culture is “an organized body of conventional
understanding manifest in art and artifact, which persisting through tradition,
characterizes a human group”.
3. According to B. Malinowski, “culture is the handiwork of man and the medium
through which he achieves his end”.
4. According to David Bidney, “culture is a product of agrofacts, (cultivation),
artifacts (industries), social facts and mental facts (language, religion art and so on).
5. Herskovit defines culture as “man made part of environment”.
6. MacIver and Page consider culture as a realm of styles, of values, of emotional
attachments, of intellectual adventures. It is the expression of our nature in our modes
of living and thinking in our everyday intercourse, in art, in iteraction, in reaction and
enjoyment”.
7. According to H.T. Mazumdar, “culture is the sum total of human achievements
materials as well as non-material, capable of transmission, sociologically i.e. by
tradition and communication, vertically as well as horizontally”.
8. In the words of S. Koening, “culture is the sum total of man’s effort to adjust
himself to his environment and to improve his modes of living”.
9. According to Lundberg, “culture refers to “the social mechanisms of behaviour and
to the physical and symbolic products of these behaviour”.
10. Accprding to R.T. Lapiere, culture “is the embodiment in customs, tradition etc. of
the learning of a social group over the generation”.
11. According to Anderson and parker, “culture is the total content of the physico-
social, bio-social and psycho-social products man has produced and the socially
created mechanisms through which these social products operate”.
12. In the words of A.W. Green, culture is “the socially transmited system of idealized
ways in knowledge, practice and belief along with the artifacts that knowledge and
practice produce and maintain as they change in time”.
13. According to Robert Bierstedt, “culture is the complex whole that consists of
everything we think and do and have as members of society”.
14. According to A.F. Walter Paul, “culture is the totality of group ways of thought
and action duly accepted and followed by a group of people”.

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7.5.3 Characteristics

(1) Culture is acquired: Culture is an acquired quality or behaviour. It is not

biologically inherited but learnt socially by individuals. In other words any behaviour
or quality which is socially acquired or learned is called culture. Behaviour’s learned
through socialization habits and thoughts are called culture. Human being learns or
acquires culture by living in group. He learns it from society through education.
(2) Culture is Social: Culture is not individual but social in nature. As a social product
culture develops through social interaction which is shared by all. Without social
interaction or social relations it is very difficult and almost impossible to be cultured.
Culture is inclusive of the expectations of the members of the groups. It is created or
originated in society. Hence it is social.
(3) Culture is Transmissive: Culture is transmitted from one generation to another. It
passes from parents to children and so on. This transmission is a continuous and
spontaneous process. It never remains constant. Man inherits or learns culture from his
ancestors and passes it to his successors. In this way culture constantly accumulate.
(4) Culture fulfils some needs: Culture fulfills many social psychological, needs of
individuals. Culture is created and maintained because of different needs. It fulfils
needs of both society as well as individuals. For example, religion used to fulfill the
solidarity and integrative needs of society. Our need for food, clothing, shelter, name,
fame, status and position are fulfilled as per our cultural ways.
(5) Culture is shared: Culture is not possessed by a single or a few individual. Culture
is shared by majority of individuals. Hence culture is collective in nature. For example
polytheism is our culture. It means majority of Indians believe in polytheism.
(6) Culture is Idealistic: Culture is idealistic in nature. It embodies the ideals, values
and norms of the group. It sets ideal goals before individuals which are worth
attaining. In other words culture is the sum total of ideals and values of individuals in
society.
(7) Culture is accumulative: Culture is not created in one day or one year. It gradually
accumulates through centuries. Beliefs, art, morals, knowledge are gradually stored up
and became part of culture. Hence, culture is the social heritage. (8) Culture is
adaptive: Culture possesses adaptive capacity. It is not static. It undergoes changes.
Different aspects of culture adapt with new environment or challenges posed by social
and physical environment. Adaptation refers to the process of adjustment. And culture
helps man in this process of adjustment.
(9) Culture is Variable: Culture is variable and changeable. It varies and changes from
society to society. Each and every society has its own culture. It also varies within a
society from time to time. Ways of living of people of a particular society varies from
time to time.
(10) Culture is Organized: Culture has an order or system. As Tylor says culture is a
‘complex whole’. It means different parts of culture are well organized into a cohesive

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whole. Different parts of culture is organized in such a way that any change is one part
brings corresponding changes in other parts.
(11) Culture is Communicative: Man makes and uses symbol. He also possesses
capacity of symbolic communication. Culture is based on symbol and it communicates
through different symbols. Common ideas and social heritage etc. are communicated
from one generation to another. In our society ‘red colour’ stands for danger. In Indian
culture red colour symbolizes danger. Hence, culture is communicative in nature.
(12) Language is the chief vehicle of Culture: Culture is transmitted from one
generation to the next. It never remains static. This transmission became possible
through language. Culture is learned through language.
(13) Culture is the total social heritage: We know culture is a social product. It is
linked with the past. Through transmission past continues to live in culture. It is shared
by all.

7.5.4 Related Concepts

Related concepts. These are some important concepts which are related to culture.
Some such concepts are mentioned below:
1. Culture Trait and culture complex: The smallest and simplest unit of a culture is
known as a cultural trait. According to Hoebel “A reputedly irreducible unit of learned
behavior pattern or material product, the nail, the cardboard, the pen, the trousers etc.
“Traits of non-material culture are shaking hands. Saluting national flag etc. Each
culture has thousands of traits. When different traits of a particular culture come
together they form a culture complex. It is a cluster of related traits. The culture
complex is intermediate between the trait and the institution.
2. Culture and culture construct: This concept was given by Linton. When we see
something from our own eyes if that is culture, then whatever we write about the
inside aspect of culture, that is “culture construct”. Way of life of people is one thing
and what we study and write about it is another thing. First is reality later s culture
construct.
3. Cultural Relativism: It is one of the important approaches in social anthropology. It
helps sociologists to look at others actions and behavior patterns rationally. Cultural
relativism means that the function and meaning of a trait are relative to its cultural
setting. The cultural relativism’s perspective studies and interprets a particular culture
from participant’s view of that culture. It forbids any prior assumption or preconceived
notion in the study of any culture. It is against any ethnocentric bias.
4. Cultural Revitalization: It refers to the process through which a society in decline
reinterprets symbols from its culture and revives the will of its members to survive.
The new identity is combination of old and new elements.
5. Counter culture: The term was of thinking and acting which are in opposition to the
prevailing norms and values of the society is known as counter culture.
6. Ethnocentrism: The term was used by summer in his book “folkways”. It is defined
as “that view of things in which one’s own group is the centre of everything and all
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others are scaled and rated with reference to it. “Ethnocentrism makes ‘our’ culture
into a yardstick with which to measure all other cultures as good or bad. Here one’s
own culture is kept at the centre. The members of that particular culture consider
themselves superior to others.
7. Sub Culture : “Subculture is a system of values, attitudes, modes of behaviour and
life styles of a social group which is district from but related to the dominant culture of
a society. “It implies the existence of an identifiable dominant culture.
8. Ethos and Eidos of culture: This distinction of culture, proposed by A.L. Kroeber,
shows two different aspects of culture. Eidos is the formal appearance of a culture
derived from its constituents. It’s internal or core aspect is ethos. Ethos is the
disposition of a culture which determines its quality, its main themes and interests.
According to Bateson, the first consisting of the total emotional emphasis of a culture
is called eidos. For example gradation of different occupational group in the caste
system can be seen as a manifestation of eidos of a culture whereas the concept of
purity and pollution is the ethos of the caste system.
9. Culture Determinism: It means culture determines everything; Leslie white is today
the main spokes man for culture determinism. According to culture determinist,
culture is the Matrix of everything else and is itself governed by its own laws of
growth.

7.6 LET US SUM UP

 Social organization refers to the way people are socially grouped in an

enduring network of social interaction and relationship. The appropriate living
and working environment of a person is group life. As a ship does not function
outside water, a human being as a social animal does not live for any
meaningful sustained period of time in isolation from social group context.
Whatever we do, say, behave, or act gets its right meaning in the context of a
social group.
 Culture is a way of life, a mode of thinking, acting and feeling. Culture refers
to acquired behaviour which are shared by and transmitted among the members
of society.
 Sociologist W.F. Ogburn divide culture into two types such as material and
non-material. Material culture consists of products of human activity which is
concrete, tangible and observable, Exa-table. Non-material culture consists of
intangible things like customs, values, good will, beliefs etc.
 Cultural lag refers to the strain that exists between two correlated parts of
culture that changes at unequal rates of speed. 41. Status and role are two
structural units of a society. Every members of society occupies different
statuses and performs some roles related to a particular status.

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7.7 GLOSSARY

 Ethos-is the set of ideas and attitudes that is associated with a particular group
of people or a particular type of activity
 Eidos-the cognitive part of cultural structure made up of the criteria of
credibility.
 Ethnocentrism- occurs when one has the belief that their own cultural group is
superior to others.

7.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Explain the term social organization using you own words

2. What is social relationship?
3. Explain the following statement: “No one enjoys aloneness.”
4. Discuss the difference between social groups and quasi-social groups.
5. Who explain “culture is the complex whole that consists of everything we think and
do and have as members of society”?
6. Who divide culture into two types such as material and non-material?

7.9 REFERENCES

 Inkeles, Alex, what is sociology ? New Delhi : Prentice-Hall of India 1965.

 Majumdar, D.N., and T.N. Madan, An introduction to social Anthropology,
Bombay : Asia publishing house, 1960.
 Ginsberg, M. Sociology, oxford University press, 1961.
 MacIver, R.M., and C.H. Page, sociology-An introductory analysis, Londan :
Macmillan and co.LTD., 1962.
 MacIver, R.M., Community, A sociological study, New york, Macmillan,
1928.
 Davis, kingley, Human society : The Macmillan company, 1960

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UNIT-8 STATUS AND ROLE

Structure

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Roles
8.3.1 Meaning
8.3.2 Definitions
8.3.3 Characteristics.
8.3.4 Related concepts.
8.3.5 Classification of Roles
8.3.6 Dimensions of Roles
8.4 Use of Role Theory
8.5 Status
8.5.1 Meaning.
8.5.2 Definitions.
8.5.3 Types
8.5.4. Characteristics.
8.6 Rewards and punishment associated with role and Status
8.7 Let Us Sum Up
8.8 Glossary
8.9 Check Your Progress
8.10 References

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you will be able to know

 Meaning of satus
 Characterstics of status
 Types of status
 Meaning of roles
 Characterstics of roles

8.2 INTRODUCTION

As a science, sociology is mainly concerned with the study of society. In order to

study and analyze society sociology uses different concepts. Every subject has its own
concepts and ideas, So also sociology. Definite concept eradicates ambiguity of
meaning and give scientific form to any idea. Social status is one such concept of
sociology.

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Social status is very important both for individual and society. A status system is a
universal feature of human society. It is basis of organization of group life and
determines who occupies what. Inequality of status is a marked feature of every
society, ancient or modern. Inequalities are inherent in the nature of human beings.
Apart from natural differences, human being are also differentiated according to
socially approved criteria. Every member of society occupies different statuses. Hence,
understanding society requires an understanding of status is one of the structural unit
of a society.

8.3 ROLES

Role is a basic concept of sociology. It is a structural unit of society. It is a universal

feature of the society. As a Science, Sociology is mainly concerned with the study of
society. In order to study society sociology tries to understand concept like role. Every
member of society performs some roles. Performing or playing roles involves social
relationships in the sense that an individual plays a role in relation to other roles.
Sociology lays stress on the interactions and relationships of human beings. Human
relationships, interactions and role playing or role performance take place in society.
Hence understanding society requires the understanding of roles. Shakespeare’s classic
description of the world as a stage in which each individual play different roles shows
the importance of roles in society. In society every person is assigned different tasks to
perform which makes up his role.

8.3.1 Meaning

If you give a look at society you find that individuals differ in attributes like age, sex,
colour and occupations. Individuals perform different functions in society. Some are
laborers other are scientists, some are professors others are engineers while others are
doctor, leaders, solders etc. The society is based on division of labour in which every
person is assigned a specific task to perform which makes up his role.

Role is the behaviour expected of one who holds a particular status or position. Role is
closely associated with status. Roles provide means for accomplishing certain tasks.
The concept of role implies a set of expectations. Human behaviour is regulated and
organized by social roles. Learning roles involves learning the norms of the culture. As
an aspect of culture roles provide an important part of the guidelines necessary for an
ordered society. Originally, the word ‘role’ refers to ‘roll’ on which an actor’s part was
written. Accordingly, role consists of behaviour expected of an individual in
community. Role is a relational term. One plays a role in relation to another. There
cannot be a teacher without a student. Hence role represents reciprocal relations
among individuals and involves a series of rights and duties. Each status in a society is
accompanied by a number of norms which define an individual occupying a particular
status expected to act. This group norm is known as role. For example, status of

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teacher is accompanied by the role of teacher. Playing or performing roles involves
social relationships in the sense that an individual plays a role in relation to other roles.
Role is a dynamic aspect of status.

The concept of Role is related to the concept of status. While status is a position in the
society, role is the dynamic or the behavioral aspect of status. While status is occupied,
the role is played. A status, thus, serves as the means of identifying a role. In other
words, the status enables one to identify the behaviour expected of a person in a
particular situation and to act accordingly. Ralph Linton, a sociologist who contributed
to the theory of Role has perceived role as the expression of the prescribed and static
behavioural expectations of a status. Role is viewed as a manifestation of normative
behaviour contained in the status. Status provides guidelines to behaviour

8.3.2 Definitions

1. According to K. Davis Role is the manner in which a person actually carries out the
requirement of his position”.

2. According to ogburn and Nimkoff, “Role is a set of socially expected and approved
behaviour patterns; consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a
particular position in a group”.

3. According to G.A.Lundberg, “A social role is a pattern of behaviour expected of an

individual in a certain group or situation”.

4. According to Morris Ginsberg, status is a position and a role is the manner in which
that position is supposed to be filled. In other words role is the functional aspect of a
status”.

5. According to Linton, “Role is a dynamic aspect of status”.

6.Robert Bierstedt defines role as the “dynamic and behavioural aspect of status…A
roleis what an individual does in the status he occupies.”

R. K. Merton added a new dimension to the concept of role. The prevailing view was
that one status carried only one role. But Merton stated that a person occupying a
status interacts with not only one category of person but several different categories. A
person in a status, thus, has relations with several role partners. “A complement of role
relationships in which personsare involved by virtue of occupying a particular social
status” is defined by Merton as ‘role set’. For example, a person in the status of a
school teacher has to play different roles in reference to his pupils, his colleagues,
parents of the pupils, the school board members etc.

Thus, role is a set of expectations which is expected from an individual in society.

Smooth running of society depends on efficient and consistent performance of roles.
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Successful role performance requires possession of attitudes to such role. Role
represents reciprocal relations among individuals.

8.3.3 Characteristics.

Role have following characteristics.

1. Role is the structural unit of society.

2. Role is always associated with status or position.
3. Role is relational in nature.
4. Roles regulate and organize human behaviour.
5. Roles provide guidelines and directives to an ordered society.
6. Role implies a set of expectations.
7. Roles involves a series of rights and duties.
8. Role is dynamic.
9. Role is functional.

8.3.4. Related concepts.

Understanding of roles requires the understanding of some related concepts. Some

such concepts are as follows:

1. Role Set: Role set refers to variety of roles associated with a single status. For
example, status of a principal involves a number of roles i.e. his role in relation to
student, staff, teacher etc.

2. Role Playing: Role playing refers to the performance of role by an individual

related to his status.

3. Role Taking: Role taking means learning of role. It means taking the role of the
other. In the process of socialization an individual learns a number of role. It means
responding by placing oneself imaginatively in the role of the other person in order to
regulate one’s own behaviour Exa- a boy facing an interview for his selection as
lecturer.

4. Role Conflict: Role conflict refers to the contradictory demands within a role or
competing demands of two different roles. Different role expectations is known as role
conflict. Exa.-conflict of police officer between duty and arresting a friend. Role
conflict: One individual may be a member of different groups and sub-groups. In each
group, the individual is given some status and accordingly, he or she is expected to
play some role for the effective functioning of the group. Now role conflict occurs
when the individual’s role in one group is incompatible with the roles, he or she is
supposed in play in the other groups. For example : A and B are brothers (belonging to
one group/family). But they are also members of other groups like A is a police office
and therefore his role is to punish criminals. Now B, for some reason got engaged into
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criminal activity. In such a situation, A might experience a role conflict. If A protects
B then it goes against the role of a police officer and if A punishes B, his role as a
brother/family member might come under scrutiny sometimes.

5. Role Behavior: While role is the expected behaviour, role behavior is the actual
behavior of one who plays a role. Actual behavior may vary from expected behavior
due to number of reasons.

8.4.5 Classification of Roles

Various methods of classifying roles have been used by sociologists. We are here
concerned with classifications of roles in terms of social status.

1. Ascribed and Achieved Roles

According to Linton roles can be divided into:

i) Ascribed roles

ii) Achieved roles

The ascribed roles are those obtained at birth. Here role learning commences at birth
itself. Such learning pertains to one’s caste, class, family, gender and so on. Each
caste,for example, has its own set of rituals to be performed at the birth of a child, who
is subjected to various ceremonial procedures at every stage of growing-up. Achieved
roles are acquired by individuals through merit and competition. Thus, this method of
classification is based on the way that roles are allocated.

2.Relational and Non-Relational Roles

Nadel (1957) adopted the principle of content (i.e., the kind of conduct expected) of
roles and divided them, like Linton, into two categories of ascribed-achieved roles. He
further subdivided them into relational and non-relational roles. A relational role can
be played only in relation to a complementary role, while non-relational role is not
dependent on a complementary role. A husband’s role cannot be perceived without the
wife’s role. Similarly a creditor’s role is inconceivable without a debtor. Thus, these
can be taken as examples of relational roles. On the other hand, the examples of the
role of a poet or a scholar do not require a complementary role, in the sense that a poet
does not have to interact with others for writing poetry. Thus, such roles can be
described as non-relational. Nadel’s classification is based mainly on the conduct that
is implied in them. Thus, role differentiation for Nadel indicated to what extent
holding of one role, is independent of holding or relating to other roles.

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8.3.6 Dimensions of Roles

Now, we look at various aspects of the concept of role. First, we speak of the array of
roles that an individual may perform, and then we discuss the different role
relationships which make up a role-set. Similarly, we discuss the array of role sign,
changing of roles, role conflict and strain.

1. Multiple Roles and Role-set

It is important to realise that one person can occupy more than one role. For example,
in the area of kinship alone, one cannot avoid holding many roles at the same time.
Try to count how many kinship roles you occupy. In the modern times, we find that
people have several roles in other areas of social life than kinship. For example,
besides being a son/daughter, brother/sister, husband/wife, father/mother etc., you are
an IGNOU student, the citizen of your nation, and you may be occupying many other
roles of various types. Occupying of many roles is given the term multiple roles. Of
these multiple roles, some are played together while others are separated. Similarly,
some may be carried out in a sequence and other over many years. It is quite common
to observe the situation of intra-role conflict, because often a person occupying several
roles faces opposite expectations in different role sectors. While playing one role, a
person is linked with many ‘role-others’. According to Merton (1968-84), these
‘roleothers’ with regard to a particular person form his/her role-set. Merton
distinguishes this idea of role-set from multiple roles, which are several roles of the
same person. A role-set, on the other hand, refers to ‘role others’ in relation to a person
playing a role. For example, a student of OSOU will carry on his/her role (as a
student) in relation to specific ‘role-others’ such as the counsellor, fellow students, the
librarian, the audio/video operator, the peon at the study-centre. Thus, in relation to a
student, all these are ‘role-others’ from role-set. The following diagrams clearly show
the difference between multiple roles and a role-set.

2. Role Signs

The area of role signs is a vast topic and here we will touch only the main points. In all
cultures across the world, we find that costume is basic as a role sign that differentiates
males from females. Why is this case? This is because these role signs serve as an
indicator of differences between men and women. Their roles are also different in the
social organisation. Thus a role sign tells us more about a person or group. Just as a
broken window is sign of violence and a wasted appearance a sign of ill health, a dress
can serve as a sign of a role. There are some roles which have more signs while in
other cases role signs are few or not at all. Let us consider a situation where all role
signs are removed: the general takes off his uniform, and the policeman follows suit.
Men start wearing skirts and saris and ladies pants and coats! What would be the
result? Basic information would become muddled up. It would take a long time to find
out the fundamental information. Thus role signs provide a better means of conveying
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information than does verbal communication. It would also become difficult to know
what good conduct is, as the examples in daily life will be difficult to follow. Thus,
role signs further communication as well as control. According to Banton (1965: 689-
92) signs of various roles can be usefully described in terms of basic, general and
independent roles.

3. Role Changing

To change roles is often very difficult. The person must know the rights and
obligations concerning new roles. He or she must change his/her behaviour
accordingly. Other people also have to change their roles towards him/her. Role
change, therefore, can be problematic. Let us consider the above with the help of some
examples. In almost all tribal societies childhood and adulthood are comparatively
difficult. A youth, unable to pass his initiation test, is in a bad position. He may never
be able to marry if he lives among the Bushmen! Thus, role changing here is a must if
negative sanctions are to be avoided. Take another example. In an industrial society
which changes rapidly, role models themselves undergo change. None of them can be
followed uncritically. There is no ready way in which role change can be made. Let us
consider adulthood. This implies readiness for marriage. ‘This involves a role change.
It is also a fact which alters social relations. All these require alteration of role
behaviour by husband, wife, relations and friends. In marriage, the bride undergoes a
greater change since it is often a time of extreme emotional changes for her. She may
have to leave her home and go to the place where her husband lives. Finally, a word
about retirement and death.

Retirement tends to be an individual event. Further there is a sense of loss and despair.

This comes from being jerked out of a particular routine. What follows is a lack of
routine. This can be very disorienting, and it takes a person time to pick up the threads.
Death itself is a period of adjustment for the widow/widower and others. They will
now have to take on more responsibilities. Role changes often take long and tend to be
a period of frustrating adjustments.

4.Role Conflict and Strain

Society is structured in a manner that keeps conflict of roles down to a minimum.

However, there are occasions that individuals have to play rather incompatible roles.
For example, stepfather and stepson, or the role of divided loyalties between two
employers. Such situations cause role conflict to increase. Role-conflict comes when
commitment is divided between two or more roles. As a result, usually the overall
performance suffers. Role strain occurs in case of situations where a person does not
fit into the slot given to him/her. Thus, if a woman is physically mature but does not
marry we have role strain. If a woman marries but is sterile, this again creates role
strain. The position is very difficult for a barren woman. She cannot lead the life of an
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ordinary wife. Among the Nuer of Sudan, she can become a diviner or a trader. She is
considered to be almost a man. Again, among the Hindus, the spinster creates role
strain. In some communities, this is reduced by marrying her to a tree or a fruit. The
small number of roles in society also creates strains. There are customs, therefore,
which reduce these strains in an innocuous manner. One such device is the festival or
carnival which takes place each year. Ranks are forgotten and everybody intermingles.
Role adjustment is more difficult in tribal and peasant societies. In industrial societies
the chances of acceptance of roles that do not go into a slot are much larger. However,
the strain does exist whenever a role faces the problems of choice and adjustment.

8.4 USE OF ROLE THEORY

The concept of role has been applied in sociological analyses of various dimensions of
social life. As we record changes in the notions and expectations around particular
roleswe arrive at the process of social changes. Similarly, in studying role
relationships, we focus our attention at the complex nature of organizational links in
social life. Here we point out some of such applications of role-theory in sociological
research. Both functionalists and Interactionists use this concept. The functionalists
view roles as the culturally defined behavior which is linked with particular social
statuses. For them, roles are determined by social values, norms and attitudes. The
Interactionists believe that the sense of self comes fully through interaction. They
emphasize that we learn meanings by interacting with others, and then organize our
social life around these meanings. They lay special stress on the interaction aspect than
the social role aspect. They discuss roles in terms of individual choices and
interpretation of one’s roles. Both the schools of sociological thought increase our
understanding of the concept of role, and each perspective can be used advantageously
in different ways. Social roles patterned either flexibly or rigidly, are better explained
in terms of functionalist approach. The roles, attached to positions with a wide range
of feelings, beliefs and behaviour can be fully discussed in terms of interactive view of
role. Thus, we find that both approaches are useful.

8.5 STATUS

Society lays down different social positions and with each position some defined
rights and duties are assigned. We occupy these positions and act accordingly. Such
social positions with defined rights and duties associated with it are called Status.
Your mother occupies the status of a mother in reference to you and to your siblings.
In reference to your father, she occupies the status of a wife. When you go shopping
with your friend, you occupy the status of a friend in relation to your friend, but when
you reach the shop and get to shopping, you occupy the status of customer in relation
to the shop keeper. Each status has some expected modes of behaviour associated with
it. These behaviours include rights and responsibilities. A particular status also
provides the required resources needed to perform the responsibilities. For example: in
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order to effectively perform the role of a parent, one needs certain resources in the
form of command over the time of child. These differences of behaviour differentiate
the statuses into various kinds. Statuses are institutionalized social positions.

8.5.1 Meaning

Ordinarily the word ‘status’ is used to refer to an individuals total standing in society.
It refers to a set of privileges and duties. Status is usually defined as the rank or
position of a person in a group or a group in relation to other groups. Status is the
social position occupied by the members in a particular social setting. It also refers to
social standing of a person based on some social evaluation. Status is a position in the
social system. It refers to what a person is . The term status is used to designate the
comparative amounts of prestige or respect accorded to persons who have been
assigned different roles in a group or community. Status of a person is based on social
evaluations. Status may vary from person to person or situation to situation. Status is
closely related to roles.

8.5.2 Definitions.

Status has been defined by different sociologists in a number of ways. Some define it
as a social posting occupied by an individual in a particular social setting. While others
define it as a social standing of a person according to some social evaluation.

1.According to MacIver and Page : “Status is the social position that determines for its
possessor, apart from his personal attributes or social service, a degree of respect,
prestige and influence”.

2. According to ogburn and Nimkoff “Status is the rank-order position assigned by a

group to a role or to a set of roles”.

3. According K. Davis, “Status is a position in the general institutional system,

recognized and supported by the entire society spontaneously evolved rather than
deliberately created, rooted in the folkways and mores”.

4. According to A.W. Green, status is a position in a social group or grouping, in

relation to other positions held by other individuals in the group or grouping”.

5. According to secured and Bukman, “Status is the worth of a person as estimated by

a group or a class of persons”.

6. According to H.T. Mazumdar, “status means the location of the individual within
the group his place in the social network of reciprocal obligations and privileges rights
and duties”.

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7. Martindale and Menachesi defines status as “a position in social aggregate identified
with a pattern of prestige symbols and actions”.

Thus, the above definitions make it clear that status is a social position which involves
some sort of evaluations. These evaluations help in ranking of different statuses in a
hierarchical order. Secondly, status is culturally determined, despite the fact they may
be based on biological factors such as age, sex, race etc.

8.5.3 Types of Status

Ralph Linton has divided statuses into two types based on the nature of how an
individual can come to occupy a status in society. These are ‘ascribed’ and
‘achieved’.

1.Ascribed Status: These statuses are based on characteristics that persons are born
with or born into and have no choice or control over it. Age and sex are two such
characteristics a person is born with. Also being born into a family or a kinship group,
an ethnic group, gender immediately ascribes one’s status. The moment you are born
into a family; you occupy the status of a child to the parents you are born to and you
have no choice over it. If you are born a male, you will occupy the status of a son or if
a girl then the status of a daughter. Taste Status is also ascribed. Caste system is one of
the general forms of social organisation which ascribes different status to people by
birth. Once you are born into a caste, you cannot change the caste in the Hindu Social
Organisation

2.Achieved Status: This status is based on characteristics which an individual come to

achieve in life and thus has some control and choice over it. For example, choosing to
study particular subjects by an individual will make him/her a student. It is a status
that a person comes to attain in some waysthrough his/her own efforts and choice. For
example, Lawyer, Teacher, Doctor etc.

3.Status Set: It is another concept that means the sum total of all the statuses that a
person occupies. You must be occupying a number of statuses at this time, like that of
a student, friend, son or daughter, a sibling, cousin, citizen of Indiaetc. All these
together comprise your status set.

8.5.4 Characteristics.

Status have the following characteristics.

1. Status is the structural unit of a society.

2. Status is a position or social standing of a person.
3. Status evolved spontaneously.
4. Status is closely related to roles.
5. Status involves some sort of evaluations.
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6. Status is comparative in nature.
7. Status may be achieved or ascribed.
8. Status is created by opinion of others.
9. Status is variable.
10. Status is greeted with respect.

8.6 REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT ASSOCIATED WITH ROLE AND

STATUS

In every society, one is ranked according to the kind of role he or she is playing and
how they are performing their role. For example: the role of a student is to study
regularly and complete the assignments given to them in proper time. If the students
perform these roles effectively, they are awarded with good marks. Again in every
society, some ‘roles’ are considered more difficult and important. Therefore, they get a
higher status in society. People having higher status are generally rewarded more in
society. However, it is the society which defines which task is more important. For
example: ancient tribal societies had to continuously fight with others in order to
protect their tribe from enemies as well animals. Therefore, the warriors who were
able to kill more enemies were given a higher status in society. They were also given
rewards inthe form of land, valuable items of daily use etc. Similarly, when one does
not perform the role assigned to him or her efficiently, then the society has provisions
to punish the person.

8.7 LET US SUM UP

 Status is a position in the society.

 Each status has defined modes of behaviour having rights and duties assigned
to it.
 A status is in reference to other status. Statuses interact in the society.
 A person may hold various statuses at the same time or at different times.
 Society lays down statuses. Social statuses are governed by norms.
 Those statuses which are based on traits which a person is born with or born
with are called ascribed status.
 Individuals do not have much control over the ascribed status.
 Those statuses which the individuals earn by their hard work and dedication is
called achieved status.
 Role consists of the socially expected and approved behavior pattern to be
performed by an individual.
 Role set refers to the sum total of all roles which an individual occupying
different statuses play.
 Role conflict occurs when a person’s one role contradicts with others
role/roles.
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 Every role and status is associated with some kind of award and punishment

8.8 GLOSSARY

 Role- the behaviour expected of an individual who occupies a given social

position or status.
 Status - the relative rank that an individual hold, with attendant rights, duties,
and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based upon honour or prestige.

8.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is status in sociology?

2. What is achived status?
3. Role is the dynamic aspect of status, Explain.
4. What is ascribed status?
5. What is role conflict?
6. What is status set?
7. What do you understand by role?
8. What is the relation between roles and rewards?

8.10 REFERENCES

1. Banton, M. (1965). Roles: An Introduction to the Study of Social Relations.

London: Tavistock Publications.
2. Bhushan, V. & Sachdeva, D. R. (2005). An introduction to Sociology. New
Delhi: Kitab Mahal.
3. Haralambos, M., & Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology: Themes and perspectives.
Harper Collins UK.
4. Johnson, H. M. (2013). Sociology: A systematic introduction. Routledge.
5. Mac Iver, R. M. & Page, C. H. (2001). Society – An introductory analysis. New
Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd.
6. Marshall, G. (2006). The Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. OUP: New Delhi.
7. Rawat. H.K. (2007). Sociology: Basic concepts. Jaipur: Rawat Publications
8. Worsely, P. (1970). Introducing Sociology. London: Penguin Books.

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Block-3
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Unit-9: Meaning, Definition, Characteristics

Unit-10: Forms of Stratification-Caste, class &
gender
Unit-11: Functionalist Theories of stratification
(Parsons, Davis & Moore)
Unit-12: Marxian & Weberian Theories of
stratification
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UNIT-9 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: MEANING, DEFINITION AND
CHRACTERISTICS

Structure

9.1 Learning Objectives

9.2 Introduction
9.3 Meaning of Social Stratification
9.4 Characteristics of Social Stratification
9.4.1 Diversity of Form and Amount of Stratification
9.4.2 Consequences of Social Stratification
9.5 The Importance of Studying Social Stratification
9.6 Let Us Sum Up
9.7 Glossary
9.8 Check Your Progress
9.9 References

9.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After go through this unit you will be able to-

• Understand the meaning of Stratification
• Explain the characteristic of social stratification

9.2 INTRODUCTION

All human societies from the simplest to the most complex have some form of social
inequality. Inequality in property, prestige and power is found in all societies. It means
that Power, prestige and wealth are unequally distributed among individuals and social
groups. On the basis of unequal resources, our society is stratified. In this unit we will
discuss about social stratification in detail.

9.3 MEANING OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social inequality simply refers to the phenomenon of socially created inequalities.

Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. Itrefers to the division of
social groups one above the other in terms of the amount of power, prestige and
wealth. The members of a particular stratum will share a similar life style on the basis
of which will distinguish them from members of other social strata. The caste system
of India is an example of social stratification. The society in a tea estate provides
another example of social stratification where there is clear cut distinction between the
members of the class of laborers and the management in terms of power, prestige and
wealth.
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1. According to Raymond. W.Murray, ‘social stratification is a horizontal
division of society into ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ social units.’
2. In the words of P. Gisbert, “social stratification is the division of society into
permanent groups or categories linked with each other by the relationship of
superiority and subordination.”
3. According to W.J. Goode, “stratification is a system through which resources
and rewards are distributed and handed down from generation to generation.”
4. According to Sutherland and Maxwell, “Stratification is the process of
interaction or differentiation which places some people higher than others.”
5. According to P.A.Sorokin, “Social stratification means the differentiation of a
given population into hierarchically superposed classes. It is manifested in the
existence of upper and lower social layer”
6. Williams opined, “Social stratification is the ranking of individuals on a scale
of superiority-equality or inferiority, according to some commonly accepted basis of
valuation.”
7. In the words of G.A. Lundberg, “A stratified society is one marked by
inequality, by differences among people that are evaluated by them as being lower and
higher.”
8. According to K. B. Mayer, Social stratification is a system of differentiation
which includes a hierarchy of social positions whose occupants are treated as superior,
equal or inferior relative to one another in socially important respects.”

9.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

M. M. Tumin in his famous book “Social Stratification: The Forms and Functions of
Inequality” has highlighted five basic characteristics of social stratification. They are
briefly discussed below.

Antiquity: According to historical and archeological records, stratification was present

even in the small wandering bands existing in the earliest days of human society. In
such primitive societies both age and sex along with physical strength must have been
important criteria of stratification.

Ubiquity: Social Stratification is found in all societies. It is present in non-literate

societies, whose traditions are largely oral and even in highly developed modern
societies.

Social Patterning: The Social patterning can be seen in five different aspects
mentioned below:

a) The Significance of Social Definitions the system of social stratification is always

part of a complex social and cultural pattern, often having little to do with biological
traits.
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b) The Significance of Norms and Sanctions. The system of stratification in a society
is governed by norms.

c) Need to Socialize Each Generation Every child is socialized about the existing
system of stratification in which he or she is born.

d) The Inherent Instability of Social Arrangements Though norms have stability and
continuity because of socialization process and sanctions that ensure conformity, they
are also unstable and discontinuous because that process of socialization and sanctions
never works perfectly.

e) The Connections of Stratification with other Institutions .The system of

stratification is always connected with other aspects of a society. Such connections are
known as institutional interdependencies or institutional interrelationships. This
implies that the existing stratification arrangements are affected by and have effects
upon other institutions like politics, kinship, marriage and the family, economy,
education, and religion.

Sociologist Melvin M. Tumin had attributed following characteristics to social

stratification:

Social stratification is social: It is socially patterned by the consensus of the people of

the society. The criteria of inequality, whether it is wealth or ritual purity, are derived
from the prevalent beliefs and values of the people of a particular society. The attitude
of the people determines the level of rigidity or openness of the system of
stratification. Therefore, social stratification is not a naturally given thing but a
socially constructed phenomenon.

Social stratification is ancient: It means that one or the other form of social
stratification has always existed in societies in all epochs of history. In primitive
societies, people were divided on the basis of their age and sex. They had arrangement
of age sets, whereby, people belonging to a particular age were grouped together and
allotted with different functions. Thus, since ancient times, social stratification has
been a characteristic of all human societies. Social stratification is therefore
ubiquitous.

It is in diverse forms: In different societies, there exist different systems of

stratification such as caste, class, race and estate. These are based on criteria such as
ritual purity, types of occupation, physical features like skin color and ownership of
property. Similarly, a system of social stratification can also exist in different societies
in different degrees. For example: in one society we may find extreme inequalities
between the classes and in others there may be fewer gaps between classes and more
cooperation. Thus, in some societies the system of social stratification may be very
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rigid and in some societies, it may be flexible in nature allowing people to change their
social stratus.

Social stratification has pervasive social consequences: Since a person’s social status
also determines his or her access to resources for survival and development. Social
Stratification determines life chances of the individual as well as the members of a
particular stratum. Hence factors like longevity, mortality, nutrition, education and
others are heavily dependent on the process of social stratification. Similarly, social
stratification also denotes the life styles of the members of a particular social group.
Food, dress habits, type of residence, quality of education, friendship groups are
dependent on the social position of an individual or the group. Again, the behaviour of
people are determined by the codes of conduct prescribed to the groups to which
individuals belong. One example of this can be the occupational groups like the army
personnel.

Apart from these characteristics, social stratification also has an impact on the values,
attitudes and ideologies of the people living in a society: The rigidity and openness in
a system of social stratification determines the attitudes of the people towards the
members of the groups having higher or lower status. This again has an impact on the
interactions of the members of both the groups. Interaction between the members of
one race with another is an example of this. The identification of what is good and
what is bad in social behaviour is also to a great extent determined by the sanctions
associated with the system of social stratification. For example: the ideas of purity and
pollution in the caste system determine the preferred way of life for the caste groups.
Finally, system of social stratification and its prescribed practices also have an impact
on the ideologies of the future course of action for the members of the social groups in
a society

9.4.1 The Diversity of Form and Amount of Stratification:

The diversity of stratification can be explained both in terms of forms and amount. The
diversity in amount of stratification found in societies of the past and present is
matched by diversity in form. The terms such as class, caste, and estate are useful to
express the different ways in which strata can be arranged.

9.4.2 The Consequences of Stratification

The consequences of social are different life chances, institutional patterns of conduct,
life style, different values, attitudes and ideologies. Life chances refer to the
probabilities that one will enjoy (or fail to enjoy) a range of opportunities,
achievements, and satisfying experiences during the course of his/her life. The term
institutional patterns of conduct refers to the patterns of behavior of everyday life in all
the basic institutions of society like the economy, the political system., the educational

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network, the family, and religion. Do people in different income groups raise their
children differently? If they do, why? The term life style refers to the ways in which
people use their disposable energy, time, and resources to obtain certain levels of
honor. How do they dress and do their hair? What kinds of vehicles do they purchase?
How do they decorate their homes? What is their style of visiting and entertainment?
What media do they read, listen to, or watch? What are their patterns of speech and
gesture? The terms values, attitudes, and ideologies refer to sets of beliefs about such
questions as the following: What defines a good society? What constitutes good
personal life? How much freedom and of what kind should people have?

9.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

The study of social stratification is particularly important for sociologists. Some of the
reasons for this may include (Giddens, 1995):

• To investigate the class membership of individuals in society with the aim of

understanding the type of life people live. That is, knowing what type of life
individuals in a given social group or stratum live is very important for sociological
analysis.

• To explore the bases for the assignment of individuals into various hierarchies of the
social structure. What are the bases for stratifying individuals into a specific stratum?

• To understand the relationship between individuals assigned into different

hierarchies. What kind of interaction and relationship exist between individuals
located into different strata?

• To investigate the relationship between individuals or groups belonging to the same

hierarchy. What kinds of relationship exist between people in the same stratum?

• To understand what type of social system gives rise to what or which types of
hierarchies. That is, the type of social stratification varies across cultures, times and
types of social systems.

9.6 LET US SUM UP

 In simple words, social stratification is the arrangement of social groups on the

basis of certain characteristics.
 The study of social stratification is a core subject of sociology as a discipline. It
helps us to understand the nature of social organization and the distribution of
role and status in society.
 There are various characteristics of social stratification. For example, it is
socially patterned; it exists in diverse forms; and it is ubiquitous.

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 Examples of systems of social stratification are caste, class, estate, etc.

9.7 GLOSSARY

 Stratification- refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups

based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education.
 Prestige-refers to the reputation or esteem associated with one's position in
society

9.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Who is the author of the book, Social Stratification: The Forms and Functions
of Inequality?
2. Mention three characteristics of social stratification.

9.9 REFERENCES

• Beteille, A. (1977). Inequality among men. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

• Giddens, A. (1989). Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press.
• Gupta, D. (1977). Social stratification. New Delhi: Oxford University
Publications.
• Tumin, M. (1967). Social stratification: The forms and functions of inequality.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall

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UNIT-10 FORMS OF STRATIFICATION

Structure

10.1 Learning Objectives

10.2 Introduction
10.3 Forms of Social Stratification
10.3.1 Caste as a Form of Social Stratification
10.3.2 Class as a Form of Social Stratification
10.3.3 Race as a Form of Social Stratification
10.3.4 Ethnicity as a Form of Social Stratification
10.3.5 Gender as a Form of Social Stratification
10.4 Let Us Sum Up
10.5 Glossary
10.6 Check Your Progress
10.7 References

10.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After go through this unit you will be able to-

 Understand the various forms of stratification

 Explain the forms like caste, class, race, ethnicity and gender stratification

10.2 INTRODUCTION

Social stratification has been analyzed by different scholars from different points of
view. Stratification structures may take different forms. Sociologist Max Weber
distinguishes between class, status and party. Similarly T.B. Bottomore has
distinguished four types or forms of stratification such as slavery, Estate, Caste and
Class. These forms are discussed below.

10.3 FORMS OF STRATIFICATION

10.3.1 Caste as a Form of Social Stratification

Caste is one of the most pervasive forms of stratification found in India. This system
of stratification comprises of the four varnas namely, the Brahmins at the top, followed
by the Kshatriyas or warriors, the Vaishyas, or traders, and the Shudras, or the servants
and labourers in that order. The Panchamas or the outcastes were outside the caste
system and were considered to be inferior to even Shudras. The caste system divides
or stratifies individuals or social groups on the basis of the caste he or she belongs to.

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Accordingly, the individual’s position depends on the position of his/her caste in the
caste hierarchy. An individual is bound to remain in the same social position into
which she or he is born.

Each position in the caste structure is defined in terms of its purity or pollution in
relation to others. The underlying assumption while allocating such position was that
those who are the purest, namely the Brahmins, are superior to all other castes.
According to the caste ideology, purity and pollution related to each caste can only be
retained by caste endogamy, that is, the practice of marrying within the caste, and
through the avoidance of contact with members of the lower castes. As a matter of
fact, the extent to which one can enter into any sort of interactions with other caste
group is determined by caste ideology. These practices play an important role in
retaining stratification in society. The caste system of India has undergone
considerable changes over the years. The Bhakti Movement of medieval India
facilitated the birth of new social values that challenged the Brahmanical caste
ideology. The most important driving force for changes in the caste system was British
rule and the socio economic and administrative institutions introduced by the British.
Westernization, urbanization, secularization and opening of new economic
opportunities acted as a blow to rigid caste-based social structure. The various anti-
Brahmin movements, the spread of liberal ideology, and the governments’ policy and
programme of protective discrimination for the upliftnment of the downtrodden caste
groups have also eroded caste-based social customs and behavior patterns.

10.3.2 Class as a form of Social Stratification

The concept of class is a useful category to understand the social stratification system
in modern societies. Basically class as a social category refers to such a group whose
members have similar economic conditions, maintain similar life style, adhere to
similar ideologies etc. Karl Marx and Max Weber have put forth their own
understanding of class as a social category. In this context Marx’s analysis of class is
worth mentioning. A class, according to Marx, is a group of people whose members
share similar relations to the ‘forces of production’. Marx further argued that in all
societies there exist two major classes with antagonistic interests – namely the haves
and have-nots. The haves control the forces of production (land, labour, capital and
enterprise), while the have nots work under the haves for their survival. As soon as the
have-nots develop class consciousness, they revolt against the haves or the oppressors.

Marx had a vision that the conflict between the haves and have nots will lead to a
change in the mode of production followed by a new social formation. In the section
on Marxist theory of social stratification we will deal with the issue in detail. Weber
too argued that the major class division is between those who own the forces of
production and those who do not. Thus who have substantial amount of property will

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enjoy superior life chances. However, Weber observes significant differences in the
market situation of the classes who do not own property. The Weberian analysis of
class will be discusses in detail in the section on Weberian theory of social
stratification.

The class position of an individual greatly affects his or her educational attainment and
consequently occupational opportunities. Class is closely associated with race, caste,
ethnicity and gender. In America the number of individuals occupying higher class
position is more among the whites than that among the blacks. Similarly, in India there
is a close connection between caste and class. Traditionally the people belonging to
the upper castes possessed more land and other properties in comparison to the people
belonging to the lower castes. It has been observed that an individual belonging to an
upper caste has a better chance to emerge as a member of middle class and upper class.
In patriarchal societies women’s class position is seen as inferior to that of men since
in patriarchal societies they are not given ownership rights over the valued resources
of society.

10.3.3 Race as a form of Social Stratification

The practice of inequality on the basis of the difference in the physical traits (like hair,
skin type, stature, type of eyes etc.) of one group of people from another has existed in
many parts of the world. The inequality between the Blacks and the Whites provides a
suitable example of racial stratification system. Black Americans, who constitute
around 12% of the population, have formed a distinct social stratum at the bottom of
the stratification system. The system of racial stratification in America is largely based
on a prejudice that the Blacks are innately inferior to the Whites in terms of
intelligence. It is found that majority of them occupied menial and other inferior jobs
in industry. The average income of the Black families is also reported to be much
lower than that of the White families. Statistics reveals the fact that the Blacks possess
little political power being scarcely represented in local and national government.

However the issue concerning the relationship between intelligence and social
inequality on the basis of race is highly debated. M. Haralambos in his book
Sociology: Themes and Perspectives has put forth some preliminary remarks in this
regard. Firstly, intelligence is based on both genetic and environmental factors; the
two are inseparable. Thus an individual’s social background affects his/her
performance in an IQ test. The deprivations which a student experiences as a member
of a low social stratum will negatively affect his/her IQ score. Secondly, intelligence
tests are biased against the Blacks as they are based on White middle-class knowledge
and skills. Thirdly, the tests measured only a small part of the range of mental abilities.
Most sociologists therefore comment that the social status of the Blacks in the USA is
the result of social rather than biological factors.

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10.3.4 Ethnicity as a form of social stratification

According to “Oxford Dictionary of Sociology” individuals who consider themselves,

or are considered by others, to share common characteristics which differentiate them
from the other groups in a society, and from which they develop their distinctive
cultural behavior, form an ethnic group. The term ethnicity was coined in contrast to
race, which is often seen in biological terms. Members of an ethnic group may be
identifiable in terms of racial attributes.

They may also share other cultural characteristics such as religion, occupation,
language, or politics. Ethnic groups can be distinguished from social classes, since
membership in an ethnic group cuts across various socio-economic groups within
society. An ethnic group usually encompasses individuals who share common
characteristics that supersede class. In almost all multiethnic societies some socio-
economic and political forces make one or a few ethnic groups dominant over other
similar groups. Other, subordinate ethnic groups exert less power, corresponding to
their place in the hierarchy, extending down to the lowest ranking groups, which may
wield little or no power.

The position of other subordinate groups in the hierarchy is determined mainly on the
basis of distance from the dominant group in culture and physical attributes. Those
who are similar to the dominant group are more highly ranked, and those most
different are ranked correspondingly low. A system of ethnic stratification, therefore,
is the ranking of groups one above the other in terms of their distance, (culturally and
physically) from the dominant ethnic group. In this system each group is made up of
people with presumed common cultural or physical characteristics interacting in
patterns of dominance and subordination.

10.3.5 Gender as a Form of Social Stratification

It was Ann Oakley who introduced the term ‘gender’ to Sociology. According to
Oakley “sex” refers to the biological division into male and female; “gender” refers to
socially unequal division into femininity and masculinity. In other words, gender is a
social construct specifying the socially and culturally prescribed roles for men and
women. The term gender is not confined to individual identity and personality alone; it
also encompasses sexual division of labour at home and workplaces, cultural ideals
and stereotypes of masculinity and femininity. Simone de Beauvoir’s statement “one is
not born, but rather becomes, a woman” which she made in her celebrated book The
Second Sex also suggests that gender is an aspect of identity gradually acquired. The
anatomically distinct female body, i.e., sex, acquires cultural meaning (gender). For
example, during the menstruation period the notion of impurity is attached to the
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female body and therefore she is debarred from participation in religious ceremonies.
This speaks of gender as a cultural construct.

Sociologists have argued that culturally dominant ideas about masculinity and
femininity are stereotypes, as they do not reflect the actual nature of men and women.
More specifically, gender stereotype refer to one-sided and exaggerated images of men
and women deployed repeatedly in everyday life. Stereotyping is seen as a part of the
process by which children are socialized into sex roles. Socialization plays an
important role in the construction of gender roles. Through the process of socialization
young boys and girls are turned into adult men and women through child rearing,
education, employment practices, family and religion. Studies have revealed the fact
that there exists discrimination in employment between men and women where sex
plays a huge role in determining types of job and chances of promotion. There also
exists unequal division of labour in the household, even between men and women
engaged in full-time jobs outside home.

10.4 LET US SUM UP

 In this unit, we have learned about the various forms of social stratification
beginning with Race, Caste, Class, Estate and Gender.
 Each of these bases of stratification is characterized by different criteria for the
evaluation of social inequality.
 Race is based more on perceived biological differences between human groups,
whereas, caste is based on ritual purity and maintenance of blood ties.
 Class is based on income and wealth, whereas, estate was based on the
ownership of land and warfare.
 Gender is a very different base of social stratification as it is based on both
subjective and objective criteria of evaluation of the personality and behaviour
of people.

10.5 GLOSSARY

 Race- is a category that groups together people who share biological traits that
a society believes to be socially significant
 Gender -refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are
socially constructed.

10.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is class?
2. What is the basis for determining one’s class in society?

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3. How does Marx define class?

10.7 REFERENCES

 Beteille, A. (1977). Inequality among men. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

 Giddens, A. (1989). Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press.
 Gupta, D. (1977). Social stratification. New Delhi: Oxford University
Publications.
 Tumin, M. (1967). Social stratification: The forms and functions of inequality.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall

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UNIT-11 FUNCTIONALIST THEORY OF STRATIFICATION

Structure

11.1 Learning Objectives

11.2 Introduction
11.3 Functionalist Theory of Stratification
11.3.1 Tacott Parson
11.3.2 Kingsley Davis and Moore
11.3.3 Malvin & Tumin
11.4 Let Us Sum Up
11.5 Glossary
11.6 Check Your Progress
11.7 References

11.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This Unit will enable you to understand:

 Understand the meaning of Functionalist perspective

 How Functionalist views social stratification

11.2 INTRODUCTION

Theory is a set of related ideas. The theories of stratification are concerned with the
inherent inequality on which social order is based. Social stratification is an inherent
character of all societies. Keeping an eye on various dimensions of social stratification
a number of explanations have been formulated by sociologists which led to the
development of different theories. The concept of social stratification has been
theoretically analyzed by different scholars. Besides, some present day scholars have
approached social stratification from a different angle. As a result we come across
mainly the following three theories of stratification. Besides, the elite theory of social
stratification is also there.

11.3 FUNCTIONALIST THEORY OF SOCIAL STARTIFICATION

Besides Karl Marx and Max Weber, social stratification has also been dealt with by
functionalists such as Talcott Parsons, Kingsley Davis, W.E. Moore, Tumin,
Durkheim, R.K. Merton and many others. These scholars have considered the
functional importance of the role in society and gave their own ideas on social
stratification. Functionalists consider the system of stratification as a functional

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necessity of society. They argue that if a system has to survive, there must be a
mechanism to ensure effective role allocation and role performance. The stratification
system performs this function. Functionalist gives stress on prestige dimension and
opined that society has been stratified on the basis of socially ascribed prestige
attached to the occupational structure in social hierarchy. They opine that the effective
functioning of society depends on the successful performance of roles or functions.
There are many set of roles/ functions in society which require to be performed by
most able persons. Views of some of the functional theorists are discussed below.

11.3.1 Talcott Parsons:

His contribution is unique in developing the structural functional theory. Giving stress
on the positive role of stratification, Parsons argue that social stratification is derived
from common values of society. Those who conform to the values of society are
ranked high and are rewarded properly. Different societies have different value
systems; hence we find difference in stratification system from one society to another.
Since social stratification is derived from the common values of society and it is
essentially an expression of shared values; it is considered as just and legitimate.

The degree of respect society attaches to certain individuals is coterminous with the
degree of value and functional importance their corresponding positions carry.
Positions carrying the highest respect/ power are usually rare and correspondingly
there is always a high degree of competition among individuals to occupy those
positions. People are ranked higher to lower on the basis of the value society attaches
to their corresponding positions. The conflict between highly and lowly rewarded is
checked by the common value which justifies the unequal distribution of rewards.
Parsons claims that it is functional and inevitable aspect of society. Role of
stratification is functional in managing social order smoothly. Parsons believes that the
functionalist theory of stratification is universal because all societies have a system of
evaluating the individual qualities and performance. Besides the functional
significance parsons have also highlighted some other aspects of social stratification.
To him status groups are ranked in the society in accordance with the possession,
qualities and performances.

11.3.2 Kingsley Davis and W. E. Moore:

Davis and Moore consider social stratification as natural expression of the demands of
society. They opine that effective role allocation and role performance is done by the
system of stratification in every society. That some positions of society are
functionally important which call for special skill and training. Some people are more
intelligent than others. The systems of stratification match the functionally important
position to the most intelligent person. They present two measures of the importance
of a particular position. The first is measured by the degree to which a position is
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functionally unique, there being no other positions that can performs the same function
satisfactorily. The second measure of importance is the degree to which other positions
are dependent on the one in question. They further maintain that relative importance of
functional positions and intelligent persons justifies the unequal distribution of
rewards. Besides, the system provides motivation to the other members of society to
work with all efficiency in anticipation of higher position and rewards.

11.3.4 Melvin M. Tumin:

Tumin presents a critical reply to Davis and Moore’s view on social stratification. His
view can be summarized in the following:

1. How to measure the functional importance of a position is a matter of opinion

that may differ from person to person and from group to group.

2. He claims that power affects reward distribution rather than functional

importance.

3. It is not true to believe that only a few people have intelligence to perform the
functionally important roles.

4. The unequal distribution of rewards does not always motivate the talented
person.

5. The system of stratification is not essentially integrative. It may be

dysfunctional in case of hostility and division among the members of society
over the distribution of rewards.

The functionalist theory of stratification is open to many criticisms. First, its claim of
universality is questioned. Secondly, Marxist accused the functionalist theory for
giving validity to social inequality.

11.5 LET US SUM UP

The functionalist and the dialectical perspectives have influenced to a large extent the
studies of social stratification, particularly caste and class, and these two approaches
have also resulted in certain field-work traditions in India. For example, the
synchronic analyses have been rooted into the functionalists’ perspective giving
primacy to equilibrium or harmony of social structures at different levels of
stratification. On the other hand social change, replacement/ alteration of social
structure is the prime concern of the dialectical approach. Social stratification is
viewed according to this perspective moving from closed to open or from harmonic to
disharmonic system of social relations. 'Integration' is inevitably existent in 'conflict'
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and vice-versa. 'Harmony' or 'unity' sustains the system, and the process change
rekindles the static arrangements of social relations. Social stratification is
multidimensional and a 'composite' phenomenon. Structural changes attack established
hierarchies and bring about both downward and upward mobility. Differentiated
evaluation at the group, family, and individual levels occurs due to basic structural
transformation of society.

11.6 GLOSSARY

 Capitalism-An economic system based on market competition and the

pursuit of profit.
 Kinship- is the most universal and basic of all human relationships and is
based on ties of blood, marriage, or adoption.

11.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1-Who identifies four important classes in capitalist society, i e-

(1) The propertied upper class

(2) The property less white collar workers
(3) The petty bourgeoisie
(4) The manual working class.

2.Write down Tumin's critique of Functionalism

11.8 REFERENCES

 Haralambos, M., & Holborn, M. (2014). Sociology: Themes and perspectives.

UK: Harper Collins.
 Smith, M. G. (1964). Pre-industrial Stratification Systems, S.M. Lipset and N.J.
Smelser (ed.) Social Structure and Mobility in Economic Development, London.
Routldege and Kegan Paul, pp. 141-76.
 Tumin, Melvin M. (1953). 'Some Principles of Stratification', American
Sociological Review, Vol. 18, pp. 387-97.
 Weber, M. (1947). Class, Status, Party, in H.H. Gerth and C.W. Mills (ed.), From
Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp. 180-94

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UNIT-12 MARXIAN AND WEBERIAN THEORIES OF
STRATIFICATION

Structure

12.1 Learning Objectives

12.2 Introduction
12.3 Marxian Theories of Stratification
12.4 Weberian Theories of Stratification
12.5 Pareto: Law of the Circulations of elite
12.6 C Wright Mills: The Power of Elite
12.7 Let Us Sum Up
12.8 Glossary
12.9 Check Your Progress
12.10 References

12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After go through this unit you will be able to-

 The assumptions of the Marxist explanation of stratification.

 The assumptions of the Weberian theory of stratification. :
 Understand the meaning of elite theory
 Explain the contribution of pareto in elite theory
 Explain the contribution of C Wright Mills in elite theory

12.2 INTRODUCTION

In this unit we will discuss about Marxian and Weberian theory of Social stratification.
Marxian theory defines social stratification as the existence of two economic classes in
each society and the relationship of class struggle between these two. These are based
on the reality of the existence the class of the owners of means of production and the
class of the workers. In the capitalist society these two classes are, the bourgeoisie
which owns the means of production, and the proletariat or the working class which
works the means of production and sells his labor for earning wages. The Capitalist
accumulate wealth at the expense of the workers. The Haves exploit the Have-nots for
their profits and use their dominance and power to maintain their domination and rule
over the workers. In the Capitalist society, the rich become richer and the workers
become poorer. The workers continuously face exploitation and always want to end
this. Thus, stratification occurs in the society which also gives rise to conflict between
these two classes.

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This theory enjoys tremendous popularity among American sociologists. Weber gives
a three dimensional model of stratification in terms of Class, Status and Party. All of
these are kinds of competing interest groups in society.

12.3 MARXIST THEORIES OF SOCIAL STARTIFICATION

Karl Marx’s ideas of stratification are based on social conflict. His theory is the
product of industrial capitalism. Marx analyzed social stratification from economic
angle. He emphasized the basic importance of the individual or the group in the
economic structure. Marx holds that the system of stratification derives from the
relationships of social groups to the forces of production. It has three main elements
such as system of production, class structure and class struggle. He opines that class
structure is the main basis of social stratification. He explains the system in terms of
class relations. He defines class as a social group whose members share the same
relationship to the forces of production. He opines, criteria other than this relation are
not important. He rejects income, occupations and education etc. as the defining basis
of a class. Marx opines that in all societies there exists two major classes i.e. a ruling
class and a subject class. The power of the ruling class derives from its ownership and
control of the forces of production. The ruling class exploits and oppresses the subject
class. As a result, there is a basic contradiction between these two classes which can be
resolved by the common ownership of the means of production. The various
institutions of society serve the interests of the ruling class.

Marx opined that western society has developed through four main epochs, primitive
communism, ancient society, feudal society and capitalist society. All the above
societies, except primitive communism, are divided into two major classes such as
masters and slaves in ancient society, lords and serfs in feudal society and capitalist
and wage workers in capitalist society. The masters, lords and capitalists have been
exploiting the slaves, serfs and wage earners in their respective epochs. Marx opines
that classes emerge due to the existence of the institution of private property and
specialized division of labour. Marxist theory of stratification can be understood
through the system of production.

The main aim of production is profit. The relationships in the system of production
create classes. Marx’s ideas about social stratification can be understood by the
relationships developed under the system of production and classes. Social
relationships and classes determine the individual ideas and action. He cannot escape
influence of class. The struggle between the capitalist and wage earner class will give
rise to an equalitarian system. The capitalist era differs from other with regard to the
exploitation of labour.

Alienation, pauperization and polarization became the defining feature of capitalist

society which ultimately results in the establishment of classless society due to the
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violent struggle of proletariat class. But Marxist theory of social stratification has been
subjected to several criticisms. He did not provide an actual account of the structural
differentiations in the modern society. His theory also ignores a number of socio-
cultural factors that are very important in the analysis of stratification i.e. lineage,
kinship and ethnicity. Marx stratified society into only two classes- the bourgeois and
proletariat but many other classes are existed in the society. He placed too much
emphasis on economic factors as determinant of class.

12.4 WEBER’S THEORY OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

German sociologist and philosopher Max Weber was considered as the main critique
of Karl Marx. Weber is critical of economic determinism. Both studied the
stratification in industrial capitalist societies. Like Marx, Weber also explains
capitalism and class structure. His thought is greatly influenced by Marx. In the course
of analyzing Marx’s theory of stratification, Weber points out its shortcomings and
presents his own views as an alternative. But Weber differs from Marx in his approach
to social stratification. While Marx gave a unilateral model of stratification by
emphasizing the economic factors in the society, Weber also agreed with Marx on
some points relating to economic criteria of social stratification.

However, Weber argues that social realities are so complex that we can not reduce all
the realities of society to economic interests. Weber opined that unequal distribution of
power is the basis of social stratification. Power has three aspects i.e. economic,
political and social. These three aspects are manifested in the form of class, status and
party. He further opines that these three orders are interrelated. The economic aspect
refers to the ways in which goods and services are distributed, whereas political order
is concerned with the ways in which power is distributed among the individuals and
groups. The social order includes the structure and process of distribution of social
prestige. Social prestige is based on mode of livelihood, birth, education, occupation
and these are related to social status. In Weber’s analysis, class is associated with the
economic aspect; status with community and caste system; and power with politics. In
order to fully understand the concept of power, it is required to understand its
relationship with class and status. The concept of power is associated with both class
and status. Weber opines that power is the capacity to influence others.

Weber defines class as a group of individuals who share a similar position in a market
economy and by virtue of that fact receive similar economic rewards. A person’s class
situation is basically his market situation. Those who share a similar class situation
also share a similar life chances. Weber rejects dichotomous division of class as
suggested by Marx.

He identifies four important classes in capitalist society:

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(1) The propertied upper class
(2) The property less white collar workers
(3) The petty bourgeoisie
(4) The manual working class.

Weber recognizes the importance of criteria other than the ownership or no ownership
of property in the formation of classes. He also rejects the Marxian view of
polarization of classes and the inevitability of proletarian revolution. He further opines
that political power is not necessarily derived from economic power. The economic
power is only one possible basis for political power. Other bases of power are status
group and parties derived from social and political order. These play important role in
the system of social stratification.

12.5 PARETO: THE LAW OF CIRCULATION OF ELITES

Studies on elites have been one of the largest subject in social sciences particularly in
sociology and political sciences. This emphasis is mostly due to undeniable effects and
roles of elites in societies developed or developing. Interestingly, most of these studies
hardly cover the studies of founder of elite theories. Elite theories introduced not only
elites, but also new important subjects like power, and rose questions for example on
oligarchical tendencies in democracy. Unfortunately, more studies have been done on
elitist theories' ideas on political subjects than their ideas on social thoughts. In this
study work on the classic elite theories, namely Pareto's Circulation of Elite, C W
Mills The Power of Elite and I will not get into neither the subject of Power Elite nor
elites roles in today's societies particularly in developing countries. Therefore, my
focus will be on political elites in the writings of Pareto and Mills.

Pareto says that people are always governed by elites except short period of time. He
rejects a linear progressive evolutionary interpretation of history and social change.
For him, "History of men is the history of the continues replacement of certain elites as
one ascends another declines, such is the real phenomenon, though to us it may often
appear under another form" (Pareto 1968, p.36). The notion of elite had been known
before pareto. He himself also used Kolabinska's study, who was also one of Pareto's
student, “La Circulation des Elites en France" as a reference source. To Pareto elites
are those people who posses in marked degree qualities of intelligence, character,
capacity, of what ever kind. More precisely if we grade every individual regardless of
any ethical judgment, according to their branch activity and occupation in the society,
we find at each grade level there will be a certain amount of individuals that consists
of a class. In this class hierarchy, people who are in the class which is on the top of the
other classes are called, "elite".

Then, Pareto classifies social classes by taking elites as a stickyard. Elites represent the
higher stratum, the others, namely non-elites are thought as the lower stratum. He
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further emphasizes and divides it into subgroups, because for him, there is no one elite
stratum. There are various strata in it and all of them constitute the elite stratum.

The main strata in elite stratum are

(a) governing elite that consists of rest of the individuals who directly or indirectly
have a considerable role in government;
(b) non-governing elite that consists of rest in the elite stratum;
(c) political elite that effectively and particularly, exercise political power.

The elite or upper stratum or aristocracy (Pareto uses these terms interchangeably)
contains a certain number of people, but it cannot be sharply defined because social
classes like societies are not homogeneous and they are not entirely distinct to each
other even in a caste system and particularly in societies where class circulation is
extremely rapid like modern societies.

Pareto examines structure and change of elites rather than non elites. This is mostly
due to availability of historical data according to him. Elites and nonelites are not
stable, they are subject to change. New elites rise and takes old elite's place. This
change is called the law of circulation of elites by Pareto. He says "elites" or
aristocrats do not last. They live or take position in a certain time. "History" , he says,
"is a graveyard of aristocracies" ( Pareto 1935, p. 1430). In course of the time, elites
undergo a change when elite member's composition change or their descendants do not
have qualities to be elite; or, infiltration of extraneous elements from lower classes and
another society, or, changes in legal rights in society like extension of right of
citizenship that gives an opportunity for non-elites to move up.

Rising and declining of the elites take place at the same time. Generally there are two
signs that show elites are declining:

(1) declining elite becomes softer, milder, more humane and less apt to defend its
own power; and

(2) elites loss its rapacity and greed for the goods of others, but rather tends as
much as possible to increase its unlawful appropriations and indulge in major
usurpation of the national patrimony ( Pareto 1968, p. 59).

In contrast new rising elites are active, stronger and dedicated in character. The
circulation of elites in ruling class is clearer than general circulation of elite.
Governing or ruling elite is always in a state of slow and continuous transformation.
The transformation is basically based on change in residues of ruling elite. Change in
the proportion of Class I (combinations) and class II (Persistence of aggression)
residues leads to replacement of ruling elite. Because relative proportions of class I

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and class II residues principally determine social equilibrium, and make possible for
elite to stay in power. In course of time, ruling class becomes weak in class II residues
and loose its strength. In this case, people who are strong in class II residues rise
upwards into the governing class either by gradual infiltrations (class circulation) or in
sudden spurt through revolution.

Ruling class follows various ways to protect itself from the threats of non-elites such
as using force; death; capital punishment, financial ruin, exclusion from public offices,
exile and ostracism. On the other hand, ruling class recruit the individuals from lower
strata in order to fulfill its gap in both Class I and Class II residues and also eliminate
the individuals who are potential threat for ruling class itself. Recruitment must be
controlled otherwise it can lead corruption of ruling class because when one moves up,
he also brings his inclinations, sentiments and attitudes. Another way to control ruled
class is device.

Considering means to control the subject classes, Pareto divides political elites into
two groups: (1) "foxes" who are strong in Class I residues and

(2) "lions" who are strong in Class II residues.

While foxes prefer to rule through cooperation, diplomatic intrigue, and deviousness,
Hons prefer to rule through the use of force (Powers 1987, p 41). Foxes and Hons live
under any type of political structure, their attitudes are not affected or shaped by the
form of government. He says "Whatever the form of government, men holding power
have as a rule a certain inclination to use that power to keep themselves in the saddle,
and, to abuse it to secure personal gains and advantages"( Pareto 1935, p. 1608).

In fact all governments use force but no government can rule by depending solely on
force. Theories designed by ruling class and derivations are used to convince the
subject classes to obey the government, and, to justify government policies, and, to use
visible force like army, and, invisible force like political machine. In addition to these,
sentiments of superiority and inferiority are used to keep ruled class in order.

General condition of society is of particular importance for the ruling class's position.
When a governing elite establishes its control over the subject classes by using force
and providing great wealth , the ruling class survive sometime without using power,
but it also survives by granting its adversaries, in terms of money, dignity and respect.
Bargaining, concessions, and deceive are also this kind of policies. Economic
prosperity not only keeps the ruling class in power and makes easy to govern society
than period of depression, but also affects the type of political regimes. For example in
prosperity periods, there is a tendency to shift from oligarchic regimes to democratic
regimes.

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On the other hand, general conditions of society shapes the type of circulation of
elites: soft and violent. Soft replacement of elites comes through the change of supply
to and demand for certain social needs or elements. For example when there is a war,
more soldiers are required. Rising armies and military elites change the balance among
the social classes and diminish the power of old elites. It happened in Europe when
rising of strong military armies collapsed aristocracies.

Violent circulation of elites is via revolutions. Accumulations in elite strata and failing
to use force by political class lead to revolutions, when elements of superior quality in
lower class come to fore and this lower class is willing to use force. The battle
between ruling class and ruled class is always subject to manipulations. Both sides, old
elite and new elites, declare that they are not fighting or working for their interests but
for the good of the many. Of course when the victory is achieved, one side looses and
other side gains.

After this political revalry, who wins, will get the lion's share of the distribution of
wealth, power, prestige in the society. The type of policy necessary to get these goals
will be employed including force. Elites particularly ruling class, are well aware of
heterogeneity of individuals, unequal distribution of material, and non-material assets
in the society, and their interests. Further more, in contrast to masses, ruling elite
involves more logical actions than illogical , that makes elites more flexible and awake
for their own interests.

12.6 C WRIGHT MILLS: THE POWER OF ELITE

C. Wright Mills was a social-conflict theorist who argued that a simple few individuals
within the political, military and corporate realms actually held the majority of power
within the United States and that these few individuals made decisions that resounded
throughout all American lives. To look at an example of the hierarchy of power,
imagine a triangle with the executive branch, military leaders and corporate leaders at
the top; interest group leaders, legislators and local political leaders in the middle; and,
then, the common masses (the everyday people) at the bottom.

Mills wrote The Power Elite, identifying certain individuals as the 'national upper
class' that own most of the country's wealth, run its banks and corporations, are in
control of the universities and mass media and staff some of the highest ranking
positions within government and courts.

Mills further explained that these elites often move fluidly between positions within
the three controlling realms. For example, Hillary Clinton moved from the position of
first lady to that of senator to secretary of state. Mitt Romney moved from the
corporate world to governor and even presidential candidate. Mills noted that these

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power elite usually were people who interacted with each other regularly and typically
held the same political and economic views or agendas.

Many power elite theorists actually argue that there is not such a thing as a true
democracy because these few individuals have so much power that the wishes of the
average people cannot be heard. These theorists believe that those at the top are so
distant from the average people and that they are so powerful that there isn't any true
competition for them. Thus, they usually tend to get what they want.

12.7 LET US SUM UP

 Karl Marx’s ideas of stratification are based on social conflict. His theory is the
product of industrial capitalism. Marx analyzed social stratification from
economic angle. He emphasized the basic importance of the individual or the
group in the economic structure.
 Weber argues that social realities are so complex that we can not reduce all the
realities of society to economic interests. Weber opined that unequal distribution
of power is the basis of social stratification. Power has three aspects i.e. economic,
political and social. These three aspects are manifested in the form of class, status
and party
 To Pareto elites are those people who posses in marked degree qualities of
intelligence, character, capacity, of what ever kind. More precisely if we grade
every individual regardless of any ethical judgment, according to their branch
activity and occupation in the society, we find at each grade level there will be a
certain amount of individuals that consists of a class. In this class hierarchy,
people who are in the class which is on the top of the other classes are called,
"elite".
 Mills wrote The Power Elite, identifying certain individuals as the 'national upper
class' that own most of the country's wealth, run its banks and corporations, are in
control of the universities and mass media and staff some of the highest ranking
positions within government and courts.

12.8 GLOSSARY

 Aristocracy -government by a relatively small privileged class or by a

minority consisting of those presumed to be best qualified to rule.
 Accumulation-defines neoliberal capitalist policies that result in a
centralization of wealth and power in the hands of a few by dispossessing the
public and private entities of their wealth or land.

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12.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1-Who identifies four important classes in capitalist society, i e-

(1) The propertied upper class

(2) The property less white collar workers
(3) The petty bourgeoisie
(4) The manual working class.
2. Write down Tumin's critique of Functionalism
3-Who divides political elites into two groups: (1) "foxes" (2) "lions".
4- Who wrote The Power Elite?

12.10 REFERENCES

 Mills, C. Wright. 1965. "Notes on Mosca". pp 161-163 in Pareto and Mosca. J.H.
Meisel (Eds.).
 Englewood Cliffs. N.J.:Prentice-Hall. Mosca, Gaetono. [1896] 1939.
 The Ruling Class. New York: McGraw Hill. Pareto, Vilfredo. [1916] 1935.
 The Mind and Society. A Treatise on General Sociology. New York: Dower.
[1901] 1968.
 The Rise and Fall of the Elites: An Application of Theoretical Sociology. New
Jersey: The Bedminister Press. [1921] 1984.
 The Transformation of Democracy. New Brunswick. New Jersey: Transaction
Books. Powers, Charles, H. 1987. Vilfredo Pareto. New Burry Park: Sage
Publications.

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Block-4
SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL
CONTROL

Unit-13: Meaning, Definitions, Stages of

Socialization Process.
Unit-14: Agencies of Socialization
Unit-15: Social Control: Meaning, Definitions,
Importance of social control
Unit-16: Agencies of Social Control: Formal and
Informal
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UNIT-13 MEANING, DEFINITION AND STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION
PROCESS

Structure

13.1 Learning objectives

13.2 Introduction
13.3 Meaning
13.3.1 Shared Meanings and Values
13.3.2 Education and Socialization
13.4 Definition
13.5 Aim and Objectives of Socialization
13.6 Stages of socialaization
13.7 Let’s sum up
13.8 Glossary
13.9 Check your progress
13.10 References

13.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you will be able to know

 Meaning of socialaization
 Definition of socialaization
 Types of socialaisation
 Stages of socialisation

13.2 INTRODUCTION

The process that teaches an individual his culture is called socialization. In this unit,
you will learn about the importance of socialization. This process goes on throughout
one’s life, and it develops a sense of self and converts the individual into a member of
the society. For the success of this process, the individual needs consistent and
organized interaction with his culture and social surroundings. The growth of the self
is influenced by contact with family, peers and the media.
Infants are born without any culture. It is through the process of socialization that
individuals acquire culture and this is done with the help of parents, teachers, books,
media, and so on. Socialization teaches us language, as well as the roles that we are
expected to play or fit into, in society. It also teaches individuals about the norms of
the society of which one is a member. Socialization also contributes to the formation
of one’s personality. Although personality type may depend on one’s genes, it is the
process of socialization that can shape it into particular directions. The unit will also

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discuss the relationship between an individual and society. Finally, it will talk about
the agencies of socialization.

13.3 MEANING

The term ‘socialization’ refers to the processes whereby individuals are taught the
skills, behaviour patterns, values and motivations that are needed for competent
functioning in the culture in which they are growing up. The most dominant among
these are social skills, social understandings and emotional maturity. These are needed
for interaction with other individuals to fit in with the functioning of social dyads and
larger groups.
Socialization includes all those processes in which culture is transmitted from one
generation to the next, including training for specific roles in specific occupationsThe
process that teaches an individual his culture is called socialization. In this unit, you
will learn about the importance of socialization. This process goes on throughout one’s
life, and it develops a sense of self and converts the individual into a member of the
society. For the success of this process, the individual needs consistent and organized
interaction with his culture and social surroundings. The growth of the self is
influenced by contact with family, peers and the media.
Infants are born without any culture. It is through the process of socialization that
individuals acquire culture and this is done with the help of parents, teachers, books,
media, and so on. Socialization teaches us language, as well as the roles that we are
expected to play or fit into, in society. It also teaches individuals about the norms of
the society of which one is a member. Socialization also contributes to the formation
of one’s personality. Although personality type may depend on one’s genes, it is the
process of socialization that can shape it into particular directions. The unit will also
discuss the relationship between an individual and society. Finally, it will talk about
the agencies of socialization.

13.3.1 Shared Meanings and Values

The socialization of the young means that they learn to appreciate the shared meanings
and values of the culture at large or take them and that as guides to direct behaviour
patterns in their own life. As the young child grows, he or she learns to utilize role-
learning so as to internalize what to expect from other people and how to produce for
them what is expected of children. A child learns to recognize and to respond to the
shared meanings and expectations from others only through the process of
socialization. The process of socialization begins at birth. It is a continuous process
because social learning never ends.
However, childhood is the most important stage in the process of socialization during
which a child internalizes or learns most of the values, beliefs, norms, attitudes and
behaviour patterns of its family. The parents can be viewed as the socializing agents
and the child as the socialized. "Parents are usually the most potent socializing force
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working on the individual in the early stages of childhood. Both consciously and
unconsciously they push the child in certain directions disposing him to learn in a
particular way." (White, G. 1977:1)
It is viewed by sociologists as a continuous and dynamic process that continues
throughout life and demands re-socialization (discussed in 8-6) at different stages of
one's life. Thus, from the point of view of society, socialization trains a child to
become a member of a t society by transmitting its norms, values and beliefs. It also
transforms the biological organism into a self, with a sense of identity, capable of
disciplining and ordering behaviour endowed with ideals, values and ambitions.
However, socialization regulates behaviour, it is also an indispensable condition for
individuality and self-awareness (Broom and Selznick; 1955: 43).

13.3.2 Education and Socialization

In some societies, especially-in tribal societies, the education and socialization of the
young - takes place without extensive formal educational institutions. However,
education as a process of learning is universal and takes place everywhere whether one
lives in a city, village, and jungle or in a desert. The universality of learning however
does not mean that all learning is socialization just as all education is not socialization.
We may also mention that all learning is not socialization since some of what one
learns may not be relevant or necessary for participation in given social roles.
One could give the example of, learning to smoke cigarette, cigar, etc. which may be
irrelevant to that norms of participation in the given social roles among certain social
groups. However, the process by which individuals acquire these values and norms
(these are also referred to as culture) is in many ways similar in all societies. They may
differ from society to society and according to certain factors within specific societies.
A child, in the first instance, is a member of a family. But he or she is also a member
of a larger kin-group (Biradri, Khandan etc.) consisting of brothers, sisters and other
relatives of the parents. The family into which he or she is born may be a nuclear
family or an extended family (for the difference see Unit 5 of this course). It is also a
member of a larger society. Membership of these groups and institutions imposes
certain behavioural norms and values on each member.
Thus, we are members of various groups simultaneously. For instance, we ate a
member of family, a biradri, a khandan, or a kunba, or a society, of a school or college
all at the same time. Corresponding to these memberships there are roles that are
performed, e.g., that of a son, daughter, grand child or a student. These are multiple
roles which are performed simultaneously. The process of learning the norms,
attitudes, values or behavioural patterns of these groups begins early in life and
continues throughout one’s life.

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13.4 DEFINITION

According to well-known sociologist Robert Morrison Maclver, ‘Socialization is the

process by which social beings establish wider and profounder relationships with one
another, in which they come closer to each other and build a complex structure of
association.’
According to American sociologist Kimball Young, ‘Socialization means the process
of inducting the individual into the social and cultural world of making him a
particular member of a society and its various groups and inducing him to accept the
norms and values of that society.
According to Horton and Hunt “It is a learning process in which groups interact and
learn social norms also develop his/her self.”
According to Ogburn: “It is the process of learning the norms of the group and
society”.
According to Bogardus: “A process of learning to live and work together is called
socialization.”
According to DMacionis “The life long process by which as individual becomes the
proper member of society and develops human characteristics.”

13.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SOCIALAIZATION

The main objective of Socialization is the development of self and the formation of
personality. The concept of ‘self’ refers to the individual as subject (as the source of
the action and self-reflection), whereas the term ‘personality’ refers to the individual
as object (the object of external evaluation). Thus, Socialization is the process through
which an individual is socialized and turned into an effective member of the society or
a social being.
The following are the main objectives of socialization:
• It inculcates basic disciplines ranging from toilet habits to the method of science.
• It helps an individual in developing the expertise and capacities needed to be a
member of the society.
• It trains one social role (responsibilities) and their supporting attitudes.
• It aspires individuals and satisfies their needs.
• It helps in the transmission of culture from generation to generation.
• It develops a sense of identity and the capacity for independent thought and action,
for example learning of language.
• It develops conscience, which is one important characteristic product of this process.

Types of Socialaisation

According to clinical psychologist Ian Robertson, the socialization that a person

undergoes in the course of his lifetime may be divided into four types:

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(i) Primary socialization is the most fundamental and essential type of socialization.
It takes place in early childhood. In this stage, a child internalizes norms and learns
language and cognitive skills.

(ii) Anticipatory socialization is where human beings learn the culture of a group of
which they are immediate members. They also learn the culture of a group with the
anticipation of joining that group. This is referred to by American sociologist

R. K. Merton as ‘anticipatory socializatiotion’.

(iii) Developmental socialization is the kind of socialization that is based on the

achievement of primary socialization. It builds on already acquired skills and
knowledge as the adult progresses through new situations, such as marriage or new
jobs. These require new expectations, obligations and roles. New learning is added to
and blended with old in a relatively smooth and continuous process of development.

(iv) Re-socialization takes place mostly when a social role radically changes. An
individual not only changes roles within a group but also changes groups.

13.6 STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION: MEANING AND DEFINITIONS

Socialization takes place within a ‘simplified’ social world. The social system in
which the infant or the child is being trained is much less complex than the society as a
whole.
This simplification makes it possible for the child to attend to relatively few things at a
time. There are four stages of socialization from infancy to adulthood. The names
given to these stages have become fixed in usage and they are fairly appropriate,
although far from being adequately descriptive. They are as follows:
 First stage—The oral stage
 Second stage—The anal stage
 Third stage—The oedipal stage and latency
 Fourth stage—Adolescence or adult socialization
In all these stages, especially in the first three, the family is the main socializing group.
Therefore, one can consider the structure of the family as it bears on socialization. The
family varies in composition from one society to another, but the nuclear family is
universal. One can ignore the variation in particular families and concentrate on the
institutional structure of the nuclear family. A nuclear family has four roles: husband
father, wife-mother, son-brother and daughter-sister. The details of these roles vary
from one society to another. One obvious feature is the division according to
generation.
This division is also according to the relative power to control interaction; father and
mother is able to control their son and daughter more than the son and daughter being
able to control parents.
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(i) First stage—the oral stage

In the womb, the foetus is presumably warm and comfortable. At birth, the infant faces
its first crisis—it must breathe, exert itself to be fed, it is susceptible to cold, and other
discomforts; it cries a lot. The essential goal of the first stage of socialization is to
establish oral dependency. The infant builds up fairly definite expectations about
feeding time and it learns to signal its pressing needs for care. During this stage, the
infant is not involved in the family as a whole. It is involved only in the sub-system
consisting of itself and its mother. For other members of the family, as said by
American sociologist Talcott Parsons, ‘the baby is little more than a possession’. If the
father or anyone else shares the task of caring for the baby with the mother, no role
differentiation is involved. The person will also be performing the role of a mother.
Freud called this stage as the ‘primary identification’. In the personality of the infant,
by the time oral dependency has been established, its own role and that of the mother
are probably not clearly distinguished. Mother and infant are merged and some control
over the hunger drive has been established.

(ii) Second stage—the anal stage

The crisis with which this stage begins is caused by the imposition of new demands.
These are the demands for the child to take over some degree of care for himself.
Toilettraining is the main focus of new concern. During this stage, the child recognizes
two roles: its own and that of its mother. The child not only receives care but receives
loveand gives love in return.In this stage, one can clearly see the importance of a
general fact about socialization; the socializing agent always has a dual role. During
this stage, the mother first participates in a limited social system. She is the
instrumental leader relative to the child, for she is still chiefly responsible for meeting
his specific needs. The child’s contribution to the system is mainly expressive. He
helps to integrate the system by cooperating and giving love. He is still too young and
dependent to contribute much to the accomplishment of tasks.
The dual role of the socializing agent is to train the child so that he will ultimately be
able to participate in a more complex social system. Obviously, the socializing agent
has to know the roles and common values of the larger system.
Secondly, socialization is an unpleasant task, to some extent for the socializing agent
as well as for the child. The mother does not enjoy seeing her child suffer through the
process of weaning and toilet training. Though she can console herself with thoughts
of the final accomplishment, but probably she is forced to some extent, by pressure
from the larger social system, of which she is a member. At the same time, the mother
as a socializing agent, mediates between the subsystem and the larger system. She is
also supported by that larger system. Her husband will understand the strain she is
undergoing and will relieve her off some other burdens, for instance, by spending
more time with other children.

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(iii) Third stage—the oedipal stage and latency

The third stage extends from the fourth year to puberty (the age of twelve or thirteen).
The ‘Oedipal crisis’ occurs typically during the fourth and fifth years, followed by the
latency period.
In the course of the third stage, the child becomes a member of the family as a whole.
He must accept all the four roles of the family and he must, above all, identify himself
with the social role ascribed to him on the basis of his biological sex.
The ‘Oedipus complex’, as Freud named it, is the feeling of jealousy the boy is
believed to have towards his father on account of their rivalry for the mother. For a
girl, the ‘Electra complex’ is the corresponding set of feelings that she has for her
father and is, therefore, jealous of her mother. When the proper stage of socialization
has been reached, many social pressures are brought to bear on the child, to identify
with the appropriate sex. Boys begin to get rewarded for behaviour that is appropriate
towards boys, and girls are rewarded for acting feminine. Moreover, the toys given to
boys are different from those given to their sisters. Fairly striking anatomical
differences make the correct identification easy, yet the correct identification is largely
an achievement of socialization.
The term ‘identification’ has been used in different ways. Firstly, one is said to
identify with a social role, if one not only recognizes the role but also adopts it as
one’s own. One strives to attain the necessary skills and to conform to the role norms.
Secondly, one is said to identify with a social group if one recognizes the role system
of the group and considers oneself to be a member of it. Identification in its first sense
links a boy with his father and brother, for example, but not with his mother.
Identification in its second sense links a boy with his family, including both parents
and all siblings.

(iv) Fourth stage—adolescence/adult socialization

The fourth stage is adolescence which is roughly at puberty. This is the stage during
which young boys or girls are ordinarily more and more ‘emancipated’ from parental
control. The crisis of this period is the strain that is produced by greater demands for
independence. At the same time, in the middle class of a different society, the
adolescent may still be controlled to some extent by his parents in many activities
wherein he might like greater freedom. This is especially true when individuals
become aware of their sexuality. The psychological changes that accompany
adolescence would not produce problems till sexual maturity.The goal of adulthood is
considered to be attained when a person can support himself or herself, entirely
independent of the parental family. Full adulthood also implies the ability to form a
family.

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13.7 LET’S SUM UP

 Socialization and social control shape and control social behaviour of its
members.
 Socialization is a process whereby the individuals learn to conform to the
norms of the group. It is a continuous process of social learning.
 Each individual passes through different combinations of the socialization
process even within the same society.
 Socialization is a kind of learning that contributes to one’s ability to perform
social roles. It is desirable and desired learning. It is a continuous process that
begins with birth and ends with death. In this process, we acquire new roles
and drop old ones.

13.8 GLOSSARY

 Socialization: The process by which somebody, especially a child, learns to

behave in a way that is acceptable to the society is called socialization.
 Interaction: The activity of communicating is referred to as interaction.
 Assimilation: Assimilation is the activity of someone becoming a part of a
group rather than a separate entity.

13.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What according to Kimball Young is socialization?

2. Write a short note on the process of socialization.
3. What is George Herbert’s theory of socialization?
4. What are the types of socialization?

13.10 REFERNCES

 Johnson, H.M. (2005). Sociology: A systematic introduction. New Delhi:

Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
 Rawat, H.K (2009). Sociology: Basic concepts. Rawat Publications, New Delhi
 Sharma, R. K. (1997). Social change and social control. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd.
 http://studylecturenotes.com/what-is-socialization-meaning-and-definition-of-
socialization/

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UNIT-14 AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION

Structure

14.1 Learning Objectives

14.2 Introduction
14.3 Agencies of Socialization
14.3.1 Growing Up
14.3.2 Religion and Socialization
14.4 Differences in Socialization
14.4.1 The Caste Factor
14.4.2 Socialization in Tribes
14.4.3 Other Institutions: The Ghotul
14.5 Families, Social Class and Socialization
14.5.1 Behavior and Family
14.5.2 Socialization and Communication
14.5.3 School and Socialization
14.6 Sex and Gender Identity
14.7 Mass Media and Socialization
14.7.1 Messages in Mass Media
14.7.2 Impact of Television
14.8 Let Us Sum Up
14.9 Glossary
14.10 Check Your Progress
14.11 References

14.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you will be able to:

• Describe different factors in and agencies of socialization;

• State the differences in socialization process with the illustrations of some societies;
• Assess the impact of family, class, caste and mass media on socialization; and
• Explain the ways in which socialization process takes care of gender identity
formation.

14.2 INTRODUCTION

This unit examines the various agencies of socialization. These include the family,
religious organisation, mass media, etc. It also discusses differences in socialization of
boys and girls. The significance of caste and tribal culture in the process of
socialization in the Indian context is also discussed. The effect of social class on

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socialization and sexual discrimination in the socialization process are also examined
in detail.

14.3 AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION

The child is socialized by several agencies and institutions in which he or she

participates, viz. his or her family, school, peer group, the neighborhood, and the
occupational group and by the social class. The position of the family in the social
structure is determined by the social class, caste, religion, etc., and by the fact that the
family lives in the rural or in the urban areas. We shall also mention some of the other
factors which are important. For example, there is variation in the socialization
process, according to whether one is rich or poor, whether one is tribal or non-tribal,
whether one is a boy or a girl or whether one is a child or an adult. The differentiation
in socialization may also be reflected through music, rituals, language, art and
literature, which form part of one's culture consisting of complex set of variables.
These are the factors and agencies which introduce differentiation in the socialization
process within different societies. These are very crucial and should be taken into
account to dispel the impression that socialization is uniform across all societies or
within a particular society. We shall first discuss some of the factors responsible for
the variation in the socialization process namely age, religion, caste, region, etc. In the
next section, we discuss the different agencies of socialization (namely, family, school
etc.) which also prevent uniformity. In the last section, we outline the role of gender
and the mass media (especially television) since these cut across all boundaries.

14.3.1 Growing Up

The socialization process in infancy and childhood is different from that during
adulthood. Some social scientists divide socialization into stages of the life of an
individual. Some have referred to various Hindu rites or samskaras as being equivalent
to different stages. In addition, there are the ashrams, which divide the life of an
individual into stages. There are various traditional Hindu rites or samskaras which
divide childhood into several stages. These are namakarana, nishakarmana,
annaprasana, chudakarana or tonsure, vidyarambha and upanayana. Moreover,
traditionally the division of an individual's life into four stages, namely, brahmacharya,
grihasthashrama, vanaprastha and sanyasa are a direct reflection of the socialization of
a Hindu male.
The agencies of socialization change as the individual matures. For example, school
and the peer group compete with the family for access to the individual through
childhood and adolescence. The occupational group and the newly established family
after marriage become more important during adulthood.

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14.3.2 Religion and Socialization

Difference in the socialization processes and practices is noticeable among certain

religious communities. As for example, the rites and ceremonies, customs, dress,
sometimes language and beliefs, attitudes and values and the behaviour patterns of
Christians, Hindus, Sikhs or Muslims are different. These may be at variance with one
another although some of the external symbols such as dress, speech, and deportment
have become uniform for all religious groups in the big cities during the last few years,
so that it has become difficult to distinguish members of one religious commu nity
from another on the basis of dress, etc. In the villages, a significant section of people
are continuing to wear their traditional dresses and can still be distinguished on the
basis of these outward symbols. In addition, and more importantly, the emphasis on
what constitutes a good Hindu or a good Muslim or a good Sikh or a good Christian,
also creates differences in the values and behaviour of members of a larger society.
For instance, a good Muslim must perform prayers five times a day, a Christian must
attend church on Sundays, a Sikh should do service at a Gurdwara and a Hindu must
give charity in the temples. Similarly, further subdivisions can be drawn on the basis
of Shaivite and Vaishnavite Brahmins of southern India. So also the marriage
ceremony and rites differ among those who follow the Arya Samaj and Sanatana
Dharma, the two Hindu sects in the Punjab. Thus, the differences are not confined to
religious ideology but are reflected in the socialization process through the beliefs,
attitudes, norms and behaviour patterns of the people belonging to these sects and
subjects.

14.4 DIFFERENCES IN SOCIALIZATION

A city-bred person who comes across a person from the village is likely to notice him
or her because of the differences in their dress, speech and their deportment. The
villager is recognizable not only by the outward symbols mentioned but also by his or
her values norms and behavior patterns he/she upholds and considers appropriate. On
the other hand, a person living in a village will be struck by the difference in dress,
speech and deportment of those who belong to the city. You may have often heard that
a person hailing from a village or a small town feels that people in the city are too
involved in their own affairs to be bothered about their guests or the elders in the
family. These differential responses are the outcome of differential socialization
processes in the rural and urban areas.

14.4.1 The Caste Factor

If you are living in a village or in a small town, you may be aware of the behaviour
that is expected of you as a member of a small town. Thus, there are certain value
norms and behaviour patterns that are common to most villages. Certain rituals and
ceremonies may also be common to all the members of a village. However, a village

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community is also divided into small groups called castes. The castes are divided on
the basis of birth because people are born into them. You may be at least able to
distinguish a Brahmin from a Harijan or you may even be able to distinguish a
blacksmith from a goldsmith or from a washer man. Therefore, within a village, there
are likely to be subcultures while the culture of a village itself may have something in
common which is shared by all its members and bind all the members together. The
language or the dialect also tends to vary. The upper castes speak more refined and
sophisticated form of the language than spoken by the lower castes. Similarly, there
are differences in the dress that is considered appropriate or inappropriate for a
particular caste. Again, the behaviour that is considered proper by one caste may not
be so considered by the other. For example, vegetarianism may not be so considered
by the other. For example, vegetarianism may be more popular among the Brahmins
than among other castes.

14.4.2 Socialization in Tribes

The socialization process differs according to whether it occurs in a tribe or non-tribe.

We shall give extracts or the socialization process in a tribe called Muria which
inhabits the Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh in central India. However, this should
not give the impression that the Muria represent the whole tribal culture

14.4.3 Other Institutions:

The Ghotuls Similar institutions are found among communities of Austro-Asiatic

cultures. But Bastar ghotul is highly developed and the most organized in the world.
One could think of communes in contemporary society, as for example, the Kibbutz in
Israel where an effort was made to bring up children on community-basis by taking
them away from their families. Similar institutions are found among other tribals in
India, as for example, the village guardroom among the Nagas and the boys’ club
among the Oraon. Ghotul for the Murias is the centre of social and religious life. It
also assigns educational tasks among children. All unmarried Muria boys and girls
from the age of five or six years are members of ghotul. They sleep at night in the
ghotul and are directly responsible for its care and maintenance. During the day, they
go to their parents' home and help them in various tasks. They leave the ghotul after
marriage. The membership of ghotul is carefully organized. After a period of testing,
boys and girls are initiated and given a special title which carries graded rank and
social duty Leaders are appointed to organize and discipline the society. The boys'
leader is Sirdar and the girl's Belosa. Boy members are known as Chelik and girl
members as Motiari. The relations between Chelik and Motiari are governed by the
customary rules and regulation of ghotul to which they belong. Indeed, ghotul teaches
discipline and introduces the feeling of fraternity and friendship among its members.

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14.5 FAMILIES, SOCIAL CLASS AND SOCIALISATION

These two dimensions are being taken together because 'family' here includes not only
the size, the composition and the type but the social position. The social position of a
family is determined by caste, race and social class, etc. However, it is the last
dimension name by social class which have received attention of sociologists in the
West while race too has been given some importance. Not many studies on
socialization with reference to family or caste or any other dimension or agency have
been undertaken in India. Therefore, we shall depend on our own observations to
illustrate the relationship between family and socialization. We shall also take
examples from other countries to substantiate the relationship between social class,
family and socialization in the context of school.

14.5.1 Behaviour and Family

Family inculcates attitudes relating to proper behaviour, decision-making and

obedience to authority, etc. In addition, children learn the attitudes and skills necessary
to play a role in the production and consumption of goods and services. Each family
adopts division of labour regarding family tasks and prepares its young for the notion
of work. Thus, early socialization into economic roles also takes place within the
family.
As contact with others grows, other alternatives become available to the child. He or
she is introduced to the new social institutions or agencies such as the school and the
peer group in the neighborhood. The influence of parents is reduced because new
reference groups such as peer group become more important. Thus, a number of
secondary group relations and pressures must be coped with by the child alongside the
group relations learnt initially in the family.
A number of studies have been undertaken on the effect of family background on the
educational performance of the child, which is pertinent to socialization. One of the
salient findings of these studies is the negative impact of a school on a child if he or
she belongs to a working class home with little emphasis on cognitive achievement.
This is because the school emphasizes good results and a behavior pattern which is
alien to the child's family. Moreover, researchers have also pointed out those middle
class parents more than working- class parents are likely to put emphasis on the need
for success in studies to reinforce the socializing function of the school and stress, in
general, achievement-oriented values. Again, a relationship is seen between the
occupational role of the father and the difference in the socialization-orientations of
the children. For instance, since a working-class father has less autonomy and
satisfaction in the work situation, he tends to be authoritarian and severe towards his
family members, especially his son.

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14.5.2 Socialization and Communication

The importance of language and difference in the pattern of communication between

parents and children according to social class are the other dimensions which have
been studied by sociologists, notable among them being Basil Bernstein. According to
him, patterns of language-use and the teaching styles are class-based. He saw a
relationship between social structure, forms of speech and the subsequent regulation of
behaviour in the schools. For instance, he argued that children from different social
classes respond differently to educational opportunities and an important determinant
of their response to the school's cognitive aims and teacher's style etc., is the language
or linguistic code of the child. He also argued that different social structures produce
different types of speech systems.
As the child learns his speech, he learns the requirements of his social structure, which
vary according to social class. Therefore, the language of the working-class child is
limited in vocabulary while that of the middle-class child does not suffer from this
limitation. The teacher is, by and large, from the middle class and can communicate
better with the middle-class child since they share the same linguistic code or language
with its vocabulary, meanings, syntax etc. Thus, the working class child cannot
communicate as well with the teacher and begins with a handicap which affects him or
her throughout his/her school career because of this restricted co-operation.
The same factors can be observed in schools in India, where most teachers came from
upper caste/class backgrounds in schools and students who belonged to scheduled
caste or tribes could not some time even understand the language of the teacher, let
alone feel at par with other upper caste/class students. Several studies have been
undertaken linking different dimensions of schooling with the family of the child. We
have only given some examples to demonstrate the importance of family and social
class in socialization at home and outside the home, particularly in the school.
However, we may also mention that these studies merely indicate a direction and are
not conclusive.

14.5.3 School and Socialization

‘School’ is used here to refer to a whole range of formal educational institutions which
are the characteristics of the contemporary industrial and industrializing, urban
complex-societies. We shall only mention here that schools provide two contexts for
the students. The first is the formal context of the classroom wherein the content of
socialization is determined by the text books and the cognitive aims of the process of
teaching. The second context is informal and can be perceived in the inter-personal
relations of students with teachers and those among students (peer group). Social
control comes to be exercised by the school and the increased professionalization of
teaching helps to undermine the authority base of the family as a socializing agency.
Again, the content of socialization as well as the knowledge to be transmitted becomes
the focus of the curriculum and syllabi and a set of carefully prescribed practices.

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What parents did or do by instinct and with love, professionals must do with clear
regulations and justifications. The socialization process within the school may or may
not supplement and reinforce the process within the family. In fact, it may be in
conflict with the socializing values, norms and behaviour patterns of the family.

14.6 SEX AND GENDER IDENTITY

Every society has a systematic way to deal with sex or gender roles. In other words
every culture has a process by which it prepares the children to play the roles that
society expects and requires of them as adults and these roles vary according to sex,
ethnicity and social class etc. Of course, sex is almost universally the most basic
category and refers to biological differences (i.e. differences in their bodies) between
men and women while gender refers to the social differences assigned to sex. In other
words, it refers to the division between masculine and feminine roles, tasks, attributes,
etc. For example, the division of sexual labour refers to the fact that women bear
children and men do not.
This division is based on biological differences. The sexual division of labour or
gender-based division, on the other hand, refers to different tasks, such as agricultural
work being masculine and household work as feminine. This division also includes
traits such as aggressiveness being masculine and submissiveness being feminine. Of
course, the sexual division may vary among societies and social groups. The success
of socialization process is indicated by the studies which show that gender identity is
the unchanging core of the personality formation and is firmly established in the early
stages of one's life. However, although biological differences between men and
women are universal, there is differentiation of roles by gender, across cultures and
societies. This is, because when biological differences are projected into the social
sphere they give rise to masculine and feminine roles although they are not innate.
Anthropologists have given examples from different cultures to demonstrate variation
in sex roles from one culture and society to another. For example, in the hunting
societies while the male folk took active role in the hunting in making tools and
weapons, females are mostly passive. Their females took active roles in the
reproductive activities. On the other hand, in the agricultural society in Africa women
play considerably active role in the productive activities. In spite of the stereotype of
gender roles which exist in all societies, in reality women may be participating equally
in the so-called masculine work, such as, agriculture, unskilled work in factories etc.
In the same manner, men quite often assist women folk in domestic work, especially
amongst the nuclear families in urban areas where both husband and wife work.

14.7 MASS MEDIA AND SOCIALISATION

In contemporary societies, the means of mass communication such as the books radio,
newspapers, films or cinema, records, and video are very potent sources of socializing
those who are either their readers or the listeners or the viewers. These mass media,
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especially the films, the radio and the television simultaneously communicate the same
message to a nationwide audience cutting across all boundaries. Therefore, its impact
on socialization is crucial.
Here we are concerned basically with the message that is conveyed, the images that
are projected because they form the content of the socialization process through the
mass media and the impact of the message and the images. Thus, for example, the
specific questions in the context of gender and socialization will be: What are the
images of men and women portrayed on the mass media especially on the television?
In the context of the rural population we may ask: What are the images of the rural
folk and is the message relevant for the villagers? Is their image really representative
31 of their experience and if that is so, which part of village India does it represent?
Or, what is the impact of violence in films on the children? Similar questions can be
asked with reference to all the dimensions that cut across Indian society.
Another question which is of general relevance would be: Which is/are the most
important medium media and for whom? For example, while television in India has
become the most important medium for almost everyone in India, comics are
important for the children in the metropolitan cities while the video and now Cable
T.V., Computer CD’s and Internet communication has become a rage among the elite
families even in the rural areas.

14.7.1 Messages in Mass Media

However, the crucial question in the context of socialization is related to the message
as well as the image. Scientific studies on media-use and media-impact are few and far
between in our country. Very recently, the images of women in the text books and the
comics as well as in the films and television and their impact on children have
attracted the attention of scholars, and social activists. For instance, most school
textbooks portray women as being housewives and men as bread earners. Experts are
arguing that this is not true in so far as the lower income strata are concerned since
women in these strata always worked to earn money to meet the basic necessities of
life. Moreover, even the middle class women in big cities are now-a-days working in
order to meet the high cost of living as well as the rising social expectations arising out
of higher education. Thus, the portrayal of women's images should reflect this reality.
Most studies on media conducted in other countries have either focused on television
or have concluded that television is the predominant medium used by children
although other important media exist (e.g., comics, books, films etc.). Watching
television has become a central leisure time activity all over the world and remains a
major source of leisure time gratification. We shall discuss television as only one
example of socialization through the mass media. While some of the points raised here
will be applicable to other media as well, certain others may not be relevant.

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14.7.2 Impact of Television

Television contacts the viewer directly through its message and does not involve social
and interpersonal interaction. Moreover, it is embedded in another agency, namely, the
family since it is generally viewed at home. It can propagate values in contradiction to
those rooted in a specific social context. Its message may also get distorted because a
large proportion of our population is illiterate and lives in the rural areas while the
programmes are oriented to the urban viewer. Thus, the values and behaviour patterns
transmitted through it may be in conflict with those upheld by the parents. Parents
react to this in several ways such as rigorous control of viewing (especially on
Sundays or during the examination) and not permitting the watching of certain
programmes (e.g., late night adult movies). However, the child's peers or friends at
school or in the neighborhood will influence him or her by discussing specific
programmes. Teachers may also comment on them. In addition, parents have no direct
control over the content of programmes. What are the dominant concerns of the
studies conducted in other countries? Most focus on children as the audience and the
effects of television on children.
The most widespread view of socialization through the mass media is that it contains
harmful experiences, particularly for children, but also for families in general. Some
refer to the hypothesized tendency of television (and even cinema) to incite young
people to crime and violence. Although these studies are only speculative, they are
pointers to further research. So far, the impression you may get is that the impact of
television is only unidirectional or one way. While it is true that its impact is direct, it
is not devoid of the social context. Viewing is a social activity insofar as it is done
within the home and in the presence of family members. Viewers comment on
programmes favorably or unfavorably. The interpersonal elements of other viewers are
important as much as are the timing and the physical environment. Therefore,
television is one element in an interlocking system. It does not exist in a vacuum and
its effects are mediated and modified by the social context of viewing. In other words,
the reaction to the programme is determined to some extent, by the fact that you are
watching it along with your parents or not, and whether you are watching it at home or
outside, and so on.

14.8 LET’S SUM UP

 We have seen in this unit that socialization has many agencies.

 It works through these agencies and disseminates different types of behaviour
modes. Some of these agencies are the family, caste group, tribe, school, etc. In
fact we have emphasized that even gender differences (between boys and girls,
men and women) are largely learned processes.
 Very often the mass media such as cinema and television reinforce ideas and
stereotypes of social behaviour. But sometimes they do not.

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 This unit has also examined the impact of mass media on the process of
socialization.

14.9 GLOSSARY

 Family-is a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption constituting

a single household interacting and inter-communicating with each other
 Class-An individual's or group's position within the social hierarchy, typically based
on power, prestige, and wealth.

14.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Write a comment on the role of school on the socialization process.

2. Write a brief note on the major agencies that socialize a person.

14.11 REFERENCES

 Johnson, H.M. (2005). Sociology: A systematic introduction. New Delhi:

Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
 Rawat, H.K (2009). Sociology: Basic concepts. Rawat Publications, New Delhi
 Sharma, R. K. (1997). Social change and social control. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd

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UNIT -15 MEANING, DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL
CONTROL

Structure

15.1 Learning objectives

15.2 Introduction
15.3 Meaning and definition of social control
15.4 Natures of social control
15.5 Importance of social control
15.6 Goals of social control
15.7 Let’s sum up
15.8 Glossary
15.9 Check your progress
15.10 References

15.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you will be able to:

 The meaning and definition of social control,
 Self-control, socialization and maladjustment;
 Natures of social control
 iIportance of Social control

15.2 INTRODUCTION

People in society do not act in isolation and, hence, there is a need to conform to
norms. In society, there is a need for controlling the activities of the people so that
each of the social institutions can perform their functions effectively. In fact, there
would be no society without social control, because society cannot function without an
agreed upon and enforced social order that makes daily life easier and a complex
division of labour possible. Without it, chaos and confusion would reign. There are
different ways in which conformity of people is ensured, mainly through
implementation of laws, social pressure and socialisation.
If people do not agree to conform to norms of society, then certain sanctions are
imposed like punishments, which can be of many forms. The nature of sanction varies
from a simple fine to imprisonment; even death penalty, which is the most extreme
form of sanctions. Other forms of sanctions include- confused and disapproving looks,
disapreval from family, peers and authority figures, and social ostracization. Hence,
those processes, planned or unplanned, which make people conform to collective
norms are known as social control. In this unit we will discuss that apart from the

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social norms, social control is achieved through a variety of means, such as through
rules, laws, and social, economic, institutional structures.

15.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF SOCIAL CONTROL

The terms ‘social control’ is broadly concerned with the maintenance of order
andstability in society. It may be used in the limited sense of denoting the various
specialised means employed to maintain order such as codes, courts, and constables. It
is also used to categorise social institutions and their inter-relations insofar as
theycontribute specifically to social stability e.g. legal, religious, political institutions
etc. Social control is one of the most fundamental subjects of sociological discussion.
It arises in all discussions about the nature and causes of both stability and change.

Definitions:

Let us look at certain definitions of social control in order to know what is contained
in the concept. Some definitions focus on the “order” aspect of social control. For
instance Maclver and Page (1985) define social control as the way in which the whole
social order becomes consistently interlinked and maintains itself. Some others look at
social control as the means by which society establishes and maintains order. Another
set of definition emphasises the aspect of conformity to norms and expectations of the
group as the most important element in social control. The emphasis is on all those
means and processes whereby a group or a society secures conformity of its member
to its expectations. In other words, social control refers to those ways used by a society
to bring its way ward members back into line. When we use the term social control we
are essentially referring to the processes and means which limit deviations from social
norms (Horton and Hunt 1981; Berger 1963;Ogburn and Nimcoff 1978).Social control
has been defined as "the way in which the entire social order adheres and maintains
itself- how it operates as a changing equilibrium" (MacIver & Page) ,"the patterns of
pressure which a society exerts to maintain order and establish rules"(Ogburn and
Nimcoff), the process by which social order is (i) established, and (ii)maintained"
(Landis), "a collective. term for those processes, planned or unplanned, by which
individuals are taught, persuaded, or compelled to conform to the usagesand life
values of groups"(Roucek).
Thus social control may be defined as any social or cultural means by which human
beings are persuaded and motivated to behave in accordance with the traditions,
patterns and value framework thought necessary for the smooth functioning of a group
or society.
Social control operates at three levels: group over group-when one group determines
the behaviour of the other group; the group over its members when the group controls
the conduct of its own members, and individuals over their fellows- when the
individuals influence the responses of other individuals.

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The main points that emerge from all these definitions about the meaning of social
controls are:
i) The term refers essentially to means and processes whereby certain goals are to be
achieved.

ii) The two most important goals sought to be achieved by social control are:

a) Conformity to norms and expectations of the group;

b) Maintenance of order in society.

iii) There is an element of influence, persuasion or compulsion in control. The

individual or a group is directed to act in a particular way. Conformity is expected or
imposed irrespective of whether one likes it or not.

iv) The scope of social control is vast. It may operate at different levels. One group
may seek to control another group; a group may control its own members or an
individual may seek to control another individual. The scope of control ranges from
the management of deviants to social planning.

15.4 NATURES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

(1) Social Regulations Are Normative in Nature:

They are standards which individuals are required to attain and any failure to reach
such standards may be regarded as a lapse. Every individual, for example, must speak
the truth and lies, when detected, are looked down upon as acts that fall short of social
dignity.

(2) Social Regulations Are Relative as well as Partial:

Regulations are regarded as relative since, as the authors observe, they primarily make
secure the interests of dominant sections of the society. Such sections may be religious
or politically dominant and, in modern times, economic power is a strong determinant
of interests that have to be preserved. Codes and regulations are partial in the sense
that no one category of them is effective enough to fully control human thoughts and
actions; different agencies of social control complement the work of each other.

(3) The Codes and Regulations that Affect Social Control Can Emanate from
Different Agencies:
For example, there may be rules and regulations of voluntary ‘associations’ like the
club or the church. Each set of rules has sanctions for violations and they vary in
degree and intensity. A club or a professional organization may have certain agreed
rules that work as its code and the sanctions take the nature of reprimand, suspension
or expulsion. Similarly, ‘communal’ codes may regulate important customs as are

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observed in a community and the penalty for their disregard or violation may be
ridicule or ostracism respectively.
McIver and Page maintain that at the very basis of ‘religious’ and ‘normal’ codes are
certain ‘super-asocial’ sanctions along with minor social ones; and an ‘irreligious’ or
‘immoral’ person shall have primarily the fear of being punished by God while, on the
material level, he may be excommunicated or placed under penance.

‘Legal’ codes and regulations may be formulated and devised by the State or even by
ecclesiastical courts, as in the mediaeval times, and the sanctions applied for their
violation may include the payment of fines or damages and, of course, imprisonment,
death being the extreme penalty.

(4) No Regulatory Code is Effective if it is not Backed by Sanctions that may be

Imposed in Concrete Terms:
For example, the moral and the religious codes now-a-days are less effective than they
had been before, since the concepts of sin and sufferings in hell appear more as
superstitious than as logical thoughts to modern men; but the intentions of the state are
felt in very clear terms when its civil or criminal laws are violated.

Psychologists do not admit that a fear complex in the individual makes him obey the
codes. In fact, the motivations of the individual even in respect of obedience to law
may be taken as similar to those that condition his socialization process. Suggestions
and imitation are a very common process in building up a social being and, with the
habituation to certain ideas on his part, the stage of indoctrination naturally arrives.

15.5 IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL CONTROL

The progress of any society depends upon the effective functioning of its various
groups, organizations and institutions, which is often jeopardized by the clash of
interests of its members. Individuals as well as groups want to serve their interests
without caring for others. The lack of opportunities for all aggravates the problem
further and the dominant group members/groups want to monopolize and maintain
their hegemony over limited societal resources. Also, the various types of 'isms'
prevailing in society hamper the smooth social system, and therefore, exercise of some
sort of control on the part of society to limit the fissiparous and selfish tendencies of
human beings become imperative. It will be difficult to maintain social equilibrium
without proper adjustment among various social units and therefore, arises the need to
control the deviant behaviour of people and promote the socially desirable actions of
others. Social control helps us to achieve stability in the social organization, as
individuals are not allowed to act contrary to the norms of society.

They are persuaded and motivated to behave in accordance with the established social
norms and values. Consequently, the instability and uncertainty make room for the
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regularity and continuity in the society. Social control is also necessary to maintain the
healthy traditions of our society and to transfer them from one generation to another.
Traditions are the safe custodians of our heritage and culture. Through social control
people are motivated and compelled to follow the traditions.

The unity in group can only be maintained by the effective system of social control.
The group members belong to different socio-cultural backgrounds and want to
achieve different personal objectives. To keep all the members united by striving
towards group goals is made feasible by social control which does not allow selfish
interests of the individuals to come in the way of group goals.

Social control is also required to bring compatibility in thoughts, ideas, behaviour

patterns, attitudes and perceptions of the individuals, because devoid of it, society
cannot function effectively.

Cooperation is the key of all success. If society is to survive, the desired cooperation
of all people is required. In case of lack of this cooperation, no unit or group can
function. It is indeed the strength of the human groups. Social control helps us in
achieving the cooperation of all.

Social control provides social security to the people. Human beings are so helpless and
weak that their existence is not possible without the help of others. Social control
keeps a check on the forces endangering the safety and security of the people and
prepares them to face the realities of the world. Social control is badly needed to bring
the selfish nature of man under control because normally, nobody feels happy being
controlled, subordinated and directed by others. Everyone wants to control, exercise
authority on the subordinates and direct as many persons as possible, but the fact of
the matter is that society is a mix of persons who direct and those who are directed,
those who guide and also those who are guided. In fact, social control, by keeping the
‘free will’ of people under a corrective restraint, facilitates the smooth functioning of
society.

It is vividly clear that because of social control society comes into existence, social
order is maintained and aspirations of the people are fulfilled.

15.6 GOALS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

From many of the definitions of social control, which we have reviewed earlier, it
becomes clear that social control is supposed to achieve several important goals. Some
of these goals are:

i) Conformity
One of the aims of social control is to bring about conformity in society. Social control
mechanisms are employed to control, check or prevent deviant behaviour. Deviant
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behaviour is dysfunctional to society in several ways.The objective of social control is
to safeguard the group against such dysfunctional consequences of deviant behaviour.

ii) Uniformity
A related objective of social control is to produce uniformity of behaviour. This does
not mean that all the members have to behave alike. It only implies that there should
be some co-ordinations, among the several interrelated activities performed by
different people. For example, movement of traffic on a road will be impossible if
some traffic rules (keeping to the left etc.) are not followed by all road users. A game
cannot be played if uniform rules are not followed by all teams and its members. In
every sphere of social life some uniformity of behaviour is not only expected, but is
also essential.

ii) Solidarity
This is a very important objective of social control. As Maclver and Page (1985) have
noted, social control ensures order and solidarity in society. Society is constituted of
several parts and units. These different parts have to maintain equilibrium with each
other, and with the whole to ensure social solidarity and stability. The mechanisms of
social control are directed at maintaining this equilibrium among the parts, and
between the parts and the whole.

iii) Continuity
Social control is also necessary to maintain and preserve the accumulated culture of
the group. By compelling or inducing individuals to conform to the prevailing norms
and values, continuity of these cultural characteristics is ensured. For example, when
parents insist on their children following family customs or practices, their continuity
over generations is sought to be assured.

iv) Social Change

Social control is employed not only to conserve the existing patterns, but also
sometimes to induce desired social changes. In our country, many methods of
persuasion, inducement, and compulsion are used to bring about desired changes in
some social customs, attitudes and behaviour. Prescribing the age of marriage, ‘Two
child’ family norm, removal of untouchability, dowry systems etc. are some of the
examples of attempts to bring about social change through various means of social
control.

15.7 LET’S SUM UP

 The terms ‘social control’ is broadly concerned with the maintenance of order
and stability in society.
 Thus social control may be defined as any social or cultural means by which
human beings are persuaded and motivated to behave in accordance with the
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traditions, patterns and value framework thought necessary for the smooth
functioning of a group or society.
 The scope of social control is vast. It may operate at different levels. One
group may seek to control another group; a group may control its own
members or an individual may seek to control another individual.

15.8 GLOSSARY

 Social control -as the way that the norms, rules, laws, and structures of society
regulate human behaviour.
 Social order -refers to the way in which various components of society work
together to maintain stability and the status quo.

15.9 CHECK YTOUR PROGRESS

 What is social control?

 Gave the definition of social control.
 Explain the features of social control.
 Define the importance of social control.
 Exlain the needs of social control
 What is conformity?

15.10 REFERENCES

 Mills, C.W.,The Sociological Imagination, Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1959
 Giddens ,Anthony, Introduction to Sociology, 1991
 Rawat, H.K. Contemporary Sociology, Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 2013
 Johnson, Harry M. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction, New Delhi, Allied
Publishers, 1995 5. Smelser Neil J. Hand Book of Sociology, Sage
Publications, Inc. 1998

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UNIT -16 AGENIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Structure

16.1 Learning objectives

16.2 Introduction
16.3 Agencies of social control
16.3.1 Socialisation
16.3.2 Customs
16.3.3 Laws
16.3.4 Education
16.4 Let’s sum up
16.5 Glossary
16.6 Check your progress
16.7 References

16.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you will be able to:

 Agencies of social control
 Formal agaencies of social control
 Informal agaecies of social control

16.2 INTRODUCTION

These agencies of Social Control have grown according to the needs of the society.
Folk ways, mores, customs, social norms etc. fall under this category of social control.
Generally primary institutions exercise this type of social control. L. Burnard
classified Means of social control as exploitative such as punishment and constructive
such as education. He speaks of them as conscious and unconscious means. F.E.
Lumley classifies them as based on symbols such as rewards and force such as
punishment. Kimball Young analyses them as positive and negative and Karl
Mannheim speaks of them as informal such as norms, values folk ways, mores
customs, belief system, ideology and public opinion and, formal which includes
among others education, law and coercion.

16.3 AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

L. Burnard classified Means of social control as exploitative such as punishment and

constructive such as education. He speaks of them as conscious and unconscious
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means. F.E. Lumley classifies them as based on symbols such as rewards and force
such as punishment. Kimball Young analyses them as positive and negative and Karl
Mannheim speaks of them as informal such as norms, values folk ways, mores
customs, belief system, ideology and public opinion and, formal which includes
among others education, law and coercion.

16.3.1 Socialisation

The primary way through which social order is produced is through the ongoing,
lifelong process of socialization that each person experiences. Through this process,
we are taught from birth norms, rules, and behavioural and interactional expectations
that are common to our family, peer groups, community, and the greater society.
Socialization teaches us how to think and behave in accepted ways, and in doing so,
effectively controls us in our participation in society. Socialisation is a process through
which a child learns what is wrong and what is right. This socialisation process takes
place not only in the family but also through peer groups, teachers in the school,
church, and the mass media. If these agents of conformity fail to function then certain
forms of sanctions are attributed to the corresponding behaviour.
Socialisation refers to the process whereby an individual learn the skills and imbibes
the values of society. Anthony Giddens says that socialisation is the process whereby
an infant slowly becomes an informed and self-aware person and develops skills
specific to the culture into which she or he is born. Through this process, the child
does not only receive but also expresses certain demands to the caretaker.
Furthermore, this socialisation process is carried out by agencies like the family-
where the child gradually imbibe the values of the family; peer groups- which
influence the person in all spheres; the school- where children are taught how to
maintain discipline along with imparting the formal education; media- which expose
people to different cultures and lifestyles. Similarly, Michael Haralambos says that
socialisation is the process whereby individuals learn the culture of their society.
This socialisation process, particularly the primary socialisation, takes place during
infancy by acting in response to the behavioural patterns of the parents including their
language, and how they behave in their agreement and disagreement of things. Apart
from family, other socialising agency is the peer group, with whom the child learns to
enjoy oneself and learns to conform to societal norms. However, this does not mean
that socialisation is limited to childhood only but it takes place throughout one’s
lifetime. Socialisation is such an important process that without it, people would not
know how to operate along the values of the society. According to Nimkoff and
Foreman, socialisation refers to the “internalising through learning, of group norms as
right, convenient and expected”. The impact of socialisation is so great that if
everyone were socialised in the same culture, then everyone will develop similar
habits, wishes and customs.
Horton and Hunt says that socialisation process have a deep effect on the life of the
individuals as it determines the kind of wish, customs and habits that one has. People
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from the same culture tend to develop similar habits. They further mentions that
people will unintentionally conform to any kinds of expectation in the society if they
all had a similar socialisation experience. The learning of what is right or wrong in the
society through socialisation regulates the behaviour of individuals to conduct
according to the accepted norms of society.

16.3.2 Customs

Customs are very much a part of our lives so much that we need to reflect on how
much intricately they are related to our social life. MacIver and Page states that
customs are the most spontaneous of all social rules and often the most compelling
ones. Despite their persuasive nature, customs are sanctioned by a wide variety of
informal social pressures. Customs include all kinds of action that are performed right
from our getting up in the morning. The things that we do till we grow old are all
related to customs. Custom is not upheld by authority but comes about by common
practice. MacIver and page says that custom is a group process which emerged
gradually, without any authority being exclussively responsible for its maintenance.
But, customs are maintained by “common acceptance” of the people. Through chance,
trial and error, experience, particular modes of procedure are devised, are followed and
imitated, and an unobtrusively accepted as social mores. MacIver and Page have given
an example: no special authority prescribes the raising of the hat to ladies or tipping in
restaurants; but it is rather done through unexpressed rules which is a part of western
customs.
Bottomore mentions that customs, along with public opinion can be regarded as less
formal types of social control than laws as in the former, there is “certain vagueness,
and sometimes ambiguity, with regard to infractions of the code of behaviour which
they prescribe, and in regard to punishments” and the latter has a more “systematic
elaboration”.As a result, Bottomore adds, “custom has frequently been contrasted with
law”, and a distinction is made between societies which “enforced” law and those
where customs are “accepted”.in the societies characterised by primary relations, the
influence of customs and opinions are strong while in modern societies, laws are more
effective. Bottomore mentions that in primitive societies custom had a larger
influence, on the other hand laws are more effective in modern industrial societies.
MacIver and Page say that in simple societies, there are primary relationships and
hence gossips greatly influence the social behaviour.

16.3.3 Laws

MacIver and Page define law as “the body of rules which are recognised, interpreted,
and applied to particular situations by the courts of the state. It derives from various
sources, including custom, but it becomes law when the state, is prepared to enforce it
as a rule binding on citizens and residents within its jurisdiction.” Laws have a unique
form of sanction as compared to the other social codes. MacIver and Page says that in

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associations, the sanction involves exclusion and prohibition from membership or
barring a member from their certain rights and privileges. However, for legal rules, the
sanction is done with coercion. Also, Bottomore adds that “legal rules are more precise
than other rules like moral and legal sanctions. They are more definite and frequently
more effective than those of morality.” But, moral codes and legal codes are dependent
on each other. The effectiveness of legal laws is dependent on the moral endorsement
of the people. Bottomore says that “the maintenance of a legal order depend upon the
moral climate of a society. The effectiveness of legal regulation never rests solely
upon the threat of physical sanctions, but upon a general attitude of respect for law,
and for a particular legal order; and this attitude itself is determined by moral approval
of law as embodying social justice.” This means law is dependent on the morals of the
people whether laws are given respect or not. In a religious country like India,
religious laws are given utmost importance. Hence, implementation of any kind of law
becomes effective.
Bottomore says that law brings a “degree of certainty in human behaviour”. Laws,
enacted by the national and legal bodies, encourage and discourage certain actions.
Cole says that “laws may be designed to encourage the performance of a favorable
type of behaviour as, for example, safe driving. Other laws are designed to discourage
certain type of behaviour, like murder, stealing, and armed robbery or drunken
driving.” He further mentions that laws vary greatly from community to community as
every society is composed of communities who are widely different in their economic
and education status. Other government agencies enforce formal social control as well,
like those that regulate which substances or foods can be legally sold, and those that
enforce building codes, among others. It is up to formal bodies like the judiciary and
the penal system to dole out sanctions when someone fails to comply with the laws
that define formal social control.

16.3.4 Education

Education is the medium of transmitting knowledge to new generations. Bottomore

also says that “education, from infancy toadulthood, is thus a vital means of social
control, and its significance has been greatly enhanced in the last two decades by the
rapid expansion of education at all levels. Through education new generations learn
the social norms and the penalties for infringing them. Education simply refers to the
process of socialisation while school refers to the formal instructions. According to
Landis, “education is the more general term and refers to the process of socialisation -
learning the knowledge, skills, and appropriate ways of behaving in order to exist in a
larger social world. He further says that schooling is the narrower term, and refers to
the formal instruction in a classroom setting.
In modern societies, the process of education is aided by the new technologies unlike
in the early societies. Bottomore says that “education is concerned with transmitting
the way of life, while in modern industrial societies, because of the mass of available
knowledge, the application of science to production, and the elaborate division of
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labour, formal education not only preponderates in the process of education as a
whole, but it is largely devoted to the communication of empirical knowledge”. The
second difference mentioned by Bottomore is that in early societies a relatively
unchanging way of life and knowledge were transmitted but the scientific knowledge
communicated by modern education is expected to change and education in general is
required to prepare individuals for a changing rather than a static world. Modern
science and technology teaches “general rational approach to nature and social life,
which has an increasingly important role in establishing and maintaining social co-
operation”. Furthermore, modern education teaches the individual to have independent
values and ideas which play a role in regulating behaviour.

16.4 LET’S SUM UP

 Bottomore says that “education is concerned with transmitting the way of life,
while in modern industrial societies, because of the mass of available
knowledge, the application of science to production, and the elaborate division
of labour, formal education not only preponderates in the process of education
as a whole, but it is largely devoted to the communication of empirical
knowledge”.
 MacIver and Page define law as “the body of rules which are recognised,
interpreted, and applied to particular situations by the courts of the state. It
derives from various sources, including custom, but it becomes law when the
state, is prepared to enforce it as a rule binding on citizens and residents within
its jurisdiction.”
 MacIver and Page states that customs are the most spontaneous of all social
rules and often the most compelling ones. Despite their persuasive nature,
customs are sanctioned by a wide variety of informal social pressures.
 Horton and Hunt says that socialisation process have a deep effect on the life
of the individuals as it determines the kind of wish, customs and habits that one
has. People from the same culture tend to develop similar habits

16.5 GLOSSARY

 Socialisation- Socialisation is the process through which individuals learn the

norms and values of society, leading to social cohesion and a functional society
 Customs- is a traditional and widely accepted way of behaving or an action
that is specific to a particular society

16.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

 What are the agents of socialisation?

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 How education play the role of socialaization?
 How Law is important for socialaization?

16.7 REFERENCES

1. Mills, C.W.,The Sociological Imagination, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959.

2. Giddens ,Anthony, Introduction to Sociology, 1991
3. Rawat, H.K. Contemporary Sociology, Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 2013
4. Johnson, Harry M. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction, New Delhi, Allied
Publishers, 1995
5. Smelser Neil J. Hand Book of Sociology, Sage Publications, Inc. 1998

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