Fundamentals of Remote

Sensing
Outline
● Photogrammetry
● Aerial Photogrammetry
● Remote Sensing
● Remote Sensing Process
● Electromagnetic Spectrum
● Spectral Indices
● Atmospheric Window
● Energy Interactions with Earth Surface
● Spectral Reflectance Curve
Photogrammetry
● What does Photogrammetry mean?

“Photogrammetry” word derived from three Greek words:

1. phos or phot : light

2. gramma: something drawn or written

3. metrein: to measure

Hence, photogrammetry is measuring something by the means of light.

Photogrammetry
● According to the American Society for Photogrammetry (1956),
Photogrammetry is the science or art of obtaining reliable measurements by
the means of photography.

● According to the American Society for Photogrammetry (1987), it is the art,

science and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical
objects and the environment by recording, measuring and interpreting
photographic images.
Introduction to Aerial Photogrammetry
● Aerial photogrammetry is a technique that uses photographs taken from
aircraft or drones to create maps, 3D models, and other spatial data.
Applications of Aerial Photogrammetry:
1. Topographic mapping
2. Urban planning
3. Agriculture
4. Disaster management
5. Environmental monitoring
Advantages of Aerial Photogrammetry:
1. Large area can be covered in less time
2. No details are missed
3. Can also be used in inaccessible areas
4. Time and cost efficient
5. 3D visualization
Application of Aerial Photogrammetry in Agriculture
1. Crop monitoring and health assessment
2. Yield Estimation and analysis
3. Precision Agriculture
4. Irrigation Management
5. Land Use and Field Planning
6. Environmental Monitoring
7. Flood and Drought Assessment
Types of Aerial Photographs:
Vertical Photographs:

● Camera axis is nearly vertical as possible

● In these photos, the shape of objects remains mostly
in their actual state as visible from above.
● Due to various weather conditions and air turbulence,
it is difficult to obtain a true vertical photograph.
Tilt Photographs

● In this type of photograph, the vertical line is unintentionally tilted with plumb
line.
● This is most widely used as a true vertical photograph is not easy to obtain.
● The tilt is normally 1°-3°
● Tilt is due to the motion of aircraft and consequently the disturbance in
camera position.

Oblique Photographs

● In this type of photograph, the vertical line is intentionally tilted with plumb
line.
● Tilt is according to the purpose of photographs.
Types of Oblique Photographs
Low Oblique High Oblique

There is intentional 15°-30° deviation in camera There is intentional more than 30° deviation in
axis from the vertical axis. camera axis from the vertical axis.

Horizon is not visible. Horizon is visible.

Remote Sensing
● Remote Sensing is an art, science and technology of observing an object,
scene or phenomenon by instrument-based techniques without physical
contact.
● The process of use of electromagnetic radiation by sensors to record images
of the environment ,which can be interpreted to produce useful information.
● This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and
processing, analyzing, and applying that information.

“Knowing Without going”

Remote Sensing Process
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A)
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)
3. Interaction with the Target (C)
4. Recording of Energy by the
Sensor (D)
5. Transmission, Reception, and
Processing (E)
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F)
7. Application (G)
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A)
The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source which
illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.

2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)

As the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in contact with and
interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place a
second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C)

Once the energy makes its way to the target through the atmosphere, it interacts
with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the radiation.

4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)

After the energy has been scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a
sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and record the
electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E)

The energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form,
to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed into an image
(hardcopy and/or digital).

6. Interpretation and Analysis (F)

The processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically, to

extract information about the target which was illuminated.
7. Application (G)

The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply the
information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in
order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a
particular problem.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• The basis for most of remote sensing methods and systems is simply that of measuring
the varying response to electromagnetic radiation (photon) of an object.

• Variation in photon energies are tied to the parameter wavelength or its inverse,
frequency.

• When any target material is excited by internal processes or by interaction with

incoming EM radiation, it will emit or reflect photons of varying wavelengths whose
radiometric quantities differ at different wavelengths in a way diagnostic of the material

• Photon energy received at detectors is commonly stated in power units such as Watts
per square meter per wavelength unit.
• Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electric field
(E) which varies in magnitude in a direction
perpendicular to the direction in which the radiation is
travelling and a magnetic field (M) oriented at right
angles to the electrical field.

• Both these fields travel at the speed of light (C)

Electromagnetic Spectrum
● The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all types of electromagnetic
radiation. Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes, and this
energy comes in different wavelengths and frequencies.
● The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths (including
gamma and x-rays) to the longer wavelengths (including microwaves and
broadcast radio waves).
● The EM spectrum has been arbitrarily divided into regions or intervals to
which descriptive names have been applied.
The Electromagnetic spectrum ranges
• At the very energetic (high frequency; short wavelength) end are gamma rays
and x-rays.
• Radiation in the ultraviolet region extends from about 1 nanometer to about 0.36
micrometers. It is convenient to measure the mid regions of the spectrum in these
micrometers and nanometers.
• The visible region occupies the range between 0.38 to 0.7 micrometer or
equivalent to 380 to 700 nanometers.
• The infrared region, spans between 0.7 to 100 micrometers. At shorter
wavelength (near 0.7micrometer) infrared radiation can be detected by special
film, while at longer wavelengths it is felt as heat.
Useful regions of Electromagnetic Spectrum
1. Visible Light (380-700 nm)

The visible light spectrum is the segment of the electromagnetic spectrum that the
human eye can view.

It helps in analyzing land use, vegetation, and water bodies.

2. Near - Infrared (NIR) (380-1300 nm)

Crucial for vegetation analysis. Healthy plants reflect more NIR light.

Used to monitor crop health and water content

3. Thermal Infrared (TIR) (3000-15000 nm)

Measures heat emitted from surfaces.

Useful in monitoring temperature changes, irrigation needs, and surface heat

islands.
Spectral Indices
● Spectral indices are mathematical combinations of reflectance measurements
at different wavelengths, designed to highlight specific features or conditions
on the Earth's surface.
● Spectral indices help enhance certain characteristics, such as vegetation
health, soil moisture, or water bodies, making it easier to analyze satellite or
aerial imagery for specific purposes.
● There are different types of spectral indices like NDVI, NDWI, NDMI, SAVI
etc.
Atmospheric Window
• The atmosphere selectively transmits energy of certain wavelengths.
• Atmospheric windows are specific ranges of wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum where the Earth's atmosphere allows radiation to pass through with little
absorption or scattering.
• Atmospheric windows are present in the visible part (0.38 m - .70 m) and the
infrared regions of the EM spectrum.
• In the visible part transmission is mainly affected by ozone absorption and by
molecular scattering.
• The atmosphere is transparent again beyond about λ = 1mm, the region used for
microwave remote sensing.
Energy Interaction with Earth Surface

• When electromagnetic energy is

incident on any given earth surface
feature, three fundamental energy
interactions with the feature is possible.
• Various fraction of energy incident on
the elements are reflected, absorbed
and or transmitted.
• Applying the principle of conservation of energy, we can state the
interrelationship between these three energy interaction as

𝐸𝐼 (⅄) = 𝐸𝑅 (⅄) + 𝐸𝐴 (⅄) + 𝐸𝑇 (⅄)

Where 𝐸𝐼 denotes incident energy 𝐸𝑅 denotes reflected energy 𝐸𝐴 denotes

absorbed energy and 𝐸𝑇 denotes transmitted energy, will all energy being function
of wavelength.
• Two points concerning this relationship should be noted.

• First, the proportion of reflected, absorbed and transmitted will vary for different
earth features, depending on their material type and condition.

• Second, the wavelength dependency means that, even within a given feature
type, the proportion of reflected, absorbed and transmitted energy will vary at
different wavelength.

• The geometric manner in which an object reflects energy is also an important

consideration.

• This factor is primarily a function of the surface roughness of the object.

• We refer to two types of reflection, which represent the two extreme ends of the
way in which energy is reflected from a target:

1. Specular reflection
2. Diffuse reflection
1. Specular Reflection

• When a surface is smooth we

get specular or mirror-like
reflection where all (or almost all)
of the energy is directed away
from the surface in a single
direction
2. Diffuse Reflection

• Diffuse reflection occurs when

the surface is rough and the
energy is reflected almost
uniformly in all directions.
Spectral Reflectance Curve
● A spectral reflectance curve shows how much light (or electromagnetic
energy) a surface reflects at different wavelengths across the electromagnetic
spectrum.
● When light hits a surface (like soil, vegetation, or water), some of it is
absorbed, some passes through, and some is reflected.
● The reflectance at each wavelength is measured and plotted on a graph to
create the curve.
● Different materials reflect light differently at various wavelengths, so their
spectral reflectance curves help identify and differentiate between them.
Spectral Reflectance of Different Surfaces
1. Soil
● Soil generally has a moderate reflectance across visible and near-infrared
(NIR) wavelengths.
● The reflectance increases with increasing wavelength in the visible region
(from blue to red).
● In the NIR region, the reflectance is relatively high, but it varies depending on
the soil's moisture content, texture, and organic matter.
2. Vegetation
● In the visible spectrum, especially in the blue and red regions, vegetation
reflects very little light because chlorophyll absorbs it for photosynthesis.
● In the green region, vegetation reflects more light, which is why healthy plants
appear green.
● In the NIR region, healthy vegetation reflects a large amount of light due to
the structure of plant leaves, which is why NIR is crucial for vegetation
analysis.
● In healthy vegetation, there is high reflectance in NIR, low in red (used to
calculate indices like NDVI for plant health).
● In unhealthy vegetation, reflectance in NIR decreases, indicating issues like
disease or drought.
3. Water
● Water absorbs most light in the visible and NIR regions, so it typically has low
reflectance, especially in the NIR.
● The reflectance is highest in the blue region, which is why clear water bodies
often appear blue.
Assignments
1. Describe the process of remote sensing in your own words.
2. Describe spectral reflectance curves and write how spectral reflectance
curves help identify different materials and their condition.
3. Explore various spectral indices used in agricultural field and explain how they
might be useful in agriculture.
4. Differentiate between Specular reflection and Diffuse reflection.