Questions for the test “Materials Science in Dentistry”.

1. Dental materials science. Dental materials. Preventive dental

material. Restorative dental material. Materials for direct/indirect
restoration. Auxiliary dental materials. Temporary restorative
materials.
Dental materials science:
It’s the science which covers range of terminology, composition,
microstructure, and properties used to describe or predict the
performance of preventive and restorative biomaterials.

Dental materials:
Include the natural tissues (enamel, dentin, cementum, bone, and other
intraoral tissues) and biocompatible synthetic materials (metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composite structures) used to restore decayed, damaged,
or fractured teeth.

Preventive dental material:

Cement, coating, or restorative material that either seals pits and fissures
or releases a therapeutic agent such as fluoride and/or mineralizing ions
to prevent or arrest the demineralization of tooth structure.

Restorative dental material:

Consist of synthetic components that can be used to repair or replace
tooth structure, including primers, bonding agents, liners, cement bases,
amalgams, resin-based composites, compomers, hybrid ionomers, cast
metals, metal-ceramics, ceramics, and denture polymers.

Materials for direct/indirect restoration:

Direct restorative materials
— a cement, metal, or resin-based composite that is placed and formed
intraorally to restore teeth and/or to enhance esthetics.
Indirect restorative materials
— a ceramic, metal, metal-ceramic, or resin-based composite used
extraorally to produce prostheses, which replace missing teeth, enhance
esthetics, and/or restore damaged teeth.
Auxiliary dental materials:
Are substances used in the process of fabricating dental prostheses and
appliances but that do not become part of these devices.

These include:
1. acid-etching solutions,
2. impression materials,
3. casting investments,
4. gypsum cast and model materials,
5. dental waxes,
6. acrylic resins for impression and bleaching trays,
7. acrylic resins for mouth guards and occlusion aids, and finishing and
polishing abrasives

Temporary restorative materials:

are a subcategory of restorative materials and include products used for
dental restorations and appliances that are not intended for moderate or
long-term applications.

Includes:
- temporary cements used for luting;
- temporary cements, or other restoratives used for fillings;
- orthodontic wires, and acrylic resins used for temporary inlays,
onlays, crowns;
- fixed dental prostheses that span two or more tooth position;

2. The structure of the atom. Interatomic bonds. Primary bonds.

Features of primary bonds. Secondary bonds. Features of secondary
bonds. Examples of primary and secondary bonds. Crystalline and
non-crystalline structure. Examples of crystal lattices in dental
materials.

The structure of the atom:

Interatomic bonds.
an issue to find out how to bond two or more atoms to form molecules or
solids.

Primary bonds.
The formation of primary bonds depends on the atomic structures and
their tendency to assume a stable configuration.
Primary atomic bonds, also called chemical bonds, may be of three
different types: (1) ionic, (2) covalent, (3) metallic.

Features of primary bonds.

The strength of these bonds and their ability to reform after breakage
determine the physical properties of a material.

Secondary bonds.
secondary bonding-two types of bonds that exist between water and
glass-allow us to explain this adhesion phenomenon (hydrogen bond)
Features of secondary bonds.
secondary bonds do not share electrons. Instead, charge variations
among molecules or atomic groups induce polar forces that attract the
molecules.
Sphere model: showing that atoms are actually closely packed together
Ball-and-stick model displaying the three-dimensional position of the
atoms and bonds between them.
Examples of primary and secondary bonds.
Primary: Consider calcium sulfate (CaS04), Ionic bond between Ca2+
and [SO4]2 , covalent bonds between S and O.

Secondary: Water, hydrogen fluoride

Crystalline structure:
Atoms are bonded to each other by either primary or secondary forces.
In the solid state, they combine in a manner that ensures minimal internal
energy

Non-crystalline structure:
Structures other than crystalline forms can occur in the solid state

Examples of crystal lattices in dental materials

1. Simple cubic
2. Body-centered cubic
3. Face-centered cubic
4. Rhombohedral.
5. Orthorhombic
6. Monoclinic.
7. Triclinic.
8. Tetragonal.
9. Simple hexagonal.
10. Close-packed hexagonal.
11. Rhombic.

3. Adhesion. Basic principles and definitions. Main criteria of

adhesion process. Penetration coefficient. Adhesion mechanisms.
Adhesion promoters. Definition, main functions. Interaction
mechanism. Promoter examples.

Adhesion, basic principles and definitions:

Principles of adhesion: Vivid examples of new adhesive restorative
procedures are resin-bonded bridges and porcelain veneers.
These procedures have been possible because of our improved
knowledge and understanding of the surface characteristics of enamel
and dentine, and of the requirements that need to be satisfied in order to
obtain good bonds to them.
Adhesion: the force that binds two dissimilar materials together when
they are brought into intimate contact (a strong bond can be created only
in the case of intimate molecular contact.)
One of the fundamental requirements of adhesion is
that the two substances to be bonded must be in close
contact with each other.
It is not particularly easy to achieve intimate contact at the microscopic
level.

Main criteria of adhesion process:

The factors that govern the ability of the adhesive to make
intimate contact with the substrate are:
- the wettability of the substrate by the adhesive
- the viscosity of the adhesive
- the morphology or surface roughness of the substrate.
Penetration coefficient: 𝑃𝐶 = 𝛾 ⋅ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃/2𝜂
The penetration coefficient is a measure of the ability of a liquid to
penetrate into a capillary space, such as interproximal regions, gingival
pockets and pores.

Adhesion mechanisms:
- Mechanical Adhesion
The adhesive can penetrate readily into the pits before it begins to
set.
- Physical Adhesion
Rapid (because no activation energy is needed)
Reversible (because the molecules remain chemically intact on the
surface).
It follows that non-polar liquids will not readily bond to polar solids
and vice versa because there is no interaction between the two
substances at the molecular level, even if there is good adaptation.
- Chemical Adhesion

- Adhesion through molecular entanglement

Adhesion promoters:
To allow these two materials to bond by means other than
the physical adsorption of one on to the other, it is necessary to
modify one or other of the two surfaces to achieve a bond.
Coupling agent (an intermediary substance able to
bond to both of the materials in question) can be used.
Its function is to displace the adsorbed water and provide a strong
chemical link between the oxide groups on the glass surface and the
polymer molecules of the resin.
𝑅 − 𝑆𝑖 − 𝑋₃
Where R represents an organo-functional group and the X units are
hydrolysable groups bonded to the silane. The latter are only present as
an intermediate, since they are hydrolyzed to form a silanol as follows:
𝑅 − 𝑆𝑖 − 𝑋₃ + 3𝐻₂𝑂 ⟶ 𝑅 − 𝑆𝑖(𝑂𝐻)₃ + 3𝐻𝑋
4. Main groups of filling materials. Properties of an ideal restorative
material. The main purpose of filling. Materials for bandages and
temporary fillings. Materials for insulating pads.

Main groups for filling materials:

1) Materials for bandage and temporary fillings
2) Materials for medical pads (linings)
3) Materials for insulating pads (linings)
4) Materials for permanent fillings
5) Materials for filling root canals

Properties of an ideal restorative material:

1) Be chemically resistant and have minimal solubility
2) Be mechanically strong
3) Match the appearance of natural teeth
4) Be resistant to abrasion
5) Fit snugly against the walls of the cavity (adaptation to the walls)
6) Maintain its shape and volume for a long time
7) Possess good handling properties
8) Be minimally dependent on moisture during the filling and
solidification process
 9) Be harmless to the pulp of the hard tissues of the tooth, the oral
mucosa and the body as a whole
10) Do not contain toxic components harmful to the health of the
patient and medical personnel
11) Have an anti-carious effect to prevent the recurrence of caries at
the border of the filling with the tooth
12) Possess low thermal conductivity
13) Have a coefficient of thermal expansion similar to the coefficient
of thermal expansion of tooth tissues
14) Be radiopaque to ensure the possibility of objective quality
control of seals and the detection of recurrent caries in the long term
15) Have a long shelf life, do not require special conditions for use,
storage and transportation

The main purpose of filling

To restore the anatomical shape, appearance and function of the tooth, to
prevent the occurrence of caries.

Materials for bandages and temporary fillings

Artificial Dentine (zinc sulphate cement, water dentin): Powder: 66%
zinc oxide, 24% zinc sulphate, 10% kaolin (Al₂O₃.2SiO₂.H₂O)
Liquid: distilled water
Dentine paste (oil dentine): Artificial dentin powder mixed with a mixture
of two vegetal oils (more often – clove and peach)
Gutta-percha: Is a condensed juice of the gutta-percha tree

Properties:
1) Provide a hermetic closure of the cavity
2) Easy to insert and withdraw from the cavity
3) Have sufficient mechanical strength
4) Be indifferent tot the pulp, tooth tissues and medicinal substances
5) Do not dissolve in oral fluid and saliva
6) Do not contain components that disrupt the processes of adhesion
and curing of permanent filling materials

Materials for insulating pads.

Zinc phosphate cements: Powder: zinc oxide 75 – 90%, magnesium
oxide “5 – 13%”, silicon dioxide “0.05 – 5%”, and sometimes bismuth nitrate
“up to 4%”
Liquid: aqueous solution of phosphoric acid partially neutralized with
aluminum hydroxide and zinc oxide
𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 𝐻₃[𝑃𝑂₄] ⟶ 𝑍𝑛₃(𝑃𝑂₄)₂ ↓ +𝐻₂𝑂
Hydrophosphate cement (water curing cement): Powder: about 35%
phosphate added to it
𝑃₂𝑂₅ + 𝐻₂𝑂 ⟶ 𝐻₃𝑃𝑂₄
Liquid: distilled water
Polycarboxylate cements (PCCs): Powder: zinc oxide with the addition
of magnesium oxide
Liquid: 37% solution of polyacrylic acid

Properties:
1) Provide long-term protection of dentine and tooth pulp from chemical,
thermal and galvanic effects from permanent filling material
2) Seal the surface of the dentine preventing microbial invasion, irritation
and increased sensitivity of the pulp after preparation and filling of the
cavity
3) To withstand the mechanical load associated with the redistribution of
masticatory pressure
4) To help improve the fixation of a permanent filling
5) It is easy to insert into the cavity, quickly harden and form a stronger
bond with the tissues of the tooth than with a permanent filling material
6) Have an anti-carious and remineralizing effect on the underlying
dentin
7) Do not have a toxic effect on the pulp
8) Do not interfere with the properties of the permanent restorative
material
9) The lining material should not be destroyed under the influence of
gingival and dentinal fluids and in case of leakage of the permanent
filling under the influence of oral fluid

5. Glass ionomer cements. Classification of GICs according to the

mechanism of curing. Basic properties. Disadvantages of GICs
Classification of modern GICs by application. Indications for use.
Sealing with classical GICs (main stages). Insulating varnishes.
Glass ionomer cements:
(GICs, glass ionomers, polyalkenate, glass polyalkenate cements)
Combine low toxicity, high strength and satisfactory aesthetic
characteristics, and also exhibit anti-caries activity.

Classification of GICs according to the mechanism of curing:

Type I - GICs for fixation.
Type II - Restorative GICs for permanent fillings:
a) aesthetic;
b) reinforced;
c) condensable.
Type III - Fast hardening GICs:
a) for linings;
b) fissure sealants.
Type IV - GICs for root canal filling.

Basic properties:
1) Chemical adhesion to tooth tissues
2) Anti-carious activity
3) Sufficient mechanical strength and elasticity
4) Satisfactory aesthetic properties
5) High biocompatibility, non-toxic and non-irritating to the dental pulp
6) Easy to use
7) Relatively low cost

Disadvantages of GICs Classification of modern GICs by application:

1) The duration of “maturation” of the cements mass
a. “Maturation” of chemical curing GIC filling continue 24 (!) hrs.
b. Sensitivity to the presence of moisture during the “maturation” of
the filling
c. Sensitivity to over-drying during the “maturation” of the filling
d. Sensitivity to mechanical stress and vibration in the process of
“maturing” of cement mass
 e. The probability of violation of the chemical composition and
curing process when etching the “immature” cement mass with
phosphoric acid
f. Danger of irritating action on the pulp in deep cavities
2) Lower strength characteristics than composite materials
3) Insufficient esthetics

Indications for use:

1) Fixation of orthopedic and orthodontic constructions intracanal pins
and stump inlays.
2) Application of base and lining pads for composite and metal fillings.
3) Fissure sealing.
4) Filling of carious cavities in milk and permanent teeth, including root
caries.
5) Filling defects of hard tissues in non-carious lesions of the teeth.
6) ART-technique and minimal preparation in the treatment of dental
caries.
7) Filling of cavities in minimally invasive therapy for the treatment of
caries.
8) Restoration of the tooth stump

Sealing with classical GICs (main stages):

1st visit - the entire cavity is sealed with glass ionomer cement.
2nd visit - after 24-48 hours - a part of the glass ionomer filling
corresponding to the enamel is removed and the filling is made with a
composite with preliminary etching of the surface of the GIC and the use of
an adhesive system.

Insulating varnishes:
Insulating varnishes (liquid liners) are used to create a
thin-layer (liner) pads.
They are a one-component system consisting of:
1. Polymer resin
(copal resin, rosin, cyanoacrylates, polyurethane).
2. Filler - (zinc oxide).
3. Sometimes-a medicinal substance
(calcium hydroxide, sodium fluoride).
4. Solvent
(acetone, chloroform, ether, etc.).
Insulating varnishes are recommended before applying zinc phosphate
cements:
a. To prevent harmful effects of phosphoric acid on the pulp.
b. To cover the walls of the cavity when filling with amalgams in order
to protect against the influence of amalgam corrosion products.
c. To reduce hyperesthesia of the necks of the teeth
after curettage of periodontal pockets or removal of
dental mineralized deposits.
Drugs represented in the Russian dental market:
«Thermoline», «Amalgam Liner» (VOCO) «Silcot, «Contrasil» (Septodont),
«Dentinprotector» (Vivadent ), «Copalite»/«Boswort
Copaliner» (Boswort Company), «Evicrol Vamish» (Spofa Dental).

6. Materials for medical pads. Basic properties and stages of

treatment. Materials based on calcium hydroxide. ZECs. Combined
medicinal pastes.
Materials for medical pads:
Should have:
- anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, odontotropic effect;
- no irritation effect on the dental pulp;
- provide strong hermitization of the underlying dentin, bonding with the
tissue of the tooth, lining and permanent filling materials;
- match to the physical and mechanical properties of permanent filling
materials;

Their using is indicated in:

- treatment of the deep caries;
- treatment of the acute focal pulpitis with a biological method;
- treatment in case of accidental opening of the tooth cavity (so called
traumatic pulpitis);

Stages of treatment:
Treatment has two stages:
Stage 1 - stopping the inflammatory process in the pulp, affecting the
microflora, reducing pain.
Stage 2 - stimulation of the formation of replacement of dentin,
normalization of metabolic process in the dental pulp.

Materials based on calcium hydroxide:

Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 - is a base that is slightly soluble in water,
upon dissociation it forms a small amount of calcium and hydroxide ions.
It has a strongly alkaline reaction (pH – 12), which provides the main
biological and therapeutic effect of this substance.
Calcium hydroxide applied to the surface of the peripulpal dentin diffuses
through dentinal and penetrate into the pulp.
Characteristics Name
(Manufacturing company)
Aqueous suspension of calcium Calcicur (VOCO)
hydroxide Calcipulpe (Septodont)
Superlux Calciumhydroxid-Liner (DMG)
Кальрадент (ВладиМиВа)
Varnishes based on calcium Contrasil (Septodont)
hydroxide
Calcium salicylate chemically Calcimol (VOCO)
cured cements Dycal (Denstply)
Life (Kerr)
Septocalcine Ultra (Septodont)
Кальцесил (ВладиМиВа)
Light-curing polymeric materials Calcimol LC (VOCO)
containing calcium hydroxide Ultra-Blend (Ultradent)
Кальцесил LC (ВладиМиВа)

ZECs:
Zinc-Eugenol cement (ZEC)
Eugenol is an antiseptic substance of plant origin, it is 70 % clove oil.
When zinc oxide and eugenol are mixed, cement is formed, which hardens
within 10 – 12 hours.
Cement hardening is based on the chemical reaction of zinc eugenolate
formation.
ZECs are used in therapeutic dentistry for applying as medical pads and
temporary fillings.
Materials containing eugenol should not be used in combination with
composites, because eugenol disrupts the process of polymerization of the
organic matrix.
On the 1st visit – a healing seal of zinc-eugenol cement is applied to the
carious cavity
On the 2nd visit – the bulk of the ZEC is removed with dental bur and a
thin layer of cement is left only at the bottom of the cavity, then an insulating
pad and a permanent filling material are applied.

Combined medicinal pastes:

1. odontotropic agents - substances that stimulate the formation of
substitution dentine and remineralization processes in the zone of
demineralized “carious” dentin.
Calcium hydroxide, fluorides, calcium glycerophosphate, dentine or
bone fillings, hydroxyapatites (natural and artificial), collagen, etc.
2. anti-inflammatory drugs – glucocorticoids (prednisolone,
hydrocortisone), less often – non-steroidal inflammatory drugs
(salicylates, indomethacin, etc.)
3. antimicrobial agents – chlorhexidine, metronidazole, lysosome,
sodium hypochlorite, ethonia
4. proteolytic enzymes – profezim, imozimaza, stomatozyme,
especially in combination with other substances (chlorhexidine), are
quite effective in the treatment of deep caries and acute focal pulpitis.
5. other substances – hyaluronidase, EDTA, dimexil (DMSO), kaolin,
zinc oxide, novocaine, various oils (cloves, sea buckthorn, peach,
eucalyptus, oil solutions of vitamins, etc.)

7. Permanent filling materials. Classification. Dental cements. Basic

concepts (stages) of the filling process. Mineral cements.
Composition, properties. Polymer cements. Composition, properties.
Permanent filling materials, Classification:
Classification of restorative materials:
I. HARDENING:
1. Cements:
1.1. Mineral cements (based on phosphoric acid):
a. zinc phosphate;
b. silicate;
c. silicophosphate.
1.2. Polymer cements:
a. polycarboxylate;
b. glass ionomer.

2. Polymer filling materials:

2.1 Unfilled:
a. based on acrylic resins;
b. based on epoxy resins.
2.2 Filled (composite).

3. Compomers are composite-ionomer systems.

4. Metal filling materials:

4.1. Amalgams:
a) silver;
b) copper.
4.2. Gallium alloys.
4.3. Pure gold for direct filling.

II. PRIMARY SOLID

1. Inlays and onlays:
a) metal (cast);
b) porcelain;
c) plastic (including composite);
d) combined (metal + porcelain).
2. Veneers.
3. Retention devices:
a) parapulpal pins;
b) intrapulpal pins;
Dental cement: (from German Zement, lat. Caementum – broken stone)
is a filling material consisting of powder and liquid after mixing a
homogeneous, pasty, plastic mass is formed, and after curing as a result
of a chemical reaction between the components - a homogeneous stone-
like structure.

Basic concepts (stages) of the filling process:

Mixing time - the recommended (if a time interval is given, for example,
30-40 s) or the maximum allowable (if a time is specified, for example, 20
s) time during which the cement components are mixed until a
homogeneous pasty consistency is obtained.
Working time - the time during which the cement mass retains properties
that are optimal for insertion into the cavity and modeling.
Working time is counted from the beginning of cement mixing.
Curing time - the time during which the initial
curing of the cement mass occurs.
The curing time is calculated from the moment
the cement is mixed.
The maturation time of the cement mass is the time during which
chemical reactions are completed in the cement and its final chemical
structure is formed.

Mineral cements, composition, properties:

Mineral cements are one of the oldest filling materials.
The composition of the powders of all these cements includes oxides of
zinc, magnesium, calcium, silicon, aluminum in various proportions.
Liquids are mixtures of ortho-, para- and metaphosphoric acids with the
addition of zinc; magnesium, aluminum phosphates.
Zinc phosphate cements properties:
Insufficient mechanical strength and solubility in the oral fluid make it
practically unsuitable for use as a permanent filling material.
Silicate cements properties:
Advantages of silicate cements:
- Satisfactory aesthetic qualities.
- Anticarious action.
- The coefficient of thermal expansion of cement is approximately
equal to the coefficient of thermal expansion of tooth tissues.
- Ease of use.
- Low cost.
Disadvantages:
- High pulp toxicity! (an insulating pad is required!)
- Insufficient mechanical strength.
- Solubility in the oral fluid.
- Lack of adhesion to tooth tissues.
- Significant shrinkage during curing.

Silicophosphate cements properties:

Positive properties:
- Greater mechanical strength than silicate and phosphate cements.
- Less irritating effect on the pulp than that of silicate cements.
- Better adhesion to tooth tissues than silicate cements.
- Ease of use.
- Low cost.
Negative properties:
- Unsatisfactory aesthetic qualities.
- Insufficient strength.
- Insufficient stability in the oral environment.
- Toxicity to dental pulp! (used with an insulating pad!).
Polymer cements, composition, properties:
Polymer cements are a relatively new, rapidly developing and quite
promising class of restorative materials.
The composition: Unlike mineral cements, they contain polyacrylic or
polymaleic acid as a liquid, due to which they form a chemical bond with
the tissues of the tooth.
Polycarboxylate cements properties: similar in
physical and mechanical properties to zinc phosphate
cements, they differ in better adhesion to the tissues of the
tooth, less solubility, greater biological compatibility.
Glass ionomer cements (GICs):
 Aesthetic GICs properties:
aesthetic properties improved, the strength decreases, the curing
time increases, and the sensitivity to excess or lack of moisture in
the initial stages of the "maturation" of the cement mass increases.
 Reinforced GICs properties:
Mechanical strength increased, high radiopacity, shorter curing time
and reduced sensitivity to moisture.
 Condensable (packable) GICs properties:
High strength and wear resistance, as well as improved handling
properties.

8. Polymeric filling materials (plastics). Composition, properties.

Polymeric filling materials (plastics):

Polymeric materials are called materials, in the mechanism of curing of
which the polymerization process takes place - the reaction of connecting
a large number of small molecules (monomers) together into one large one
(polymer).

Composition:
Two main classes of polymeric filling materials (PFM): unfilled and filled
(composite)
Unfilled polymers were fast-hardening cold-cured plastics and were made
on the basis of acrylic or epoxy resins
 Powder:
1) Polymer particles - polymethyl methacrylate.
2) Pigments (zinc oxide, titanium dioxide).
3) Initiator - benzoyl peroxide.
Liquid:
1) Monomer - methyl ester of methacrylic acid.
2) Inhibitor (stabilizer) – hydroquinone

Properties:
Epoxy filling materials are two-paste (paste/paste) resin/hardener
systems.
- Resin is a low molecular weight compound (liquid) to which fillers are
added - porcelain chips, quartz.
- The hardener contains a catalyst to help solidify the epoxy resin.

Acrylic and epoxy filling materials have a number of negative properties:

a. Insufficient strength.
b. High polymerization shrinkage, leading to a violation of
c. the marginal fit of the seal.
d. Irritant effect on the pulp.
e. Destructive (tenfold) difference in the coefficients of thermal
expansion of plastics and hard tissues of the tooth.
f. High water absorption.

9. Composite filling materials. Composition. The main factors

affecting the properties. Polymerization of composites. Classification
of composite restorative materials. Composition, properties.

Composite filling materials , composition, the main factors affecting the

properties:
Filled (composite) polymeric filling materials (composite plastics)
They provided better aesthetic properties than amalgams, however, their
high wear rate, discoloration, and poor bonding with tooth tissues limited
their clinical
"Composite" is a spatial three-dimensional combination or combination
of at least two chemically different materials that have a clear interface,
and this combination has _ higher property values than either of the
components separately.
1. The presence of a polymer matrix, usually based on copolymers of
acrylic and epoxy resins.
2. The presence of more than 50% by weight of inorganic filler.
3. Processing of filler particles with special surfactants, due to which it
enters into a chemical bond with the polymer matrix.

Polymerization of composites :
Polymerization is the interaction of monomer molecules with the formation
of high-molecular polymer molecules, not accompanied by the release of
low-molecular by-products.
The polymerization of composite materials can be initiated in the following
ways:
1. Thermal reaction.
2. Chemical reaction.
3. Photochemical reaction.
Heat initiation is currently practically not used in therapeutic dentistry
due to the inconvenience and the availability of other, simpler techniques.
The exception is cases when teeth are restored with laboratory-made
inlays or veneers, which are additionally exposed to temperature to
increase the degree of polymerization of the composite, which helps to
increase its strength.
Chemically activated composites (composites of chemical curing, self-
curing/self-curing/composites) are two-component systems
(“paste/paste”’, “powder-liquid’’). One component contains a chemical
activator, the other a chemical polymerization initiator. When these
components are mixed, free radicals are formed that start the
polymerization reaction.
Light-cured (light-activated) composites are single-paste systems. The
mechanism of their polymerization is the same as that of chemically cured
materials, only the activation of polymerization is carried out not by a
chemical activator, but by photon (light) energy. In 1970, materials
activated by ultraviolet rays were introduced, and in 1977, by the visible
light of a halogen lamp.
Dual-curing composites are also available:
1. Light + chemical - they are mainly used for fixing anchor pins, non-
removable light-tight orthodontic and orthodontic structures.
2. Light + heat - these materials are used for the manufacture of
composite restorations in the laboratory, while heating is used to increase
the degree of polymerization of the composite.

Classification of composite restorative materials, composition, properties.

 Filler particle size :
1. Macro-filled (particle size 8 - 45 microns).
2. Microfilled (particle size 0.04 - 0.4 microns).
3. Composites with small particles (particle size 1-5 um).
4. Hybrid (from 0.04 to 5 microns).
5. Microhybrid (particle size from 0.04 to 1 um, average
particle size 0.5—0.6 um).
6. Nanofilled - nanocomposites (true nanocomposites and
7. nanohybrid composites).

 Curing method :
1. Chemical curing.
2. Heat curing.
3. Light curing.
4. Dual Curing: Light + Chemical / Light + Thermal
 Consistency :
1. "Traditional" composites of normal consistency.
2. Flowable (liquid) composites.
3. Condensable composites.
 Purpose :
1. For filling chewing teeth.
2. For filling frontal teeth.
3. Universal composites.
10. Flowable and condensable composites. Composition, properties.

Flowable composite, composition, properties:

Flowable (liquid): have a modified polymer matrix based on highly
volatile resins
Composition: Most liquid composites use a microhybrid filler.
In recent years, flowable composites based on nanofillers have appeared
on the dental market: true nanocomposite + nanohybrid flowable
composite.
Properties:
- The polymer resin has a lower mechanical strength than the resin
of microhybrid composite materials.
- Highly elastic; have a low modulus of elasticity, sometimes called
“low-modulus composites”.
- High fluidity
- Thixotropy - the ability of a material to maintain its original shape and
not run off vertical and inclined surfaces.
- High radiopacity - allows to control the state of the filling and
adjacent tooth tissues in dynamics.
- Inferior in mechanical strength to microhybrid and nanofilled
composite materials.
- The size of filler particles in flowable composites is increased
(the average particle size 1s about 3 um).

Condensable composite, composition, properties:

Condensable (packable) compostion: are materials made on the basis
of a modified " dense " polymer matrix and hybrid fillers with a particle
size of up to 3.5 µm

Properties:
- Increased mechanical strength
- High abrasion resistance.
- Dense consistency
The material does not flow, does not stick to the instruments, the
surface of the filling can be modeled before the photopolymerization
of the material.
- Improved manipulation properties, ease of operation
 Filling with a condensable composite takes about 30% less time
than a "traditional" microhybrid composite.
- Insufficient aesthetics
Main advantage is the ability to apply a filling on a chewing tooth with
minimal labor costs, which is not inferior in strength to amalgam, but in
aesthetics is close to the composite.

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A3