Act =

do
Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal. Cwith high persistency )
The level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times.
The three key elements of motivation are:

努⼒
① Intensity: concerned with how hard a person tries. C Jetfort
② Direction: the orientation that benefits the organization.
③ Persistence: a measure of how long a person can maintain his/her effort.

performance =
ability t motivation

opportunity

成就

⾃爱 (价值 )

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needs
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身体需求
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Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the most well-known theory of motivation. Maslow hypothesized that within every
human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs,
beginning with physiological needs that include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
The second level is safety needs that include security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
The next level is social needs that include affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
Reaching a higher level, we find esteem needs that include internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement, and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
At the top of the hierarchy is self-actualization needs; this is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, and
includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment.

Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need
becomes dominant. No need is ever fully gratified; a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates.
 Neuttal
not

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①

②
③

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relatedto dissatistacion Intrinsic relatedto satisfaction
Extrinsic

According to Herzberg, the factors that lead to job

satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to
job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to
eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may
bring about peace, but not necessarily motivation. They will
be placating rather than motivating their workers. As a
result, Herzberg characterized conditions such as quality of
supervision, pay, company policies, physical working
conditions, relationships with others, and job security as
hygiene factors. When they’re adequate, people will not be
dissatisfied; neither will they be satisfied. If we want to
motivate people on their jobs, Herzberg suggested
emphasizing factors associated with the work itself or with
outcomes directly derived from it, such as promotional
opportunities, personal growth opportunities, recognition,
responsibility, and achievement. These are the
characteristics people find intrinsically rewarding
① montly
Job satisfaction Job performance
⼀

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Perk 特权 benefit
 MACht Λ POW + OAff =
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Another traditional theory is McClelland’s Theory of Needs. This theory focuses on

three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. Let’s look at each one in more detail.

The first of this theory’s variables is achievement need, abbreviated as nAch, which is
the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, and to strive to
succeed. High achievers perform best when they perceive their probability of success
as 50/50. They like to set goals that require stretching themselves a little.

Need for power, the second variable, is the need to make others behave in a way that
they would not have behaved otherwise. The need for power, abbreviated as nPow, is
the desire to have impact, to be influential, and to control others. Individuals high in
nPow enjoy being “in charge.” They strive for influence over others. They prefer to be
placed into competitive and status-oriented situations. They also tend to be more
concerned with prestige and gaining influence over others than with effective
performance.

Finally, the need for affiliation, abbreviated as nAfl, is the desire for friendly and close
personal relationships. This need has received the least attention from researchers.
In general, individuals with high affiliation strive for friendship and prefer cooperative
situations over competitive ones. They typically desire relationships involving a high
degree of mutual understanding.
 义定个⽬标 Ccan be random )

Cattainable )

Edwin Locke’s goal-setting theory proposed that intentions

to work toward a goal are a major source of work
motivation. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done
and how much effort is needed. Evidence strongly suggests
that specific goals increase performance, and that difficult
goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do
easy goals. Also, people will do better when they get
feedback on how well they are progressing toward their
goals. Self-generated feedback is more powerful a motivator
than externally generated feedback.

Let’s look at reinforcement theory. While goal setting is a cognitive approach

proposing that an individual’s purposes direct his or her action, reinforcement theory,
by contrast, takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement conditions
behavior. The two theories are clearly at odds, philosophically. Reinforcement
theorists see behavior as environmentally caused, ignoring the inner state of the
individual and concentrating solely on what happens when he or she takes some
action. Because it does not concern itself with what initiates behavior, it is not,
strictly speaking, a theory of motivation. But it does provide a powerful means of
analyzing what controls behavior, and this is why we typically consider it in
discussions of motivation.

Operant conditioning theory argues that people learn to behave to get something they
want or to avoid something they don’t want. Unlike reflexive反射性的 or unlearned
behavior, operant behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of
reinforcement brought about by its consequences. Reinforcement strengthens a
behavior and increases the likelihood it will be repeated. B. F. Skinner, one of the
most prominent著名 advocates倡导者 of operant conditioning, argued that creating
pleasing consequences to follow specific forms of behavior would increase the
frequency of that behavior – a theory known as behaviorism. He demonstrated that
people will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced
for doing so, that rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired
response, and that behavior that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be
repeated. －
0
output
-

I -

Input

量 Iequity
( fairness )

过度奖励

Equity theory argues that individuals make comparisons of their job inputs and
outcomes relative to those of others and then respond to any inequities. If we
perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom we compare
ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist. We perceive our situation as fair. When we
see the ratio as unequal, we experience equity tension.

Self–inside. An employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s

current organization.
Self–outside. An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside the
employee’s current organization.
Other–inside. Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s
organization.
Other–outside. Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s
organization.

Employees might compare themselves to friends, neighbors, co-workers, or

colleagues in other organizations or compare their present job with past jobs. Which
referent an employee chooses will be influenced by the information the employee
holds about referents as well as by the attractiveness of the referent. Four moderating
variables are gender, length of tenure, level in the organization, and amount of
education or professionalism.
sometime is poison
Opportenity

Expectancy theory argues that the strength of our tendency to act a certain way
depends on the strength of our expectation of a given outcome and its attractiveness.
In more practical terms, employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort
when they believe it will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good appraisal
will lead to organizational rewards such as bonuses, salary increases, or promotions;
and that the rewards will satisfy the employees’ personal goals. The theory, therefore,
focuses on three relationships:

Effort–performance relationship. The probability perceived by the individual that

exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.
Performance–reward relationship. The degree to which the individual believes
performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
Rewards–personal goals relationship. The degree to which organizational rewards
satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those
potential rewards for the individual

Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers aren’t motivated and do only
the minimum.
Three questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if their motivation is to
be maximized:
If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?
If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards?
If I’m rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?
 XFeedback
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The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) as shown here in Exhibit 8-1, proposes that any
job may be described by five core job dimensions:
Skill variety is the degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities, so
the worker can use a number of different skills and talent.
Task identity is the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work.
Task significance is the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives
or work of other people.
Autonomy is the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and
determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
Feedback is the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job
results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness
of his or her performance.

The first three dimensions—skill variety, task identity, and task significance—
combine to create meaningful work the incumbent will view as important, valuable,
and worthwhile. From a motivational standpoint, the JCM proposes that individuals
obtain internal rewards when they learn (knowledge of results) that they personally
(experienced responsibility) have performed well on a task they care about
(experienced meaningfulness). Individuals with a high growth need are more likely to
experience the critical psychological states when their jobs are enriched—and
respond to them more positively—than are their counterparts with low growth need.

To be high on motivating potential, jobs must be high on at least one of the three
factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness and high on both au- tonomy and
feedback. If jobs score high on motivating potential, the model predicts motivation,
performance, and satisfaction will improve and absence and turnover will be reduced.

People generally seek out jobs that are challenging and stimulating, but repetitive
jobs provide little variety, autonomy, or motivation. One way to make repetitive jobs
more interesting is job rotation, which is also known as cross-training. It involves
periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another. When an activity is no
longer challenging, the employee is shifted to a different task.
The strengths of job rotation are that it reduces boredom, increases motivation, and
helps employees better understand their work contributions. Indirect benefits include
employees with wider ranges of skills that give management more flexibility in
scheduling, adapting to changes, and filling vacancies. Some weaknesses of job
rotation include disruptions, a need for extra time for supervisors addressing
questions and training time, and reduced efficiencies.

Job enrichment expands jobs by increasing the degree to which the worker controls
the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work. An enriched job organizes tasks
to allow the worker to do a complete activity, in- creases the employee’s freedom and
independence, increases responsibility, and provides feedback so individuals can
assess and correct their own performance.

Some newer versions of job enrichment concentrate specifically on improving the

meaningfulness of work. One method is to relate employee experiences to customer
outcomes, by providing employees with stories from customers who benefited from
the company’s products or services. The medical device manufacturer
Another method for improving the meaningfulness of work is providing employees
with mutual assistance programs. Employees who can help each other directly
through their work come to see themselves, and the organizations for which they
work, in more positive, pro-social terms. This, in turn, can increase employee
affective commitment.
Many organizations provide job enrichment through cross-training to learn new skills,
and through job rotation to perform new tasks in another position.

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