Circulatory system

Before anything, we should differentiate between the movement systems and the
transport systems.
 So, as we studied, the movement systems are the systems that are responsible in
changing the position of a part of the whole body which are the skeletal and
muscular systems.
 On the other side, the transport systems are the systems that are responsible in the
movement of materials inside the body. It is represented by the materials carried on
fluid such as the circulatory system.
Are all living organisms need to transport process?
We need to transport:
 Nutrients like digested food, minerals, vitamins, and water. It is transported form
the small intestine specifically from the dodenum. The transportation from the blood
cappilaries at the small intestine to the blood cappilaries of hepatic cells is called
adsorption. The transportation is distributing on all the blood of the body.
 Oxygen from lungs to all body cells.
 Carbon dioxide from all body cells as a byproduct from the cellular respiration to
the lungs.
 Metabloc wastes from body cells to excretory organs such as kidneys, lungs and
skin.
Are all living organisms have a specialized transport system?
 For lower animals: such as unicellular organisms as amoeba, they don’t need to a
specialized transport system as they transport the nutrients and oxygen by
endocytosis and get rid of carbon dioxide by diffusion.
But, when the amoeba size increases, the energy required for diffusion of nutrients is
more than the energy required for binary fission, so it divides into two cells by
binary fission and produce asexually.
 In human, we have two specialized systems for transport which are the circulatory
system and lymphatic system.
Diffusion time is proportional to the square of the distance. Diffusion is only efficient
over small distances and not enough for long distances. Small and/or thin animals,
cells can exchange materials directly with the surrounding medium. In most animals,
cells exchange materials with the environment via a fluid-filled circulatory system.
General Properties of Circulatory Systems:
A circulatory system has three basic components:
1) A circulatory fluid. In insects, it is called hemilymph, while in humans it is
represented in blood in the circulatory system and the lymph in the lymphatic
system.
2) A set of interconnecting vessels which are artries, veins, and blood capillaries.
3) A muscular pump, the heart. The heart powers circulation by using metabolic
energy to elevate the hydrostatic pressure of the circulatory fluid, which then flows
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 through the vessels and back to the heart. By transporting fluid throughout the
body, the circulatory system functionally connects the aqueous environment of the
body cells to the organs that exchange gases, absorb nutrients, and dispose of
wastes.
In mammals, for example, O2 from inhaled air diffuses across only two layers of cells in
the lungs before reaching the blood. The circulatory system, powered by the heart, then
carries the oxygen-rich blood to all parts of the body. As the blood streams throughout
the body tissues in tiny blood vessels, O2 in the blood diffuses only a short distance
before entering the fluid that directly bathes the cells
There are two types of circulatory systems, open and closed.
 Open circulatory system: the circulatory system of insects
and it doesn’t contain any blood vessels. The heart relaxes,
so the hemilymph pumped randomly, and then it contracts,
so it returns to the heart again randomly.
 Closed circulatory system: the circulatory system of
mammals and humans. It contains blood capillaries,
arteries and veins to the blood to flow through them.
It can be single closed like fish, and it can be double closed
system like in humans.
Arteries branch into arterioles and carry blood away from the
heart to capillaries. Networks of capillaries called capillary
beds are the sites of chemical exchange between the blood and
interstitial fluid. Venules converge into veins and return blood
from capillaries to the heart. Arteries and veins are
distinguished by the direction of blood flow, not by O2 content.
The hearts of all vertebrates contain two or more muscular
chambers. The chambers that receive blood entering the heart called atria (singular,
atrium). The chambers responsible for pumping blood out of the heart called ventricles.
Blood enters through an atrium and is pumped out through a ventricle. Arteries carry
blood from the heart toward capillaries, and veins return blood to the heart from
capillaries. The only exceptions are the portal veins, which carry blood between pairs of
capillary beds.
The hepatic portal vein, for example, carries blood from capillary beds in the digestive
system to capillary beds in the liver. From the liver, blood passes into the hepatic veins,
which conduct blood toward the heart.
The Mammalian Heart:
The mammalian heart located at the middle of the chest cavity pointed to left behind
the sternum (breastbone). The human heart is a hollow organ about the size of a
clenched fist and consists mostly of striated (actin & myosin) fiber uninoculated
branched involuntary cardiac muscle that has intercalated disks (rely the impulses

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from muscle fiber to adjacent muscle fiber), and it is spontaneous that generate action
potential by itself.
There is a membrane surrounding the heart called pericardium membrane and
surround the heart inside it with a fluid. It has two functions:
 Protect the heart
 Facilitate the action of the heart preventing the pressure of the lungs on the heart, so
the fluid eases the movement of the heart up and down with relaxation and
contraction.
When dividing the heart into:
 Two longitudinal section, we found:
It is composed from left and right sides separated from each other by a thick membrane
called septum. The left side of heart has oxygenated blood (rich in O2) while the right
side has deoxygenated blood (poor in O2). The septum prevents the mixing between
the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the two sides.
If there is a problem in the growth of septum, holes in the membrane become existed
leading to the mixing between the deoxygenated and oxygenated blood and the by the
way, the decrease of the oxygen in the blood that goes to the body organs. This leads to
decrease the metabolic rate in the body, decreasing the activities for the infected baby.
And it is divided into two parts, intervetrical spetum down at the ventricles, and
interatrial septum up at the atria.
 Transverse section, we found:
It is composed from 4 chambers, right and left atria, and right and left ventricles.
The two atria have relatively thin walls and serve as collection chambers for blood
returning to the heart from the lungs or other body tissues.
Much of the blood that enters the atria flows into the ventricles while all heart
chambers are relaxed. The remainder is transferred by contraction of the atria before the
ventricles begin to contract.
The ventricles have thicker walls and contract much more forcefully than the atria
especially the left ventricle, which pumps blood to all body organs through the systemic
circuit. Although the left ventricle contracts with greater force than the right ventricle, it
pumps the same volume of blood as the right ventricle during each contraction but it is
thicker than right ventricle. The difference in the thickness between them is because the
right ventricle pumps the blood into the lungs (shorter), while the left ventricle pumps
the blood into the whole body organs (longer).
The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle. When it contracts, it pumps blood;
when it relaxes, its chambers fill with blood.
Heart structure:
The parts of your heart are like a home:
 Walls.
 Chambers (rooms).
 Valves (doors).
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 Blood vessels (plumbing).
 Electrical conduction system (electricity).
Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. Veins push blood back
to your heart. The heart is like any other body cell, receive its nutrients with special
artries and veins called coronary artries and coronary veins which intersect at the
great cardiac vein. After nourishing the cardiac muscle with the nurtients, the
deoxygenated blood returns to the right artium thorugh cardiac vein which is gathered in
foussa ovalis and opening of coronary sinuses.
First the veins in the heart:
Veins receive the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart
1- Superior vena cava in right atria (receive deoxygenated
blood from the upper part of the body) (anterior).
2- Inferior vena cava in right atria (receive deoxygenated
blood from the lower part of the body) (posterior).
3- 4 pulmonary veins each two from the same lungs there
are found in left atria (receive oxygenated blood from the
lungs).
Second the arteries in the heart:
arteries receive the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from the heart to body.
1- Pulmonary trunk have artery from the right ventricle to
the lungs (it contains two parts to each lung).
2- Aorta from left ventricle to all parts of the body.
 (it is divided to upper part and lower part to upper and
lower parts of the body), the upper part divided into:
1- Brachiocephalic trunk, which branches into the right
subclavian artery (supplies the right arm)
2- Left subclavian artery supplies your left arm and the back of your brain.
3- Left common Cortaid artery supplies your brain and the left side of the head and neck.
 The lower part supplies liver, kidneys, gonads, and legs.
 Also, it is attached to the pulmonary artery by the aortic arch here, which is a
ligament, it is an exception because this muscle must fix and also there are tendons in
the valves

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 Note there are blood vessel to get the nutrients so the cardiac muscle does not obtain the
heart needs from nutrients. There are two primary coronary arteries, the right coronary
artery (RCA) and the left main coronary artery (LMCA). Both of these originate from
the root of the aorta. The RCA emerges from the anterior ascending aorta and supplies
blood primarily to the right atrium, right ventricle.

Heart Wall:
 The heart wall is composed of three layers of tissue: the epicardium, the
myocardium, and the endocardium.
 The epicardium, also called the visceral pericardium, is a thin, serous
membrane forming the smooth outer surface of the heart. It consists of simple
squamous epithelium overlying a layer of loose connective tissue and adipose
tissue.
 The thick, middle layer of the heart, the myocardium,
is composed of
cardiac muscle cells and is responsible for
contraction of the heart chambers.
 The smooth inner surface of the heart chambers is the
endocardium, which consists of simple squamous
epithelium over a layer of connective tissue. The

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 endocardium allows blood to move easily through the heart.
 The heart valves are formed by folds of endocardium that include a thick layer of
connective tissue. The surfaces of the interior walls of the ventricles are modifie d
by ridges and columns of cardiac muscle called trabeculae carneae. Smaller
muscular ridges are also present in portions of the atria.

Valves:

 Your heart valves are like doors between your heart chambers. They open and close
to allow blood to flow through. It is made from connective tissues. Its to prevent
from the back flow of the blood it makes the movement of the blood in one
direction.
 It is not found in the heart only it also found in (veins, blood chapelries and lymph)
 Four valves in the heart prevent backflow and keep blood moving in the correct
direction. Made of flaps of connective tissue, the valves open when pushed from one
side and close when pushed from the other. The valves divide into two types:
1- The atrioventricular (AV) valves open between your upper and lower heart chambers
so the two atria contract while to ventricle relax. They include:
Tricuspid valve: Door between your right atrium and right ventricle made from 3 flaps.
Mitral valve: Door between your left atrium and left ventricle also called bicuspid
valve made from two flaps only.
2- Semilunar (SL) valves open when blood flows out of your ventricles so the ventricles
contract. They include:
Aortic valve: Opens when blood flows out of your left ventricle to your aorta (artery
that carries oxygen-rich blood to your body).

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Pulmonary valve: Opens when blood flows from your right ventricle to
your pulmonary (the only arteries that carry oxygen-poor blood to your lungs).
Note:
 Tendon bind the flaps with the ventricle wall to prevent the flaps from turning
inside out which are binded with papillary muscles (muscles located between the
ventricles of the heart). It is connected with a tendon on the heart wall.
You can follow the closing of the two sets of heart valves either with a stethoscope or by
pressing your ear tightly against the chest of a friend (or a friendly dog). The sound
pattern is ―lub-dup, lub-dup, lub-dup.‖ this sound happens by the contraction and the
relaxation of the heart. In the heart there are another name to contraction and relaxation:
Systole: The contraction phase of the cycle.
Diastole: the relaxation phase of the cycle.

Systole diastole
Rough sharp

Heart murmurs:
Heart murmurs are sounds such as whooshing or swishing made by rapid, choppy
(turbulent) blood flow through the heart. The sounds can be heard with a device called a
stethoscope. A typical heartbeat makes two sounds like "lubb-dupp" (sometimes
described as "lub-DUP") when the heart valves are closing.
If blood squirts backward through a defective valve, it may produce an abnormal sound
called a heart murmur.
Some people are born with heart murmurs; in others, the valves may be damaged by
infection (from rheumatic fever, for instance). When a valve defect
is severe enough to endanger health, surgeons may implant a
mechanical replacement valve. However, not all heart murmurs are
caused by a defect, and most valve defects do not reduce the
efficiency of blood flow enough to warrant surgery.
Note: the shape of the valve can detect the direction of blood flow
such as the mitral valve the ball pushed down the atria contract
make the blood flow downward and if the ventricle contract it will
bush the ball upward and clos the valve.

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Cardiac cycle (One complete sequence of pumping and filling.):
The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle. When it contracts, it pumps blood;
when it relaxes, its chambers fill with blood.
1- Atrial and ventricular diastole. During a relaxation
phase, blood returning from the large veins flows into
the atria and then into the ventricles through the AV
valves the valves are filled with about 70% of its total
area.
2- Atrial systole and ventricular diastole. A brief period of
atrial contraction then forces all blood remaining (30%)
in the atria into the ventricles.
3- Ventricular systole and atrial diastole. During the
remainder of the cycle, ventricular contraction pumps
blood into the large arteries through the semilunar
valves.
Notes:
 For an adult human at rest with a heart rate of about 72 beats per minute, one
complete cardiac cycle takes about 0.8 second.
 that during all but 0.1 second of the cardiac cycle, the atria are relaxed and are filling
with blood returning via the veins.
We have the time of the cycle and the volume of the blood that the cardiac can push in
one cycle so we can calculate the cardiac output
cardiac output: The volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute.
Two factors determine cardiac output:
1- The rate of contraction, or heart rate (number of beats per minute).
2- The stroke volume, the amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single
contraction.
The average stroke volume in humans is about 70 mL. Multiplying this stroke volume
by a resting heart rate of 72 beats per minute yields a cardiac output of 5 L/min—about
equal to the total volume of blood in the human body. During heavy exercise, cardiac
output increases as much as fivefold.
Cardiac output = stroke volume * heart rate
Blood circulation:
The timely delivery of O2 to the body’s organs is critical. Some brain cells, for example,
die if their O2 supply is interrupted for as little as a few minutes. So, we have two types
of blood circulation:
 single circulation: which is the passing the blood a single time by
coming out from the heart passing through the whole body and
returning the heart again. It happens in fishes and amphibians as
the heart has only two chambers.

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 double circulation: which is the passing of blood in two
circulations, by coming out from the heart ventricles passing
through the whole body and the pulmonary veins before returning
the heart autria again. It happens in mammals as the heart has four
chambers with complex whole body.
Mammalian circulation:
Let’s first examine the overall organization of the mammalian
cardiovascular system, beginning with the pulmonary circuit.
1) Contraction of the right ventricle pumps blood to
the lungs via the
2) pulmonary arteries. As the blood flows through
3) capillary beds in the left and right lungs, it loads O2
and unloads CO2. Oxygen-rich blood returns from
the lungs via the pulmonary veins to the
4) left atrium of the heart. Next, the oxygen-rich blood
flows into
5) the heart’s left ventricle, which pumps the oxygen-
rich blood out to body tissues through the
systemic circuit. Blood leaves the left ventricle via
6) the aorta, which conveys blood to arteries leading
throughout the body. The first branches leading from
the aorta are the coronary arteries, which supply
blood to the heart muscle itself. Then branches lead to
7) capillary beds in the head and arms (forelimbs). The aorta then descends into the
abdomen, supplying oxygen-rich blood to arteries leading to
8) capillary beds in the abdominal organs and legs (hind limbs). Within the capillaries,
there is a net diffusion of O2 from the blood to the tissues and of CO2 (produced by
cellular respiration) into the blood. Capillaries rejoin, forming venules, which
convey blood to veins. Oxygen-poor blood from the head, neck, and forelimbs is
channeled into a large vein,
9) the superior vena cava. Another large vein,
10) the inferior vena cava, drains blood from the trunk and hind limbs. The two venae
cavae empty their blood into
11) the right atrium, from which the oxygen-poor blood flows into the right ventricle.

Note: the single red blood cell in any place (except villi), the left finger thumb for
example pass through 2 vessels in its circulation.

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There are 3 pathways for blood during its circulation:
1- Pulmonary Circulation:
It starts from the right ventricle and ends at the left
atrium.
 When the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve
closes the opening of the right atrium. The
deoxygenated blood will therefore rush through the
pulmonary artery through the three-flapped semilunar
valve. This valve prevents the backflow of blood to the
ventricle (when it relaxes).
 The pulmonary artery gives rise to two branches,
each branch goes to a lung, where it branches to form
several arterioles which terminate in blood capillaries.
 Blood capillaries spread around the alveoli, where exchange of gases takes place.
Carbon dioxide and water vapor will diffuse from the blood and Oxygen will move
towards it, so that blood becomes oxygenated. Oxygenated blood returns from the
lungs through the 4 pulmonary veins (two veins from each lung) to open into the
left atrium. When the left atrium contracts, blood passes to the left ventricle
through the bicuspid valve.
2- Systematic Circulation:
It starts from the left ventricle and ends at the right atrium.
 When the left ventricle contracts after being filled with oxygenated blood, the
mitral valve closes.
 The Aorta gives rise to several arteries, some of which move upwards while others
go downwards.
 Arteries then branch to form smaller and smaller arterioles which end by blood
capillaries.
 These capillaries spread through the tissues in between the cells transporting
Oxygen, water, and dissolved food substances to them.
 On the other hand, products of catabolism such as Carbon dioxide resulting from
oxidation of sugar and fat diffuse through the walls of blood capillaries and
reach the blood which changes in color from light red to dark red, and is now
called deoxygenated blood.
 Blood capillaries collect to give rise to larger and larger venules and finally veins,
which pour the deoxygenated blood into the superior and the inferior vena cava
which carry blood to the right atrium.
 When it is filled with blood, the walls of the right atrium contracts and so blood is
forced to the right ventricle which become filled with deoxygenated blood.
 It worth noting that contraction of the right side of the heart occurs at the same
time of contraction of the left side. Therefore, pumping of the deoxygenated blood

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 from the right ventricle, and pumping of the oxygenated blood from the left
ventricle, both take place at the same time.
3- Hepatic Portal Circulation:
 After being absorbed by the villi of the small intestines, both glucose and amino
acids are transported to the blood capillaries inside these villi.
 These blood capillaries aggregate into small venules, then large venules and
finally they pour the contents into the hepatic portal vein. This also receives
veins from the pancreas, the spleen, and the stomach.
 When it first enters the liver, the hepatic portal vein branches into venules which
end with minute blood capillaries. Excess food substances which exceed
the body needs, filter through the capillary walls cells and passes to the liver where
they undergo certain changes.
 Finally, blood capillaries unite into the hepatic vein, which leaves the liver to
pour its contents into the upper part of the inferior vena cava just before it
enters the right atrium.
Note: the single red blood cell that enter the villi pas through 3 vessels in its
circulation.
Conducting system of the heart:
Cardiac muscle cells have an intrinsic ability to generate
and conduct electrical impulses that stimulate these same
cells to contract rhythmically. These properties are
intrinsic to the heart muscle itself and do not depend on
extrinsic nerve impulses. Even if all nerve connections to
the heart are severed, the heart continues to beat
rhythmically.
The conducting system of the heart is a series of
specialized cardiac muscle cells that carries impulses
throughout the heart musculature, signaling the heart
hambers to contract in the proper sequence. It also initiates each contraction sequence,
thereby setting basic heart rate.
The impulse that signals each heartbeat begins at the sinoatrial (SA) node, a crescent-
shaped mass of specialized cardiac muscle cells that lies in the wall of the right atrium,
just inferior to the entrance of the superior vena cava. The SA node sets the basic heart
rate by generating 70–80 electrical impulses per minute. It is the heart’s pacemaker.
The signal initiated by the SA node spreads throughout the myocardium through the
gap junctions in the intercalated discs.
Conduction mechanism:
1) From the SA node, impulses spread in a wave along the cardiac muscle fibers of the
atria by the electric synapses, signaling the atria to contract.

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2) Some of these impulses travel along an internodal pathway to the atrioventricular
(AV) node in the inferior part of the interatrial septum, where they are delayed for a
fraction of a second (0.1 second).
3) The atrioventricular (AV) node connects the atria to the ventricles.
4) After this delay, the impulses race through the atrioventricular bundle (formerly,
bundle of His), which enters the interventricular septum and divides into right and
left bundle branches, or crura (―legs‖).
5) About halfway down the septum, the crura become subendocardial branches,
commonly called Purkinje fibers, which approach the apex of the heart and then
turn superiorly into the ventricular walls. This arrangement ensures that the
contraction of the ventricles begins at the apex of the heart and travels superiorly, so
that ventricular blood is ejected superiorly into the great arteries. The brief delay of
the contraction-signaling impulses at the AV node enables the ventricles to fill
completely before they start to contract. Because the fibrous skeleton between the
atria and ventricles is nonconducting, it prevents impulses in the atrial wall from
proceeding directly to the ventricular wall. As a result, only those signals that go
through the AV node can continue on.
Examination of the microscopic anatomy of the heart’s conducting system reveals that
the cells of the nodes and AV bundle are small, but otherwise typical, cardiac muscle
cells.
Each Purkinje fiber, by contrast, is a long row of special, large-diameter, barrel-shaped
cells called Purkinje myocytes. These muscle cells contain relatively few myofilaments
because they are adapted more for conduction than for contraction. Their large diameter
maximizes the speed of impulse conduction. Purkinje fibers are located in the deepest
part of the ventricular endocardium, between the endocardium and myocardium layers.
Innervation:
Although the heart’s inherent rate of contraction is set by
the SA node, this rate can be altered by extrinsic neural
controls. parasympathetic vagus fibers that slow heart
rate, and sympathetic cardiac fibers that increase the
rate and force of heart contractions.
But how?
When you stand up and start walking, the sympathetic
division increases your heart rate, an adaptation that
enables your circulatory system to provide the additional O2 needed by increasing the
breath rate and activate the muscles that are powering your activity.
 If you then sit down and relax, the parasympathetic division decreases your heart
rate, an adaptation that conserves energy.

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  Hormones secreted into the blood also influence the pacemaker. For instance,
epinephrine, the ―fight-or-flight‖ hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, causes the
heart rate to increase.
 A third type of input that affects the pacemaker is body temperature. An increase of
only 1°C raises the heart rate by about 10 beats per minute. This is the reason your
heart beats faster when you have a fever.
Affectors on the heartbeats:
1- Epinpherin and norephinpherin which increase the rate of heart beats and rate of
breathing with parasympathetic control.
2- Acyetlcholine and Nicotin which work as inhibtors for the the metabotropic
chemical channels.
3- The body termperature which increase the heart beats as a response of the immune
system.
The control of heart rhythm:
The SA node generates electrical impulses much like those produced by nerve cells.
Because cardiac muscle cells are electrically coupled through gap junctions, impulses
from the SA node spread rapidly within heart tissue.
 In addition, these impulses generate currents that are conducted to the skin via body
fluids. In an electrocardiogram (ECG), these currents are recorded by electrodes
placed on the skin.
 The resulting graph of current against time has a characteristic shape that represents
the stages in the cardiac cycle.
1- The autira is colored yellow because of
their contraction from the SA node.
2- Signals are delayed at AV node for 0.1
second, so it is colored yellow
3- The impulses race through the
atrioventricular bundle (formerly, bundle
of His), which enters the interventricular
septum and divides into right and left
bundle branches, so they are colored
yellow.
4- The portion of the ECG to the right of the ―spike‖ represents electrical activity
that reprimes the ventricles for the next round
of contraction.
Impulses from the SA node first spread rapidly
through the walls of the atria, causing both atria to
contract in unison. During atrial contraction, the
impulses originating at the SA node reach other
autorhythmic cells located in the wall between the
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left and right atria. These cells form a relay point
called the atrioventricular (AV) node.Here the
impulses are delayed for about 0.1 second before
spreading to the heart apex. This delay allows
the atria to empty completely before the
ventricles contract. Then the signals from the
AV node are conducted to the heart apex and
throughout the ventricular walls by specialized
muscle fibers called bundle branches and Purkinje fibers.
Blood Vessel Structure and Function:
Blood vessels contain a central lumen (cavity) lined with an endothelium, a single layer
of flattened epithelial cells have pores between them. The smooth surface of the
endothelium minimizes resistance to the flow of blood. Surrounding the endothelium
are layers of tissue that differ in capillaries, arteries, and veins, reflecting the
specialized functions of these vessels.
Blood capillaries are the smallest blood vessels, having a diameter only slightly greater
than that of a red blood cell. Capillaries also have very thin walls, which consist of just
the endothelium and its basal lamina. Blood cappilaries function is to exchange
materials from nutrients, gases, and wastes which requires to have thin walls, narrow
(permit the passage of one red blood cell a part, one after one) and large surface area to
exchange easily. The exchange is done by the intercellular fluid that exchange the
materials between blood cells and the outer cells.
Arteries:
Arteries are wide vessels that carry oxygenated (rich in O2) blood from the heart to other
organs of the body and they are most buried in the skin. The wall of an artery is built
up of three layers of tissues:
 The outer layer: A coat of connective tissue (bind the vessels wheather it is
capillaries, artries, or veins to the basal lamina of surrounded cells) and elastic
fibers, which allow the vessel to stretch and recoil before or after dilation.
 The middle layer: Is relatively thick and consists of involuntary smooth muscles
and more elastic fibers than the outer layer which contract and relax under the
control of nerve fibers. In fixed volume of blood, the contraction of the muscles
called vasoconstriction in which the artries area decreases, so the pressure increases.
While the relaxation of the muscles called vasodilation in which the artries area
increases, so the pressure of blood decreases.
 The inner layer: The endothelium (which is a smooth muscle to prevent the break
down of platlets to slide easily to prevent blood clotting), which consists of one row
of tiny epithelial cells followed by elastic fibers that give the elasticity of the artery.
It has secreting cells that produce nitric oxide or endothelin.

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Arteries are usually buried among the body muscles. They carry oxygenated blood
except the pulmonary artery which comes out of the right ventricle to the lungs (that
carries deoxygenated blood. They are thicker than the veins as the blood pressure in
them is higher than that in veins. The artery is pulsate because the force of contraction
and relaxation of the smooth muscles is more powerful than that in veins. The artery
doesn’t have vavles in its lumen.
Veins:
Veins are the vessels that carry deoxygenated (poor in O2) blood (except pulmonary
vein) to the heart and they are most on the surface of the skin. Walls of veins are
composed of the same three layers of that of arteries with the following modifications:
 There are less elastic fibers.
 The middle layer is less thick.
The diameter of the veins is more than the diameter of the artery, so the blood volume
passing thorugh the vein is naturally more than the artery. Accordingly, the wall of the
vein is thinner than that of the artery, and it doesn’t pulsate. Veins carry deoxygenated
blood except the pulmonary veins that open in the left atrium (that carries oxygenated
blood). A number of veins possess a system of internal valves along their length to
prevent the backflow of blood, and allowing it to pass only in the direction of the heart.
The vein has valves in its lumen.
Note: the valves in the circulatory system are existed in heart, veins and lymph
vessels only.
Signals from the nervous system and hormones circulating in the blood act on the
smooth muscle in arteries and arterioles, dilating or constricting these vessels and thus
controlling blood flow to different parts of the body.
Because veins convey blood back to the heart at a lower pressure, they do not require
thick walls. For a given blood vessel diameter, a vein has a wall only about a third as
thick as that of an artery.
Valves inside the veins maintain a unidirectional flow of blood despite the low blood
pressure.
Differences between artries and veins:
1. Direction of the blood, the organ is supplied by the artery (efferent) and the vein take
the blood from it again (efferent)
2. Artries carry oxygenated blood, while veins carry deoxygenated blood, with TWO
EXCEPTIONS, (the fetal artery and vein, and the pulmonary arteries and
veins).
3. Artries have no valves while veins have valves.
4. Artries are pulsate and veins are not pulsate.
5. Artries are buried in the muscles, the veins most of them are on the surface.
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Capillaries:
Capillaries are tiny, microscopic vessels which connect the arterioles with the venules.
The average diameter of capillaries ranges between 7 – 10 microns. Their walls are very
thin and consist of one row of thin epithelial cells with tiny pores between them.
The wall of the capillary is about 0.1 micron thick, which facilitates quick exchange of
substances between the blood and the tissue cells. Capillaries spread in the spaces
between cells all over the body tissues. Capillaries reach all the body cells and supply
them with their requirements.
The capillaries usually connects between the artreiols from artries and veiniols from
veins. But, it can have some exceptions in which:
 Glomurus: capillaries connects between artreiols and artreiols.
 Hepatic vein: capillaries in the liver connects between two hepatic veins. The liver
have a large capillaries.

Blood velocity:
Blood slows as it moves from arteries to arterioles to
capillaries. Why?
The reason is that the number of capillaries is enormous.
Each artery conveys blood to so many capillaries that the
total cross-sectional area is much greater in capillary beds
than in the arteries or any other part of the circulatory

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system. The result is a dramatic decrease in velocity from the arteries to the capillaries:
Blood travels 500 times slower in the capillaries (about 0.1 cm/sec) than in the aorta
(about 48 cm/sec). The reduced velocity of blood flow in capillaries is essential to the
function of the circulatory system. The exchange of substances between the blood and
interstitial fluid occurs only in capillaries because only capillaries have walls thin
enough to permit this transfer.
Diffusion, however, is not instantaneous. The slower flow of blood through capillaries
is thus necessary to provide time for exchange (filtration and reabsorbtion) to occur.
After passing through the capillaries, the blood speeds up as it enters the venules and
veins, which have smaller total cross-sectional areas than the capillaries.
When the blood returns from the decrease of the velocity and increase again in velocity,
it doesn’t increase again with the same velocity. This results because the veins diameter
is more than the diameter of the artries, so the pressure is less as the surface area
increases.
Blood pressure:
Blood, like all fluids, flows from areas of higher
pressure to areas of lower pressure. Contraction
of a heart ventricle generates blood pressure,
which exerts a force in all directions.
The force directed lengthwise in an artery causes
the blood to flow away from the heart, the site of
highest pressure.
The force exerted against the elastic wall of an artery stretches the wall, and the recoil of
arterial walls plays a critical role in maintaining blood pressure, and hence blood flow,
throughout the cardiac cycle.
The maximum pressure is at the systolic (during contraction of ventricles) which is
about 120 mm Hg while the minimum pressure is at the diastolic (during relaxation of
ventricles) which is about 70 mm Hg.
The most pressure is at the artries near the heart like aorta, while it decreases until
reaches the beginning of blood capillaries to be 35 and reach the end of blood
capillaries to be 18.
The pressure is in the form of energy that is combusted not converted, so it cannot raise
again when it return to the vein.
Once the blood enters the millions of tiny arterioles and capillaries, the narrow diameter
of these vessels generates substantial resistance to flow. This resistance dissipates much
of the pressure generated by the pumping heart by the time the blood enters the veins.
Important relation: surface area increases = blood pressure and temperature decreases.

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Changes in Blood Pressure During the Cardiac Cycle:
Arterial blood pressure is highest when the heart contracts during ventricular systole.
The pressure at this time is called systolic pressure. The spikes in blood pressure caused
by the powerful contractions of the ventricles stretch the arteries.
 The surge of pressure is partly due to the narrow openings of arterioles impeding the
exit of blood from the arteries. Thus, when the heart contracts, blood enters the
arteries faster than it can leave, and the vessels stretch from the rise in pressure.
 During diastole, the elastic walls of the arteries snap back. As a consequence, there is
a lower but still substantial blood pressure when the ventricles are relaxed (diastolic
pressure).
Before enough blood has flowed into the arterioles to completely relieve pressure in the
arteries, the heart contracts again. Because the arteries remain pressurized throughout
the cardiac cycle, blood continuously flows into arterioles and capillaries.
 In the figure, the blue line is the
ventricular pressure while the red
line is the aortic pressure. In the
systole, the verticular pressure
reaches about 120 because of the
contraction of the left ventricle leading
to the pressure on the walls to pump the
blood so it is the maximum pressure. While it is between 100 and 120 in the aortic
pressure as it is in the heart artries.
 In the diastole, the ventricular pressure is 0 as it is squeeze returning to its
relaxation without the existence of blood, while the aortic pressure reaches to about
70 because the existence of semilunar valves.
Regulation of blood pressure:
The normal blood pressure is between 70 to 120. If it is increased or decreases than that,
so it needs to be regulated. It can be regulated be nerve control from the brain or by
hormonal control as follows:
 Local regulators such as:
 Nitric oxide (NO) that is stored in the endothelium epithleal cells, if the oxygen
level decreased in the blood, the NO secreted to the smooth muscles making its
hyperpolarization and relaxation. From the relaxation, the blood vessels dilate, so
the surface area increases and the blood pressure decreases.
 Endothelin: peptide makes oppose of NO making constriction to blood vessels
which lead to the increase of the blood pressure.
 Norepinpherin and epinpherin: controlled by the sympathetic system in the
medulla, the norephinpherin is secreted to have more energy, it has two different
effect, constriction of smooth muscles by the excitation of the recpetors of smooth

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 muscles blood vessels. The other effect is the relaxation of skeletal muscle by the
inhibtion of receptors of skeletal muscles blood vessels.This leads to the dilation of
the blood vessels and decreasing the blood pressure.
 RAAS, aldosterone, ANP and ADH (vassopressor) which leads to the constriction
of blood vessels and increasing the blood pressure.
 Histamine during inflammation, to dilate the capillaries and decrease pressure.
Blood Pressure and Gravity:
Blood pressure is generally measured for an artery in the arm at the same height as
the heart. For a healthy 20-year-old human at rest, arterial blood pressure in the systemic
circuit is typically about 120 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) at systole and 70 mm Hg
at diastole, expressed as 120/70. (Arterial blood pressure in the pulmonary circuit is six
to ten time slower to increase the gaseous exchange, protection blood capalries in
the lungs and small distance between the heart and the lungs.)
Gravity has a significant effect on blood pressure. When you are standing, for example,
your head is roughly 0.35 m higher than your chest, and the arterial blood pressure in
your brain is about 27 mm Hg less than that near your heart. If the blood pressure in
your brain is too low to provide adequate blood flow, you will likely faint. By causing
your body to collapse to the ground, fainting effectively places your head at the level of
your heart, quickly increasing blood flow to your brain. If the blood pressure near the
heart equal 120 the blood pressure in the brain equal 93 So the stand on the skull very
dengrous .
There are two devices to calculate the blood pressure Mercury and digital. Mercury
more accurate because the electric in the digital destrict the device.
The challenge of pumping blood against gravity is particularly great for animals with
very long necks. A giraffe, for example, requires a systolic pressure of more than 250
mm Hg near the heart to get blood to its head. When a giraffe lowers its head to drink,
one-way valves and sinuses, along with feedback mechanisms that reduce cardiac
output, prevent this high pressure from
damaging its brain.
We can calculate that a dinosaur with a
neck nearly 10 m long would have
required even greater systolic pressure—
nearly 760 mm Hg—to pump blood to its
brain when its head was fully raised.
However, calculations based on anatomy
and inferred metabolic rate suggest that
dinosaurs did not have a heart powerful
enough to generate such high pressure.
Based on this evidence as well as studies

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of neck bone structure, some biologists have concluded that the long-necked dinosaurs
fed close to the ground rather than on high foliage.
How the blood return to the heart when the blood pressure near to zero in vena
cava? The main reason to that is the contraction of the skeletal muscule near the vein.
This contraction lead to increase the pressure of the veins and after that the valve closed
to stop back flow of blood so we must make some movement because it help deliver the
blood to the heart. The second reason that the change in pressure within the thoracic
(chest) cavity during inhalation causes the vena cava and other large veins near the
heart to expand and fill with blood.
Although blood pressure in veins is relatively low, several mechanisms assist the return
of venous blood to the heart. Gravity is also a consideration for blood flow in veins,
especially those in the legs.
First, rhythmic contractions of smooth muscles in the
walls of venules and veins aid in the movement of the
blood.
Second, and more important, the contraction of skeletal
muscles during exercise squeezes blood through the
veins toward the heart.
Third, the change in pressure within the thoracic (chest)
cavity during inhalation causes the vena cava and
other large veins near the heart to expand and fill with
blood. In rare instances, runners and other athletes can
suffer heart failure if they stop vigorous exercise
abruptly. When the leg muscles suddenly cease contracting and relaxing, less blood
returns to the heart, which continues to beat rapidly. If the heart is weak or damaged,
this inadequate blood flow may cause the heart to malfunction. To reduce the risk of
stressing the heart excessively, athletes are encouraged to follow hard exercise with
moderate activity, such as walking, to ―cool down‖ until their heart rate approaches its
resting level.
Capillary Function:
At any given time, only about 5–10% of the body’s capillaries have blood flowing
through them this amount shared alternatively for each ather EXCEPT Capillaries in
the brain, heart, kidneys, and liver are usually filled to capacity 100%, but at many
other sites the blood supply varies over time as blood is diverted from one destination to
another. For example, blood flow to the skin is regulated to help control body
temperature, and blood supply to the digestive tract increases after a meal. During
strenuous exercise, blood is diverted from the digestive tract and supplied more
generously to skeletal muscles and skin.

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This is one reason why exercising heavily immediately after eating a big meal may
cause indigestion.
Note: However, each tissue has many capillaries, so every part of the body is supplied
with blood at all times blood volume in the human from 5 to 6 liter so it is limited
amount. This amount not enough to full all parts of the body .
There are two mechanisms, both of which rely on signals that regulate the flow into
capillaries (blood entering the capillary bed is controlled by contraction or dilation of arterioles and
precapillary Arterioles are resistance microvessels enveloped by vascular smooth muscle that via
contraction or relaxation controls the vessel caliber and thus the volume of blood flow.)
One mechanism involves contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall of an arteriole,
which reduces the vessel’s diameter and decreases blood flow to the adjoining capillary
beds. When the smooth muscle relaxes, the arterioles dilate, allowing blood to enter the
capillaries.
The other mechanism for altering
flow, involves the action of
precapillary sphincters, rings of
smooth muscle located at the entrance
to capillary beds. The signals that
regulate blood flow include nerve
impulses, hormones traveling
throughout the bloodstream, and
chemicals produced locally. For example, the chemical histamine released by cells at a
wound site causes smooth muscle relaxation, dilating blood vessels and increasing blood
flow. The dilated vessels also give disease-fighting white blood cells greater access to
invading microorganisms. The critical exchange of substances between the blood and
interstitial fluid takes place across the thin endothelial walls of the capillaries. Some
substances are carried across the endothelium in vesicles that form on one side by
endocytosis and release their contents on the opposite side by exocytosis. Small
molecules, such as O2 and CO2, simply diffuse across the endothelial cells or, in some
tissues, through microscopic pores in the capillary wall. These openings also provide the
route for transport of small solutes such as sugars, salts, and urea, as well as for bulk
flow of fluid into tissues driven by blood pressure within the capillary.
The primary purpose of the cardiovascular system is to circulate gases, nutrients, wastes,
and other substances to and from the cells of the body. Small molecules, such as gases,
lipids, and lipid-soluble molecules, can diffuse directly through the membranes of the
endothelial cells of the capillary wall. Glucose, amino acids, and ions including
sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride use transporters to move through specific
channels in the membrane by facilitated diffusion. Glucose, ions, and larger molecules
may also leave the blood through intercellular clefts. Larger molecules can pass
through the pores of fenestrated capillaries, and even large plasma proteins can pass
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through the great gaps in the sinusoids. Some large proteins in blood plasma can move
into and out of the endothelial cells packaged within vesicles by endocytosis and
exocytosis. Water moves by osmosis.
So we have three ways to transport nutriens from the blood:
1) Diffusion throw the pore between the Epithelial cells
2) Diffusion active or passive from the blood to the Epithelial cells to the interstitial
fluid.
3) By exocytosis or endocytosis
The mass movement of fluids into and out of capillary beds
It is requires a transport mechanism far
more efficient than mere diffusion. This
movement, often referred to as bulk
flow, involves two pressure-driven
mechanisms: Volumes of fluid move
from an area of higher pressure in a
capillary bed to an area of lower pressure
in the tissues via filtration. In contrast,
the movement of fluid from an area of
higher pressure in the tissues into an area of lower pressure in the capillaries
is reabsorption. Two types of pressure interact to drive each of these movements:
hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure.
Blood pressure tends to drive fluid out of the capillaries, and the presence of blood
proteins tends to pull fluid back. Many blood proteins (and all blood cells) are too large
to pass readily through the endothelium, and they remain in the capillaries.
The main force that moves fluid between capillaries and
tissues is hydrostatic pressure, which is the force exerted
by any fluid that is enclosed in a space. The force that the
blood exerts when it is contained inside of blood vessels or
heart chambers is known as blood hydrostatic pressure.
More specifically, capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP),
also known as capillary blood pressure, is the force that
blood applies to the capillary's wall. The force known as
CHP is what propels fluid from capillaries and into tissues.
The hydrostatic pressure in the interstitial fluid increases in
direct proportion to the flow of fluid from a capillary into
tissues. The interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure is the
name given to this opposing hydrostatic pressure (IFHP). Because lymphatic veins are
constantly absorbing extra fluid from the tissues, the CHP coming from arterial

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pathways is typically significantly higher than the IFHP. As a result, liquid typically
exits capillaries and enters the interstitial fluid. This method is known as filtering.
Osmotic Pressure: These dissolved proteins are responsible for much of the blood’s
osmotic pressure (the pressure produced by the difference in solute concentration across
a membrane). It is always 25 in the blood.
2- The difference in osmotic pressure between the blood and the interstitial fluid
opposes fluid movement out of the capillaries.
The net pressure that drives reabsorption the movement of fluid from the interstitial fluid
back into the capillaries is called osmotic pressure (sometimes referred to as oncotic
pressure). Whereas hydrostatic pressure forces fluid out of the capillary, osmotic
pressure draws fluid back in. Osmotic pressure is determined by osmotic concentration
gradients, that is, the difference in the solute-to-water concentrations in the blood and
tissue fluid. A region higher in solute concentration (and lower in water concentration)
draws water across a semipermeable membrane from a region higher in water
concentration (and lower in solute concentration).
On average, blood pressure is greater than the opposing forces, leading to a net loss of
fluid from capillaries. The net loss is generally greatest at the arterial end of these
vessels, where blood pressure is highest.
Lymphatic system:
After that there are found some amount of filtration so the body must lose it. That
happens by lymphatic vessel.
Each day, the adult human body loses approximately 4–8 L of fluid from capillaries to
the surrounding tissues. There is also some leakage of blood proteins, even though the
capillary wall is not very permeable to large molecules. The lost fluid and proteins
return to the blood via the lymphatic system (it is not complete system), which includes
a network of tiny vessels intermingled among capillaries of the cardiovascular system.
After entering the lymphatic system by
diffusion, the fluid lost by capillaries is called
lymph; its composition is about the same as
that of interstitial fluid. The lymphatic system
drains into large veins of the circulatory
system at the base of the neck, this joining of
the lymphatic and circulatory systems functions
in the transfer of lipids from the small intestine
to the blood. It goes after that to the superior
vena cava in the tight atrium. The movement of lymph from peripheral tissues to the
heart relies on much the same mechanisms that assist blood flow in veins.
Lymph vessels, like veins, have valves that prevent the backflow of fluid.

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Rhythmic contractions of the vessel walls help draw fluid into the
small lymphatic vessels. In addition, skeletal muscle contractions
play a role in moving lymph. Disorders that interfere with the
lymphatic system highlight its role in maintaining proper fluid
distribution in the body. Disruptions in the movement of lymph
often cause edema, swelling resulting from the excessive
accumulation of fluid in tissues. Severe block age of lymph flow, as
occurs when certain parasitic worms (lymphatic filariasis) lodge in
lymph vessels, results in extremely swollen limbs or other body
parts, a condition known as elephantiasis. Along a lymph vessel
are organs called lymph nodes.
By filtering the lymph and by housing cells that attack viruses and bacteria, lymph nodes
play an important role in the body’s defense. Inside each
lymph node is a honeycomb of connective tissue with spaces
filled by white blood cells. When the body is fighting an
infection, these cells multiply rapidly, and the lymph nodes
become swollen and tender (which is why your doctor may
check for swollen lymph nodes in your neck, armpits, or
groin when you feel sick). Because lymph nodes have
filtering and surveillance functions, doctors may examine the
lymph nodes of cancer patients to detect the spread of
diseased cells.
Note: In recent years, evidence has surfaced demonstrating that the lymphatic system
also plays a role in harmful immune responses, such as those responsible for asthma.
Because of these and other findings, the lymphatic system, largely ignored until the
1990s, has become a very active and promising area of biomedical research.
Blood composition and function

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Blood percentages:
- Plasma  55%:
 90% Water
 2% Ions
 7% Plasma proteins
 1% Substances transported with blood
- Cellular elements  45%
Blood properties:
 amount: : 7-9% of total body weight; 79ml/kg.
 Blood volume: 5-6 liters.
 Viscosity: (3.5-5.5) times more than water.
 Specific Gravity:045-1.065.
 PH:3-7.4 (slightly alkaline)
 Venous blood has low pH than the arterial blood as venous blood has more CO.
 Temperature- 380C (100.4F)
 Osmotic pressure– 25 mm Hg
Blood function:
1) Blood is Fluid Connective Tissue regulate the permeable.
2) Blood Provides the Body's Cells with Oxygen and Removes Carbon Dioxide
3) Blood Transports Nutrients and Hormones
4) Blood Regulates Body Temperature
5) Platelets Clot Blood at Sites of Injury
6) Blood Brings Waste Products to the Kidneys and Liver
7) Red Blood Cells Are the Most Numerous Living Cells in Blood
8) White Blood Cells Protect the Body.
……………………………………..

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