N.

K Waruna Devaka(BIT – UCSC)

Competency 8
Designs and develops database systems to manage data efficiently and effectively.

8.1 The basics of information and data, and the need for databases.

Data vs. information

Data is a raw and unorganized fact that is required to be processed to make it meaningful
whereas Information is a set of data that is processed in a meaningful way according to the
given requirement.

Structured Vs. unstructured data

Structured data is highly-organized and formatted so that it's easily searchable in relational
databases. Unstructured data has no predefined format or organization, making it much
more difficult to collect, process, and analyze.

Database

A database is an organized collection of structured information, or data, typically stored

electronically in a computer system. A database is usually controlled by a database
management system (DBMS).

Database models

 A flat file database is basically a giant collection of data in which the tables and
records have no relation between any other tables. In fact, one could have a single
table.

 A hierarchical database model is a data model in which the data are organized into a
tree-like structure. The data are stored as records which are connected to one
another through links. A record is a collection of fields, with each field containing
only one value.

 Network Model is an extension of the Hierarchical model. In this model data is

organised more like a graph, and are allowed to have more than one parent node.

 Relational Model represents how data is stored in Relational Databases. A relational

database stores data in the form of relations (tables).

 Object relational model is a combination of a Object oriented database model and a

Relational database model. So, it supports objects, classes, inheritance etc. just like

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Object Oriented models and has support for data types, tabular structures etc. like
Relational data model.

8. 2 The main components of the relational database model.

Relations / Tables

A table is a collection of logically related information treated as a unit. Tables are organized
by rows and columns.

 Record or Tuple: Each row of a table is known as record. It is also known as tuple.
 Attributes or Columns : Each column in a Table. Attributes are the properties which
define a relation. e.g., Student_Rollno, Name, Address.
 Degree :The total number of attributes which in the relation is called the degree of
the relation.
 Cardinality :Total number of rows present in the Table.

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Types of Constraints

Constraints are the set of rules that ensures that when an authorized user modifies the
database they do not disturb the data consistency.

 A NOT NULL Constraint : Ensure that a given column of a table is never assigned the
null value(empty value).
 A Unique Constraint : Ensures that all values in a column are different.
 A Primary Key Constraint : The primary key constraint uniquely identifies each
record in a table. Primary keys must contain unique values, and cannot contain null
values.
 A Foreign Key Constraint : The foreign key constraint is used to prevent actions that
would destroy links between tables. A foreign key is a field (or collection of fields) in
one table, that refers to the primary key in another table.
 A (Table) Check Constraint : The check constraint is used to limit the value range
that can be placed in a column.

8.3 The main component of a database system.

A database management system

A database management system (DBMS) is a software package designed to define,

manipulate, retrieve and manage data in a database. A DBMS generally manipulates the
data itself, the data format, field names, record structure and file structure. It also defines
rules to validate and manipulate this data.

Some DBMS examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft Access, SQL Server, FileMaker,
Oracle, RDBMS, dBASE, Clipper, and FoxPro.

Structured Query Language(SQL)

Structured Query Language is a computer language for storing, manipulating and retrieving
data stored in a relational database. SQL is the standard language for Relational Database
System. SQL statements are divided into two major categories: data definition language
(DDL) and data manipulation language (DML).

SQL

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Data definition language (DDL)

Data definition language (DDL) refers to the set of SQL commands that can create and
manipulate the structures of a database. DDL statements are used to create, change, and
remove objects including indexes, triggers, tables, and views. Common DDL statements
include:

 CREATE (generates a new table)

 ALTER (add, delete, or modify columns/constrains in an existing table)
 DROP (removes a table/ database)

1) CREATE Statement
The SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement : The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create
a new SQL database.

 Syntax - CREATE DATABASE databasename;

 Example - CREATE DATABASE testDB;

The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement : The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new
table in a database.

Syntax Example

CREATE TABLE Persons (

CREATE TABLE table_name (
PersonID int,
column1 datatype,
LastName varchar(255),
column2 datatype,
FirstName varchar(255),
column3 datatype,
Address varchar(255),
....
City varchar(255)
);
);

SQL Data Types

o VARCHAR(size) : A VARIABLE length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters).
o CHAR(size) : A FIXED length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters).
o INT(size): A medium integer.
o DATE: A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD.

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2) ALTER TABLE Statement

 The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing
table.

ALTER TABLE - ADD Column

Syntax Example

ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER TABLE Customers

ADD column_name datatype; ADD Email varchar(255);

ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN

Syntax Example

ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER TABLE Customers

DROP COLUMN column_name; DROP COLUMN Email;

ALTER TABLE - ALTER/MODIFY COLUMN

Syntax Example

ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER TABLE Customers

MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype; MODIFY COLUMN Email varchar(100);

 The ALTER TABLE statement is also used to add and drop various constraints on an
existing table.

Add Constraint Remove Constraint

NOT NULL ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER TABLE Persons

MODIFY Age int NOT NULL; MODIFY Age int;
UNIQUE ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD UNIQUE (ID); DROP INDEX UC_Person;
PRIMARY KEY ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID); DROP PRIMARY KEY;
FOREIGN KEY ALTER TABLE Orders ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) DROP FOREIGN KEY
REFERENCES Persons(PersonID); FK_PersonOrder;

CHECK ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CHECK (Age>=18); DROP CHECK CHK_PersonAge;
DEFAULT ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'Sandnes'; ALTER City DROP DEFAULT;

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3) DROP Statement

The DROP DATABASE : The DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop an existing SQL
database.

 Syntax - DROP DATABASE databasename;

The DROP TABLE : The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a
database.

 Syntax - DROP TABLE table_name;

Note: Be careful before dropping a database. Deleting a database will result in loss of
complete information stored in the database!

Data manipulation Language (DML)

A data manipulation language (DML) is used for adding (inserting), deleting, and modifying
(updating) data in a database.

1) INSERT INTO statement

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement : It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two
ways:

1. Specify both the column names and the values to be inserted:

 INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

2. If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need to specify
the column names in the SQL query.

 INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

Example –

 INSERT INTO Customers(CustomerName,City,Country)

VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Stavanger', 'Norway');

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2) UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table. Be careful when
updating records. If you omit the WHERE clause, ALL records will be updated!

Syntax Example

updates the first customer (CustomerID = 1)

UPDATE table_name with a new contact person and a new city.
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2,
WHERE condition; UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName = 'Alfred Schmidt',
City= 'Frankfurt'
WHERE CustomerID = 1;

3) DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement : The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.

 DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Note: Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE
statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) should be deleted. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records in the table will be deleted!

Ex : - The following SQL statement deletes the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste" from the
"Customers" table:

 DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the
table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:

 DELETE FROM table_name;

4) SELECET Statement
The SQL SELECT Statement : The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

Syntax:

 SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name;

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Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table you want to select data from. If
you want to select all the fields available in the table, use the following syntax:

 SELECT * FROM table_name;

The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns from the
"Customers" table:

 SELECT CustomerName, City FROM Customers;

The following SQL statement selects all the columns from the "Customers" table:

 SELECT * FROM Customers;

The SQL WHERE Clause : The WHERE clause is used to filter records. It is used to extract
only those records that fulfill a specified condition.

Note: The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statements, it is also used in UPDATE,
DELETE, etc.!

The following SQL statement selects all the customers from the country "Mexico", in the
"Customers" table:

 SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Mexico';

The following operators can be used in the WHERE clause:

Operator Description Example

= Equal SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE Price = 18;
> Greater than SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price > 30;
< Less than SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price < 30;
>= Greater than or equal SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price >= 30;
<= Less than or equal SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price <= 30;
<> Not equal SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price <> 18;
BETWEEN Between a certain range

LIKE Search for a pattern Examples are given below

IN To specify multiple possible values for a column

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BETWEEN, LIKE and IN operators

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price between 10 and 20:

 SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName starting with "a":

 SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers that are located in "Germany", "France"
or "UK":

 SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');

The WHERE clause can be combined with AND, OR, and NOT operators.

The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is NOT
"Germany":

 SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE NOT Country='Germany';

The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is
"Germany" AND city is "Berlin":

 SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Germany' AND City='Berlin';

The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is
"Germany" OR "Spain":

 SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Germany' OR Country='Spain';

The SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending order. The
ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the records in
descending order, use the DESC keyword.

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted
ASCENDING by the "Country" column:

 SELECT * FROM Customer ORDER BY Country;

 SELECT * FROM Customer ORDER BY Country ASC;

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The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted
DESCENDING by the "Country" column:

 SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country DESC;

SQL MIN(), MAX(), COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions

The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.

SELECT MIN(column_name) SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice

FROM table_name FROM Products;
WHERE condition;

The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.

SELECT MAX(column_name) SELECT MAX(Price) AS LargestPrice

FROM table_name FROM Products;
WHERE condition;

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criterion.

SELECT COUNT(column_name) SELECT COUNT(ProductID)

FROM table_name FROM Products;
WHERE condition;

The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.

SELECT AVG(column_name) SELECT AVG(Price)

FROM table_name FROM Products;
WHERE condition;

The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.

SELECT SUM(column_name) SELECT SUM(Price)

FROM table_name FROM Products;
WHERE condition;

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"Products" table

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 18
20 bags
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz 19
bottles
3 Aniseed 1 2 12 - 550 ml 10
Syrup bottles
4 Cajun 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22
Seasoning
5 Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 21.35

SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both tables.

Syntax :-

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2

And a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Maria Anders Obere Str. Berlin 12209 Germany

Futterkiste 57

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

3 Antonio Antonio Mataderos México 05023 Mexico

Moreno Moreno 2312 D.F.

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The following SQL statement selects all orders with customer information:

 SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName

FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;

SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table. Constraints are used to limit the
type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in
the table. If there is any violation between the constraint and the data action, the action is
aborted.

Syntax :-

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column1 datatype constraint,
column2 datatype constraint,
column3 datatype constraint,
....
);

 NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

 UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different
 PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each
row in a table
 FOREIGN KEY - Prevents actions that would destroy links between tables
 CHECK - Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a specific condition
 DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column if no value is specified

SQL NOT NULL on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL ensures that the "ID", "LastName", and "FirstName" columns will NOT
accept NULL values when the "Persons" table is created:

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Age int
);

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SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column are different.Both the UNIQUE
and PRIMARY KEY constraints provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a column or set of
columns. A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint.

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
UNIQUE (ID)
);

SQL PRIMARY KEY on CREATE TABLE

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table. Primary keys must
contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values. A table can have only ONE primary
key; and in the table, this primary key can consist of single or multiple columns (fields).

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links between
tables.A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table, that refers to the
PRIMARY KEY in another table.The table with the foreign key is called the child table, and
the table with the primary key is called the referenced or parent table.

 Notice that the "PersonID" column in the "Orders" table points to the "PersonID"
column in the "Persons" table.
 The "PersonID" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons"
table.
 The "PersonID" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.
 The FOREIGN KEY constraint prevents invalid data from being inserted into the
foreign key column, because it has to be one of the values contained in the parent
table.

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CREATE TABLE Orders (

OrderID int NOT NULL,
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
PersonID int,
PRIMARY KEY (OrderID),
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);

SQL CHECK on CREATE TABLE

The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column.If you
define a CHECK constraint on a column it will allow only certain values for this column.If you
define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns based on
values in other columns in the row.

The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "Age" column when the "Persons"
table is created. The CHECK constraint ensures that the age of a person must be 18, or older:

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18)
);

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8.4 Designs the conceptual schema of a database

ER (Entity Relationship) diagrams

ER Diagram stands for Entity Relationship Diagram, also known as ERD is a diagram that
displays the relationship of entity sets stored in a database. In other words, ER diagrams
help to explain the logical structure of databases. ER diagrams are created based on three
basic concepts: entities, attributes and relationships.

ER Diagrams contain different symbols that use rectangles to represent entities, ovals to
define attributes and diamond shapes to represent relationships.

Following are the main components and its symbols in ER Diagrams:

 Rectangles: This Entity Relationship Diagram symbol represents entity types

 Ellipses : Symbol represent attributes
 Diamonds: This symbol represents relationship types
 Lines: It links attributes to entity types and entity types with other relationship types
 Primary key: attributes are underlined
 Double Ellipses: Represent multi-valued attributes

Components of the ER Diagram

This model is based on three basic concepts:

 Entities
 Attributes
 Relationships

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ER Diagram Examples

For example, in a University database, we might have entities for Students, Courses, and
Lecturers. Students entity can have attributes like Rollno, Name, and DeptID. They might
have relationships with Courses and Lecturers.

Entity
A real-world thing either living or non-living that is easily recognizable and nonrecognizable.
It is anything in the enterprise that is to be represented in our database. It may be a physical
thing or simply a fact about the enterprise or an event that happens in the real world.

An entity can be place, person, object, event or a concept, which stores data in the
database. The characteristics of entities are must have an attribute, and a unique key. Every
entity is made up of some ‘attributes’ which represent that entity.

Examples of entities:

 Person: Employee, Student, Patient

 Place: Store, Building
 Object: Machine, product, and Car
 Event: Sale, Registration, Renewal
 Concept: Account, Course

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Weak Entities

A weak entity is an entity that depends on the existence of another entity. In more technical
terms it can be defined as an entity that cannot be identified by its own attributes. It uses a
foreign key combined with its attributed to form the primary key.

Strong Entity Set Weak Entity Set

It does not have enough attributes to build a

Strong entity set always has a primary key.
primary key.

It is represented by a double rectangle

It is represented by a rectangle symbol.
symbol.

It contains a Primary key represented by the It contains a Partial Key which is represented
underline symbol. by a dashed underline symbol.

The member of a strong entity set is called as The member of a weak entity set called as a
dominant entity set. subordinate entity set.

In a weak entity set, it is a combination of

Primary Key is one of its attributes which
primary key and partial key of the strong
helps to identify its member.
entity set.

In the ER diagram the relationship between The relationship between one strong and a
two strong entity set shown by using a weak entity set shown by using the double
diamond symbol. diamond symbol.

The connecting line of the strong entity set The line connecting the weak entity set for
with the relationship is single. identifying relationship is double.

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Attributes
It is a single-valued property of either an entity-type or a relationship-type. For example, a
lecture might have attributes: time, date, duration, place, etc. An attribute in ER Diagram
examples, is represented by an Ellipse

Types of Attributes Description

In ER diagram, attribute is represented by an

oval. The attribute which uniquely identifies
Key/prime attribute
each entity in the entity set is called key
attribute.

It is possible to break down composite

attribute. For example, a student’s full name
Composite attribute
may be further divided into first name,
second name, and last name.

This type of attribute does not include in the

physical database. However, their values are
derived from other attributes present in the
Derived attribute
database. For example, age should not be
stored directly. Instead, it should be derived
from the DOB of that employee.

Multivalued attributes can have more than

one values. For example, a student can have
Multivalued attribute
more than one mobile number, email
address, etc.

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Relationship
A relationship describes how entities interact. For example, the entity “Carpenter” may be
related to the entity “table” by the relationship “builds” or “makes”. Relationships are
represented by diamond shapes and are labeled using verbs.

Recursive Relationship
If the same entity participates more than once in a relationship it is known as a recursive
relationship. In the below example an employee can be a supervisor and be supervised, so
there is a recursive relationship.

Cardinality
Defines the numerical attributes of the relationship between two entities or entity sets.

Different types of cardinal relationships are:

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1.One-to-one (1:1):

One entity from entity set X can be associated with at most one entity of entity set Y and
vice versa.Example: One student can register for numerous courses. However, all those
courses have a single line back to that one student.

2.One-to-many(1:M):

One entity from entity set X can be associated with multiple entities of entity set Y, but an
entity from entity set Y can be associated with at least one entity.For example, one class is
consisting of multiple students.

3. Many to One(M:1):

More than one entity from entity set X can be associated with at most one entity of entity
set Y. However, an entity from entity set Y may or may not be associated with more than
one entity from entity set X. For example, many students belong to the same class.

4. Many to Many(M:N):

One entity from X can be associated with more than one entity from Y and vice versa.For
example, Students as a group are associated with multiple faculty members, and faculty
members can be associated with multiple students.

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Participation Constraints

 Total Participation − Each entity is involved in the relationship. Total participation is

represented by double lines.
 Partial participation − Not all entities are involved in the relationship. Partial
participation is represented by single lines.

Introduction to EER (Extended ER) diagrams

Enhanced entity-relationship models, also known as extended entity-relationship models,

are advanced database diagrams very similar to regular ER diagrams. Enhanced ERDs are
high-level models that represent the requirements and complexities of complex databases.

In addition to the same concepts that ordinary ER diagrams encompass, EERDs include:

 Sub Class and Super Class

 Specialization and generalization
 Category or union type
 Aggregation

Subclasses and Super class

Super class is an entity that can be divided into further subtype.

For example − consider Shape super class.

Super class shape has sub groups: Triangle, Square and Circle. Sub classes are the group of
entities with some unique attributes.Sub class inherits the properties and attributes from
super class.

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Specialization and Generalization

1) Generalization

 Generalization is the process of generalizing the entities which contain the

properties of all the generalized entities.
 It is a bottom approach, in which two lower level entities combine to form a higher
level entity.
 Generalization is the reverse process of Specialization.
 It defines a general entity type from a set of specialized entity type.
 It minimizes the difference between the entities by identifying the common features.

In the above example, Tiger, Lion, Elephant can all be generalized as Animals.

2) Specialization

 Specialization is a process that defines a group entities which is divided into sub
groups based on their characteristic.
 It is a top down approach, in which one higher entity can be broken down into two
lower level entity.
 It maximizes the difference between the members of an entity by identifying the
unique characteristic or attributes of each member.
 It defines one or more sub class for the super class and also forms the
superclass/subclass relationship.

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In the above example, Employee can be specialized as Developer or Tester, based on what
role they play in an Organization.

Category or Union

 Category represents a single super class or sub class relationship with more than one
super class.
 It can be a total or partial participation.
 For example Car booking, Car owner can be a person, a bank (holds a possession on
a Car) or a company. Category (sub class) → Owner is a subset of the union of the
three super classes → Company, Bank, and Person. A Category member must exist in
at least one of its super classes.

4) Aggregation

 Aggregation is a process that represent a relationship between a whole object and

its component parts.
 It abstracts a relationship between objects and viewing the relationship as an object.
 It is a process when two entity is treated as a single entity.

In the above example, the relation between College and Course is acting as an Entity in
Relation with Student.

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Disjointness Constraint

Specifies that all subclasses of a specialization must be disjoint. In other words, if an entity
belongs to one subclass of a specialization, then it cannot belong to another subclass of the
same specialization.

Example :

{Secretary,Technicien,Engineer} is a disjoint specialization. – If an employee is a secretary,

then she cannot be a technician.

The disjointness is represented in EER using d symbol.

Overlapping Subclasses

Sometimes an entity can belong to more than one subclass of the same specialization, this
means that subclasses overlap with each other.

Example :

In a bakery, cake can be made with nuts or with fruits. However, a cake can also be made
with nuts and fruits at the same time.

In EER, this is represented by using o notation.

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Completeness Constraint

Completeness constraint states that a specialization can be:

1. Total Specialization
2. Partial Specialization

1) Total Specialization:

– Every entity that belongs to a superclass must belong to at least one subclass of the
specialization.

In EER, a total specialization is represented by using a double lines that is going out of the
superclass.

Example: A student is specialized into: Graduate Student or Undergraduate Student.It is

clear that there is no other type of student. So, all students will have a place in the
subclasses

Indicates a Disjoint total

specialization

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2) Partial Specialization

– Some entities might not belong to any of the subclasses of the specialization. In EER, it is
represented as one line going out of the superclass.

Example:

– If an employee is not a secretary, technician, or engineer, then he does

not belong to any of these subclasses of this specialization.

– So, the specialization {secretary, technician, engineer} is a partial specialization.

Disjoint, partial
specialization

Disjointness and Completeness constraints are independent, so you might have the
following combinations of specializations:

Disjoint, total
Disjoint, partial
Overlapping, total
Overlapping, partial

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8.5 Designs the logical schema of a database.

Database Schema

A database schema is the skeleton structure that represents the logical view of the entire
database. It defines how the data is organized and how the relations among them are
associated. It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data.

A database schema defines its entities and the relationship among them. It contains a
descriptive detail of the database, which can be depicted by means of schema diagrams. It’s
the database designers who design the schema to help programmers understand the
database and make it useful.

A database schema can be divided broadly into three categories −

Physical Database Schema − This schema pertains to the actual storage of data and its form
of storage like files, indices, etc. It defines how the data will be stored in a secondary
storage.

Logical Database Schema − This schema defines all the logical constraints that need to be
applied on the data stored. It defines tables, views, and integrity constraints.

View schema can be defined as the design of the database at the view level, which generally
describes end-user interaction with database systems.

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Relational schema

Relation schema describes the column heads for the table. The schema specifies the
relation’s name, the name of each field (or column, or attribute), and the domain of each
field. A domain is referred to in a relation schema by the domain name and has a set of
associated values. Field named sid has a domain named string. It is clear that every student
record should satisfy domains constraint.

Relation Instance

The relation instance is a table, An instance of a relation is a set of tuples, also called
records, in which each tuple has the same number of fields as the relation schema. A
relation instance can be thought of as a table in which each tuple is a row, and all rows have
the same number of fields. (The term relation instance is often abbreviated to just relation).

Types of Keys in Relational Model

Candidate Key: The minimal set of attributes that can uniquely identify a tuple is known as a
candidate key. For Example, STUD_NO in STUDENT relation.

Primary Key: There can be more than one candidate key in relation out of which one can be
chosen as the primary key. For Example, STUD_NO, as well as STUD_PHONE both, are
candidate keys for relation STUDENT but STUD_NO can be chosen as the primary key (only
one out of many candidate keys).

Composite Key: A primary key having two or more attributes is called composite key. It is a
combination of two or more columns.

Alternate Key: The candidate key other than the primary key is called an alternate key. For
Example, STUD_NO, as well as STUD_PHONE both, are candidate keys for relation STUDENT
but STUD_PHONE will be an alternate key (only one out of many candidate keys).

Foreign Key is a column or group of columns in a relational database table that provides a
link between data in two tables. It acts as a cross-reference between tables because it
references the primary key of another table, thereby establishing a link between them.

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Domain constraints

Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values for an attribute.
The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date, currency, etc. The
value of the attribute must be available in the corresponding domain.

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8.6 Transforms ER diagrams to logical schema.

The ER diagram represents the conceptual level of database design meanwhile the
relational schema is the logical level for the database design.

1. Entities and Simple Attributes:

An entity type within ER diagram is turned into a table. Each attribute turns into a column
(attribute) in the table. The key attribute of the entity is the primary key of the table which
is usually underlined. It can be composite if required but can never be null.

Personid Person Firstname

Email Lastname

Person( Personid , Firstname, Lastname, Email )

2. Multi-Valued Attributes

If you have a multi-valued attribute, take the attribute and turn it into a new entity or table
of its own.

Personid Person Name

Phone

Person( Personid , Name )

Phone(Personid, Phone)

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3.Weak Entity
Tel

Id Staff has Dependent

Email Sname Dname

Staff (Id, Sname,Email) Dependent (Id, Dname, Tel)

4. Composite Attributes

Student ( Roll_no , First_name , Last_name , House_no , Street , City )

5. 1:1 Relationship

1 1
Student Desk
has

St_Name Desk_Id
St_Id

Method 1 : Student(St_Id, St_Name), Desk(Desk_Id, St_Id)

Method 2: Student(St_Id, St_Name, Desk_Id), Desk(Desk_Id)

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6. 1:M Relationship

1 M
Customer Order
Place

Name OrdNo
Cus_Id

Customer(Cus_Id, Name) Order(OrdNo, Cus_Id)

Marks
7. M:N Relationship
SubName

M Obtain N
Student Subject
Marks for

SubID
StId StName

Student(StId, StName) ObatinMarks (StId, SubId, Marks) Subject(SubId,SubName)

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8. Relations with more than two entities

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9. EER diagrams

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8.7: Normalizes database schema to improve performance

Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database. This includes creating tables
and establishing relationships between those tables according to rules designed both to
protect the data and to make the database more flexible by eliminating redundancy and
anomalies.

Redundancy means having multiple copies of same data in the database.

Anomalies

1- Update Anomaly: Let say we have 10 columns in a table out of which 2 are called
employee Name and employee address. Now if one employee changes it’s location then we
would have to update the table. But the problem is, if the table is not normalized one
employee can have multiple entries and while updating all of those entries one of them
might get missed.

2- Insertion Anomaly: Let’s say we have a table that has 4 columns. Student ID, Student
Name, Student Address and Student Grades. Now when a new student enroll in school,
even though first three attributes can be filled but 4th attribute will have NULL value
because he doesn't have any marks yet.

3- Deletion Anomaly: This anomaly indicates unnecessary deletion of important information

from the table. Let’s say we have student’s information and courses they have taken as
follows (student ID,Student Name, Course, address). If any student leaves the school then
the entry related to that student will be deleted. However, that deletion will also delete the
course information even though course depends upon the school and not the student.

Database normalization eliminates duplicate data which can lead to data anomalies.

Benefits of Data Normalization

 Reduces redundant data

 Provides data consistency within the database
 More flexible database design
 Higher database security
 Better and quicker execution
 Greater overall database organization

Data Normalization Forms (NFs)

Data normalization can be divided into different types of normal forms. The most popular
ones are 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, and BCNF.

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ZERO NORMAL FORM (0 NF) : Zero normal form (ZNF) is simply a set of data that has not
gone through the process of normalization.

FIRST NORMAL FORM

The first normal form (1NF) requires that the values in each column of a table are atomic. By
atomic we mean that there are no sets of values within a column. Repeating groups should
be removed.

Removing the repeating groups

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SECOND NORMAL FORM

Where the First Normal Form deals with atomicity of data, the Second Normal Form (or
2NF) deals with relationships between composite key columns and non-key columns.The
second normal form (or 2NF) any non-key columns must depend on the entire primary key.
In the case of a composite primary key, this means that a non-key column cannot depend on
only part of the composite key(a partial dependency).

 Partial Dependency - attribute in a table depends on only a part of the primary key
and not on the whole key.

Example - UnitName is only dependant on unitCode and has no dependency on studentId.

Removing the partial dependency

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THIRD NORMAL FORM

Third Normal Form (3NF) requires that all non key columns depend directly on the primary
key. Tables violate the Third Normal Form when one column depends on another column,
which in turn depends on the primary key (a transitive dependency).

 Transitive Dependency - a non-prime attribute depends on other non-prime

attributes rather than depending upon the prime attributes or primary key.

Example - we have unitCode as our primary key, we also have a courseName that is
dependent on courseCode.

Removing the transitive dependency

So following the steps, remove courseName with a copy of course code to another relation
and make courseCode the primary key of the new relation. In the original table mark
courseCode as our foreign key.

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Activity 1 - Convert the following ERD into relational schema.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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