Probing spin-phonon interactions in silicon carbide with Gaussian acoustics

Samuel J. Whiteley1,2*, Gary Wolfowicz1,6*, Christopher P. Anderson1,2, Alexandre Bourassa1, He

Ma1,4, Meng Ye1, Gerwin Koolstra2,5, Kevin J. Satzinger1,7, Martin V. Holt8, F. Joseph Heremans1,3,
Andrew N. Cleland1,3, David I. Schuster2,5, Giulia Galli1,3,4, David D. Awschalom1,3†

1
Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
2
Department of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
3
Institute for Molecular Engineering and Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL
60439, USA
4
Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
5
The James Franck Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
6
WPI-Advanced Institute for Materials Research (WPI-AIMR), Tohoku University, Japan
7
Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
8
Center for Nanoscale Materials, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA

* These authors contributed equally to this work

† Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract
Hybrid spin-mechanical systems provide a platform for integrating quantum registers and
transducers. Efficient creation and control of such systems require a comprehensive understanding
of the individual spin and mechanical components as well as their mutual interactions. Point defects
in silicon carbide (SiC) offer long-lived, optically addressable spin registers in a wafer-scale material
with low acoustic losses, making them natural candidates for integration with high quality factor
mechanical resonators. Here, we show Gaussian focusing of a surface acoustic wave in SiC,
characterized by a novel stroboscopic X-ray diffraction imaging technique, which delivers direct,
strain amplitude information at nanoscale spatial resolution. Using ab initio calculations, we provide
a more complete picture of spin-strain coupling for various defects in SiC with C3v symmetry. This
reveals the importance of shear for future device engineering and enhanced spin-mechanical
coupling. We demonstrate all-optical detection of acoustic paramagnetic resonance without
microwave magnetic fields, relevant to sensing applications. Finally, we show mechanically driven
Autler-Townes splittings and magnetically forbidden Rabi oscillations. These results offer a basis for
full strain control of three-level spin systems.

1
M ain text

Hybrid quantum systems1 leverage the strengths of various modalities of representing

quantum information, including optical photons for sending quantum states across long distances,

spins for information storage, and microwave superconducting circuits for computation, with the

potential of using nanomechanics as an intermediary quantum bus. For instance, coherently

exchanging quantum information between optically-active defect spins and mechanical resonators2

provides a route to couple optical photons to microwave frequency phonons in a hybrid quantum

system. Optically-active defect spins in SiC, such as the neutral divacancy3 (VV), have recently been

shown to support long-lived spin states4,5,6, a variety of quantum controls7, and spin-photon

interfaces8 compatible with quantum entanglement protocols. Importantly, SiC is a piezoelectric

material and supports mature fabrication processes for production of high quality micro-

electromechanical systems (MEMS). Although progress has been made coupling spins to

mechanics in similar defect systems, including the NV center in diamond with strain tuning9,10 and

mechanical driving11,12,13, defects in SiC are well positioned to solve the materials challenges of

coherently manipulating spins with strain and strongly coupling spins with phonons.

While static strain will generate shifts in ground state (S = 1) energy sublevels, resonant AC

strain can coherently drive electron spin transitions. Large in-plane dynamic strains can be

generated by surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices, which are well developed for radio frequency

(RF) filters and offer simple engineering approaches for fabricating low loss resonators. SAW

devices have also been proposed as hybrid quantum transducers14 and used to demonstrate

coupling to superconducting qubits15,16,17 along with optomechanical interactions involving defect

excited states18,19.

Here, we demonstrate acoustically driven Δms = ±1 spin transitions, where ms = 0, ±1 is the

spin projection, on VV spin ensembles in 4H-SiC. We further demonstrate Δms = ±2 spin transitions

2
through the Autler-Townes effect, mechanical Rabi oscillations, and comparing the relative coupling

strengths of inequivalent VV defects. These results are well described by our theoretical model

developed from a combination of direct experimental observations and Density Functional Theory

(DFT) calculations of anisotropic spin-strain coupling coefficients. We find that uniaxial strain and

shear drive VV spins with coupling strengths of similar magnitude, but with generally different

relative phase and selection rules. These experiments utilize a patterned Gaussian SAW phonon

resonator that focuses strain and reduces resonator mode volumes in analogy to Gaussian optics.

To image the mechanical modes of our Gaussian SAW devices, we use a unique nanoscale

scanning X-ray diffraction technique that directly measures RF lattice perturbations. In addition,

spatial responses of Autler-Townes splittings are well explained by ensemble averaging shear and

uniaxial strain from the SAW mode. Shear provides an important way of controlling three-level spins

(qutrits) with phonons and opens avenues for coupling spins with MEMS.

We first describe device design and characterization with a nanoscale X-ray diffraction

imaging method, followed by spin manipulation. To amplify the piezoelectric response of the SiC

substrate, we use a thin, sputtered aluminum nitride (AlN) layer on the SiC surface before fabricating

a SAW resonator to create RF mechanical strain. Standard planar SAW resonator designs span

wide apertures, often greater than 100 acoustic wavelengths (λ), distributing the strain across large

crystal areas. Since AlN and 4H-SiC have isotropic in-plane Rayleigh wave velocities20 (5790 and

6830 m/s, respectively), we fabricate simple Gaussian geometries, inspired by Gaussian optics, to

focus strain while also suppressing acoustic diffraction losses (Fig. 1a,b). A patterned aluminum

interdigitated transducer (IDT) transmits SAWs (λ = 12 μm), while grooves in AlN form Bragg

gratings that act as SAW cavity mirrors to support a resonator frequency 𝜔! /2𝜋 ≈ 560 MHz and

loaded quality factor of ~16,000 (Fig. 1c) at 30 K. In our experiments the Gaussian geometries for

enhanced strain focusing and reduced resonator mode volumes facilitate larger strains for fast

coherent manipulation of electron spin states.

3
 To directly visualize the Gaussian mechanical mode, we use stroboscopic scanning X-ray

diffraction microscopy21 (s-SXDM) to image the phonons with nanoscale resolution. This technique

utilizes coherent X-rays from a synchrotron radiation light source, generated at 8 keV and focused to

a 25 nm spot size (FWHM), and Bragg diffraction contrast to enable local measurements of lattice

curvature and strain along a particular crystal orientation. We frequency match a Gaussian IDT’s RF

excitation to the timing structure of the synchrotron storage ring in order to measure the peak-to-

peak amplitude of the acoustic standing wave. Due to the frequency matching requirements for s-

SXDM, we use an IDT without a cavity (see Methods for device specifications), which is designed to

produce a spatial strain mode similar to resonators used in spin experiments. Scanning the nano-

focused X-ray beam in real space clearly shows the SAW profile (Fig. 1d) is consistent with the

fabricated geometry and approximately nanometer Rayleigh wave displacements. The dynamic

transverse lattice slope (Fig. 1e), caused by a local lattice plane tilt towards the ±y direction, is

expected from a Gaussian focus and SAW confinement. These X-ray measurements confirm that

the SAW out-of-plane displacement (in phase with the in-plane uniaxial strain required for spin

driving) is maximized at the resonator’s precise center.

Electron spin ground state sublevels of VV defects are typically measured using optically

detected magnetic resonance (ODMR) with Δms = ±1 transitions magnetically driven by microwave

fields. Due to the defect’s intersystem crossing, ODMR probes the spin projections of ±1 versus 0

through changes in photoluminescence (PL). The ground state spin Hamiltonian neglecting

hyperfine interactions takes the form,

𝐻/ℎ = 𝛾𝐵 ⋅ 𝑆 + 𝑆 ⋅ 𝐷 ⋅ 𝑆

Where h is the Planck constant, γ is the electron gyromagnetic ratio (≈ 2.8 MHz/G), B is the external

magnetic field vector, and D is the zero-field splitting tensor. In the absence of lattice strain, the VV

spin-spin interaction simplifies to 𝐷! 𝑆!! where D0 ~ 1.336 and 1.305 GHz, depicted in Fig. 2a, for c-

4
axis oriented defect configurations22 hh and kk, respectively. The zero-field splitting is sensitive to

local lattice perturbations23 such as thermal disorder, an applied electric field, or strain. When the

lattice is perturbed by a small strain, characterized by a tensor 𝜀!" , the zero-field splitting tensor is

generally modified by ∆𝐷!" = 𝐺!"#$ 𝜀!" where 𝐺!"#$ is the spin-strain coupling tensor. The symmetry of

the spin-strain coupling tensor is determined by the local C3v symmetry of the hh and kk

configurations for VV (Fig. S1) and also applies to the NV center in diamond24. We utilize off-

diagonal Hamiltonian elements containing ∆𝐷!" to drive resonant spin transitions with phonons, and

consider both Δms = ±1 and ±2 transitions for full ground state S = 1 spin control.

We first demonstrate mechanical driving of Δms = ±1 spin transitions with the Gaussian SAW

resonator. The point group symmetries of the VV in SiC allow for non-zero spin-strain coupling

coefficients for zero-field splitting terms that contain the anticommutators 𝑆! , 𝑆! and 𝑆! , 𝑆!

(derivation in supplementary materials). In order to probe acoustic paramagnetic resonance, we tune

the axial magnetic field (B0) such that the spin 0 to −1 transition frequency is matched with the

SAW resonator (Fig. 2a). It is critical to design an experimental measurement sequence insensitive

to stray magnetic fields from electrical currents in the IDT. To disentangle these effects, we use an

interlaced RF pump/laser probe sequence as well as lock-in amplification to measure the difference

in luminescence when the spin resonance frequency is shifted away from the cavity resonance via

modulation of B0 with a small coil. Spin rotations are primarily driven and detected during the SAW

cavity ring down period without RF driving, although the spin ensemble will also encounter some

residual magnetic resonance when the RF drive is turned back on due to lingering optical-spin

polarization. We detect higher PL contrast when the RF drive is matched to our SAW cavity

resonance (Fig. 2b), whereas smaller, residual PL contrast is detected when the RF drive is far off

SAW resonance. When the PL contrast is normalized by ODMR experiments from magnetic driving,

the kk:hh mechanical drive rate ratio is 0.89 ± 0.10, which agrees with our theoretical model and

DFT calculations (ratio ~ 1.0) where shear couples more strongly to Δms = ±1 transitions than does

5
uniaxial strain (Table S2). The transverse spatial dependence (Fig. 2c) confirms that the PL contrast

we measure on resonance matches our Gaussian resonator’s mechanical mode shape. Magnetic

field driving from the IDT, on the other hand, results in a flat profile (two-dimensional spatial mapping

is shown in Fig. S3). The long cavity ring up time prevents us from performing pulsed Rabi

oscillations, though this could be solved using fast B0 pulses to tune the spin resonance frequency.

Our demonstration of Δms = ±1 transitions by phonons enables direct PL contrast (optical detection)

of resonant spin-strain coupling for sensing applications without electromagnetic microwaves.

To complement Δms = ±1 spin driving, we further use the strain coupling terms 𝑆!! − 𝑆!! and

𝑆! , 𝑆! in the zero-field splitting Hamiltonian to show Δms = ±2 spin transitions. For these transitions,

PL contrast from ODMR cannot directly measure resonant strain without extra electromagnetically

driven spin resonance because PL contrast is insensitive to differences between +1 and −1

states. The mechanical transition rate (Ωm) is instead measured using Autler-Townes (AC Stark)

splittings, where in the dressed basis, the new eigenstates are split in energy by Ωm. This splitting

can be observed in the ODMR spectrum. We use a continuous magnetic microwave pump (Rabi

frequency ΩB:±1 ~ MHz) for 0 to ±1 transitions while the SAW is driven at a constant frequency

ωm/2π (Fig. 3a). Dressed state level anti-crossings are most clearly seen when the ±1 spin

sublevels are tuned to the SAW resonance frequency. The dressed spin eigenstate energies

observed for a 400 mW RF drive on the Gaussian SAW resonator closely match predictions13 for

Ωm/2π ≈ 4 MHz (Fig. 3b). Additionally, the Autler-Townes splitting scales linearly with square-root of

RF power delivered to the SAW, which is expected as Ωm is linearly proportional to strain (Fig. 3c).

The resolved Autler-Townes splitting shows that the mechanical drive rate is faster than the

ensemble spin inhomogeneous linewidth (decoherence rate), allowing for measurement of coherent

Rabi oscillations.

We mechanically drive coherent Rabi oscillations of kk electron spins using the pulse

sequence in Fig. 3d to differentiate between populations transferred to +1 versus −1 spin states.

6
The spin ensemble inhomogeneous linewidth (~1 MHz) and relatively long cavity ring up time

(2Q/ωm ≈ 16 μs) prevent fast mechanical pulsing, so we keep the mechanical drive on continuously.

A pair of magnetic microwave π pulses defines the effective mechanical pulse time τ seen by the

spin ensemble (Fig. 3d). Using this pulse sequence and positive ODMR contrast of kk defects,

normalized PL values of ±1 can be interpreted as ∓1 spin populations, respectively, before the

second magnetic π pulse. We find that three-level system dynamics are necessary to explain the

observed mechanical Rabi oscillations shown in Fig. 3e, in particular the ensemble population at τ =

0. The observed Rabi oscillations qualitatively agree with spin simulations predicted using only the

ensemble ODMR spectrum, fitted Autler-Townes splitting, and numerical modeling for

inhomogeneous mechanical driving as a function of depth from Rayleigh waves (Fig. S5). This

demonstrates we can mechanically drive Δms = ±2 transitions with a Rabi frequency about four

times greater than the ensemble ODMR linewidth. Short Rabi decay times are primarily explained by

SAW strain inhomogeneity across the ensemble, though another source of damping may be present

in the experiments. Coherent Rabi oscillations in ensembles for quantum phononics applications

could be improved by using higher quality material and controlled aperture implantations25 for more

homogeneous strain distributions.

We spatially map the Gaussian SAW mode in order to show that Δms = ±2 transitions occur

due to the mechanical driving and not due to any stray electromagnetic fields26. We map changes in

the Autler-Townes splitting, shown in Fig. 4a, at a constant magnetic field while sweeping the laser

position across the SAW beam waist. In the resonator’s transverse direction, a clear Autler-Townes

splitting maximum, and therefore resonant strain amplitude, is observed at the Gaussian acoustic

focus. Ωm as a function of transverse position is well described by a model Gaussian beam waist of

the fundamental mode in the device geometry (FWHM = 3.3λ) and not due to predicted stray electric

fields (Fig. S4). Scanning the laser spot longitudinally (Fig. 4b), along the SAW propagation, reveals

oscillations in the Autler-Townes splitting at the resonator’s acoustic half wavelength. Surprisingly, in

7
conflict with assumptions of a simple sinusoidal standing wave containing uniaxial strain nodes (Fig.

1d,e), we observe the mechanical drive rate oscillations are less than 5% peak-to-peak. This is

contrary to expectations from previous theoretical work27 neglecting the full strain tensor, so we

interpret our experimental results using a spin Hamiltonian under anisotropic strains also including

shear.

The spatial mapping results can be understood by employing a combination of finite-element

simulations in conjunction with DFT calculations of spin-strain interactions (see supplementary

materials). The 1120 mirror plane symmetry in 4H-SiC is broken by shears 𝜀!" and 𝜀!" , which drive

the spin out-of-phase with 𝜀!! − 𝜀!! , 𝜀!" (mirror symmetry preserving). In our experiments, the

Gaussian SAW beamwaist is oriented to propagate in the {1100} plane (defined as the xz-plane).

!
The mechanical transition rate is 𝛺! = 𝐺!! − 𝐺!" 𝜀!! − 2𝑖𝐺!" 𝜀!" corresponding to Δms = ±2
!

transitions, where the spin-strain coupling tensor G is written in Voigt notation. In Fig. 4c we show

finite element simulation results for uniaxial strain 𝜀!! and shear 𝜀!" for a Rayleigh wave propagating

along the x direction. We model the experimental results by converting the strain maps to Ωm using G

calculated from DFT, which is then convolved with both an optical point-spread function and

estimated spatial distribution of the spins (Fig. S5). In our model, spatial averaging causes the spin

ensemble to experience similar transition rate Ωm magnitudes from 𝐺!! − 𝐺!" 𝜀!! and 𝐺!" 𝜀!"

contributions at their respective spatial maxima. These uniaxial strain and shear components, which

are spatially offset, do not interfere destructively since Ωm is proportional to a linear combination of

𝜀!! (𝑆!! − 𝑆!! ) and 𝜀!" (𝑆! 𝑆! + 𝑆! 𝑆! ). Consequently, in qualitative agreement with our calculations (Fig.

S6), we always experimentally measure a non-zero Autler-Townes splitting in Fig. 4b. Furthermore,

our model explains the relative Ωm amplitudes between kk and hh (4.0:1.1) observed in Fig. 4d, and

the results for Δms = ±2 transitions are well described by the zero-field splitting tensor when the full

strain tensor is taken into account. Lastly, we measure mechanical-spin driving on the PL6 defect

8
species in SiC, previously used to demonstrate electron-nuclear spin entanglement in ambient

conditions28. We find that PL6 experiences similar mechanical transition rates compared to hh and

kk (Fig. 4d); therefore, mechanical control of SiC spin ensembles should be possible at room

temperature.

In summary, we have established a Gaussian surface acoustic wave platform for ground

state spin control. We imaged the phononic modes using a novel nanoscale X-ray imaging technique

and developed a general model of anisotropic lattice perturbations based on ab initio calculations,

where local defect symmetries are critical to understanding spin-phonon interactions. Surprisingly,

shear and uniaxial strain couple to the ground state spin with equivalent magnitudes and different

relative phases depending on the strain tensor component. This property could be used to engineer

material and device designs that capitalize on mechanical interactions. Since a complete model of

spin-strain coupling with C3v symmetry requires six independent coupling parameters, strain cannot

necessarily be treated as an equivalent electric field vector. In order to further enhance defect-

phonon interaction strengths for hybrid quantum systems, defect excited state electronic orbitals29,30

and spins31 could be utilized as opposed to ground state spins32, and strain effects on defect

hyperfine couplings have not been well explored. Our combined theoretical understanding and

demonstrations of spin-strain coupling with SiC divacancies provide a basis for quantum sensing

with MEMS33 as well as engineering strong interactions with single phonons for quantum

transduction1, spin squeezing34, and phonon cooling35 applications.

M ethods:
Sam ple fabrication
The substrate was an on-axis, high purity semi-insulating (HPSI) 4H-SiC commercial wafer (Cree
Inc. serial no. W4TRF0R-0200). Defects were created in the 4H-SiC wafer by carbon-12 implantation
with dose 1012 cm-2 at 170 keV and 7° tilt (vacancies generated ~300 nm deep from SRIM
calculations), however there was a high defect density in the SiC bulk from material growth. After
annealing the wafer at 900 °C in N2 for 2 hours, the substrate was then cleaned sequentially with
organic solvents, nanostrip, and HF BOE before AlN was sputtered 500 nm thick on the wafer Si

9
face by OEM Group Inc. The AlN layer had a -42 MPa film stress with an AlN [0002] rocking curve
1.52° full width at half maximum (XRD). The interdigitated transducer (IDT), consisting of 80 finger
pairs with a window at the SAW focus spanning three wavelengths of missing fingers, was fabricated
with 10 nm Ti and 150 nm Al. The Ti/Al and AlN device layers were each dry etched by inductively
coupled plasma (ICP) with 10 sccm Ar, 30 sccm Cl2, and 30 sccm BCl3, 400 W ICP power. AlN
grooves (650 strips for each grating) in all SAW devices were etched nominally 180 nm deep.

The SAW resonator for spin transitions Figs. 1,3-4 was oriented longitudinally (SAW propagation
direction) along 1120 , and the resonator for Fig. 2 was oriented along 1100 . The x, y, z crystal
directions are 1120 , 1100 , 0001 , respectively. Both devices had Gaussian geometry parameters
λ= 12 μm, w0 = 2λ, containing 80 electrode finger pairs and 650 grating strips. All IDT electrodes
and grating strips were overlapped 3σ = 3w/√2 in the transverse direction, where w is the Gaussian
spot size36 along the axis of SAW propagation, while electrodes were only apodized by 2σ. Since the
X-ray imaging experiments require specific frequencies for stroboscopic X-ray diffraction, results in
Fig. 1d,e used a similar IDT geometry, without AlN grooves for increased frequency bandwidth
though more impedance mismatched. Fig. 1d,e used a Gaussian IDT with λ = 19.03 μm, w0 = 1.25λ,
120 electrode finger pairs, yielding an IDT center frequency f0 ≈ 352 MHz with 1 MHz bandwidth.
This was purposefully matched to an integer multiple of the Advanced Photon Source electron bunch
frequency (~ 88 MHz) at Argonne National Laboratory.

M easurem ents
All spin manipulation experiments in this study were carried out in a closed cycle cryostat from
Montana Instruments Corp. operated with the sample temperature at 30 K. The sample is illuminated
using 405 nm and 976 nm laser diodes, with the 405 nm acting as a charge state reset37 to VV0 and
976nm exciting photoluminescence (> 1000 nm) and initializing the spin state. For pulsed laser
experiments, the 976 nm laser is modulated using an acousto-optic modulator (< 50 ns rise time),
while the 405 nm laser diode is directly modulated by a current driver (250 kHz bandwidth). Emitted
PL was separated by a dichroic and passed through a 1000 nm long pass filter, and then collected
into a 62.5 μm core optical fiber. Measurements were realized with an InGaAs photodiode at 1 kHz
bandwidth, combined with a lock-in amplifier set at a reference frequency of ~400 Hz for all
experiments.

Spin ensembles of VV0 near the Gaussian resonator’s beam waist (defined by the acoustic focal
spot w0) are initialized and read out optically. To tune the ground state spin sublevels, we use a
combination of a permanent magnet and a wire loop on a printed circuit board to produce static
magnetic fields (B0) oriented along the 4H-SiC c-axis. A coplanar waveguide (CPW) behind the
sample provides microwaves for in-plane magnetic spin control.

Acknowledgem ents
The devices and experiments were supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, material
for this work was supported by the Department of Energy (DOE). SXDM measurements were
performed at the Hard X-ray Nanprobe Beamline, operated by the Center for Nanoscale Materials at
the Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory (Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357).

10
S.J.W. and K.J.S. were supported by the NSF GRFP, C.P.A. was supported by the Department of
Defense through the NDSEG Program, and M.V.H., F.J.H., A.N.C., G.G., D.D.A. were supported by
the DOE, Office of Basic Energy Sciences. This work made use of the UChicago MRSEC (NSF
DMR-1420709) and Pritzker Nanofabrication Facility, which receives support from the SHyNE, a
node of the NSF’s National Nanotechnology Coordinated Infrastructure (NSF ECCS-1542205). The
authors thank P. J. Duda, P. V. Klimov, P. L. Yu, S. A. Bhave, H. Seo, and N. Schine for insightful
discussions and B. B. Zhou, S. Bayliss, and A. L. Yeats for careful reading of the manuscript.

Author contributions
S.J.W. fabricated devices. S.J.W. and G.W. performed the experiments and data analysis. C.P.A.
and A.B. processed materials. H.M. and M.Y. performed density functional theory calculations.
K.J.S. and G.K. helped with device characterization. M.V.H. executed X-ray imaging experiments.
F.J.H., A.N.C., D.I.S., G.G., and D.D.A. advised on all efforts. All authors contributed to discussions
and production of the manuscript.

Data and m aterials availability

All data are available upon request to the corresponding author.
Additional inform ation
The authors declare no competing interests.

11
Figures

Fig. 1. Strain focusing with a Gaussian SAW resonator. (a) Schematic of the SAW device geometry
fabricated on sputtered AlN on a 4H-SiC substrate. Microwaves drive spin transitions mechanically through the
SAW resonator (cyan) and magnetically from the backside coplanar waveguide (orange). (b) Optical
micrograph of the Gaussian SAW resonator’s acoustic focus (λ = 12 μm, w0 = 2λ) with red lines illustrating the
wave’s out-of-plane displacement (uz). (c) Magnitude (blue) and phase (red) measurements of the 1-port RF
reflection of the Gaussian SAW resonator used in spin experiments. (d,e) Mechanical mode from a similar
Gaussian SAW (λ = 19 μm, w0 = 1.25λ), directly measured with s-SXDM using the 4H-SiC [0004] Bragg peak.
This quantifies the SAW peak-to-peak (d) longitudinal and (e) transverse lattice slopes at the acoustic beam
waist. The image is skewed vertically due to sample drift during measurements.

12
Fig. 2. Optically detected acoustic paramagnetic resonance in silicon carbide. (a) Energy level
diagram showing the SAW frequency on resonance with the spin transition between the 0 and −1 states.
(b) (Top) Interlaced pump-probe sequence during magnetic field-modulation. (Bottom) PL contrast at 30 K
when RF excitation is on and off cavity resonance (ωm/2π = 559.6 MHz). RF power is 32 mW at sample, and
ΔB0 is in reference to the drive frequency. (c) Integrated PL contrast from kk resonance (evaluated at ΔB0 = 0)
as a function of the SAW resonator transverse position. RF on-resonance (“Ωm”) uses the interlaced sequence
from (b), whereas off-resonance data (“ΩB”) uses a continuous, non-interlaced sequence. RF power is 200 mW
!! !
at sample, and the beam waist model is exp ( ), using fabrication parameters and a scaled amplitude. All
!!!
error bars are 95% confidence intervals.

13
Fig. 3. Coherent mechanical driving of kk spin ensembles. (a) VV ground state illustration with
magnetic (ΩB:±1) and electromechanical (Ωm) drives shown. (b) Autler-Townes measurement on a kk ensemble
at 30 K; dressed for N phonons (black) and undressed (white) spin transitions. The mechanically dressed
eigenstates and corresponding transitions are split by Ωm. (c) Mechanical transition rates obtained from Autler-
Townes splittings agree with a linear fit to the square-root of drive power. Error bars are 95% confidence
intervals from fits. Inset shows an Autler-Townes splitting measurement (black) at B0 ≈ 100 G, with Gaussian
0
fits (red) to the VV electron spin and weakly coupled nearby nuclear spins. (d) Pulse sequence for
mechanically driven Rabi oscillations. (e) Mechanically driven Rabi oscillations at ~ 400, 100, and 25 mW,
respectively, and typical error bars are 95% confidence intervals. The signal for each Rabi oscillation is
normalized by a global factor, and simulations are ensemble average predictions with inhomogeneous strain
distributions from finite element modeling.

14
Fig. 4. Spatially mapping mechanical spin drive rates and defect comparisons. (a) Autler-
Townes splitting (left) of kk −1 sublevel as a function of transverse position at x = 0 and mechanical transition
rate (right) analyzed from Autler-Townes splittings. The beam waist model only uses fabrication parameters
with a scaled amplitude. (b) Mechanical transition rate (left) as a function of longitudinal position at y = 0,
plotted with a line through the experimental data. FFT (right) shows a peak and Gaussian fit in red at the
expected acoustic periodicity λ/2 (6 μm). (c) Strain 𝜀!! and 𝜀!" of the SAW modeled with COMSOL
Multiphysics. (d) Autler-Townes splitting measurements for kk, hh, and PL6 with Ωm ~ 4.0, 1.1, 3.4 MHz,
respectively, under the same conditions. All error bars are 95% confidence intervals from fitting and
measurements are performed at 30 K.

15
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