Body Fluids and Circulation In this Chapter... = Blood » Lymph # Circulatory Pathways + During metabolisn and some waste products, Substances that are useful, eed to he transported to other cells, while harmful oF waste substances are to be removed from the body + Thus, circulatory system is formed with the eurrier, «fluid nedium that circulates throughout the body and fulfils the need of the body cells for the distribution of useful products and elimination of waste products. ple organisins such as sponges and coelenterates have simple body organisation. These are in direct contact with attwosphere. Thus, they do not require any circulatory system. They instead circulate water from their surroundings nore complex organisins, special fluids are used to transport these substances within the body. Blood and: Iymph are the two types of fluids that aet as a earrier in the body Blood + [tis a special connective tissue comprising of a fluid natrix, plasma and formed elements. Plasma forms the luidl medium in which the blood cells (corpuscles) float and carry out different important functions. ¢ Human Circulatory System 1 Double Circulation # Regulation of Cardiac Activity «# Disorders of Circulatory system 1. Plasma * Iisa straw coloured, viscous, slightly alkaline aqueous body fluid. It forms about 55% of the blood. * This composed of many organic and inorganic substances It contains 90-92% water and 6-5% solutes init + The solutes found in plasma are various ions (like Na* Mg**. Ca**, HCO;, ete), glucose, traces of other susars, plasma proteins, amino acids, hormones, cholesterol, other lipids, urea, other wastes and other organic acids. + Factors for clotting or coagulation of blood are also present actively in the plasma. Plasma without the blood clotting, factors is called serum. + Proteins found in plasina are important as they are responsible for providing viseasity to the plasma. The major proteins found in plasma are fibrinogen, globulins and albumins. Functions of Plasma It performs various funct follows the blood, these are as (i) Helps in transport and uniform distribution of heat all ver the body (ii) Provides body im Maintenance of blood pH. nity(iy) Helps in prevention of blood lous (9) hemor em el lating hu es Man tnartatnn ntntie = 11. Formed Elements ‘The formed elements oe bh wclade cen thracytes leucocytes and These constitute abet 459% of the blood 1. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Corpuscies) + These are the most abundant ofall ell found i the Blood “They are ree in colour duc tothe presenre oa pioent ‘called haemoglobin, which acts us an oxygen carrier. The formation of RBCs takes place the red bame marrow 1 aha + RBCs are biconcave, dise-shaped cells with the diameter of shout 7-$ micron. The shape of REC t lightly variable. As there ate no cell organelles found tet wehbe edane 1 filed with haemoglabin. A healthy andtvidal has abst 12-16 jon of hurwogloban in every 100 ml. of blood. C icabout 5.5 million + In women, the average mumber is about 44.5 mm” of blood. + Total lifespan of RBC is 120 days. After which BC Ihecomes non-functional and gets destroyed in spleen. Sa, spleen is graveyard of RUC 2. Leucocytes (White Blood Cells) + These ate kninen to be the mot active and motile ‘constituent of bead as el as Byph, They ch ot pesacss the red cobour proment (harwogbsbun) wi thew. so they are ‘calourbens ro nature + These are uncleated and are generally short lived cell ‘The mumber of WBCs are relatively lesser in number, ‘shout 6000-5000 men? of hood. They move in an norton fashion These can squeeze then capillary ‘wall and mene to the ite of ation This phenomenon 4s called diapedesis + Leauaytes ot white Mond corpuscles afr eategonsed ant theo matn categones sch as |. Granulocytes ‘They contain granules in the cytoplasen and have regularly Abed wuclews. The granulocytes ae further subeivaed sto three mats types o These are the most abundant cells (bout 60-65%) ofthe total WBCs. They stain exally srellth arid ot wel a be de, bene they te tneutral wy nature: These ate Faveipepieeeg ark, (1) Rani Thy ar cherry in abe rnacleus They are stained bright red an colour with sche dye (due to the preseace of wumervus (narse sranules int) such as cosin, They amv bout 29% of total WBC. tmfectuons and are alo assoctated with all allerexe reactions They aly help in dissolving blood det They igh ah setter pot During allenic conditions, the mumber of costo inervase tata by (6) Rasophibs They contain fewer coarse rams than the Felon ediemetee ihe. They are found ht alnuncndly (05-10%) among WHC. They secrete histamine, serotonin, heparan ote and are bavabed tn reaction. iL Agranulocytes They lack granules t ther eytoplasm and have rounded or ‘nal muclews. Agranulocytes are alo further subshivided into too mal types (0 Lyeghayte Theo aller nie aed have are af further two tppen er Decl nal rece Bao Ue Ga Bad ee eect maining oe () Monocytes These are largest of ll types of WIC, but are fewer tn suanber. Mature monoeytes are know as trucrophasrs. They help t ball orci particles These are phaganeybe a wate ; # O®@ Ei = Nevroer ® 0 co 4 agra: representation of Torre eters ir blood 3. Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes) + These are cell fragnoents produced from megakaryorytes (he the speetal cells found in the real bow uuartne) + These are oval-shaped, dise-ike cells found ony in ‘mammalian bload These are devoud of nucle Platelets contain mitochondria, Gale) bodies and some: other structures such as granules, tubules, filaments of sctin and myosin, ADP, ete + Blood normally contains 150000-350000 platelets per cubic meter (ram? ) A reduction in their wumber can lead to resistclotting disorders which will lead to excessive blood lows from the body if sore one get injured + The lifespan of platelets is aly ubont 712 days. The formation of thromborytes ts called thrombapoiesis. + Funetion of Blood Platelets hes ai ction ithe body is to release factors most of which are involved in -eomgulation or clotting of blood Blood Groups + Two methods of blood grouping inchide ABO system (first reported by Karl Landstcner) and h-system. 1.480 + Red bond cell of different people der de to the prosenes or absence of two suaface antigens (A and B) which are responsible for different types of blood soups, (64,8, AB and O. + AB blood group is universal acceptor and O blood emp is universal donor, + Different blood soups and their donor compatibty are Usted belie Blood Antigen pape __ bac ‘ D Antibodies in Donor’ plasma xroup At Ao Auth wo Nil ABARO ‘Nati, ° a 8 a Ni o 2. Rh Grouping * Insoxne india, Rh antigen ix present similar toon present in Rhesus monkeys. Such individuals are alles Rh positive Rh"), while person lacking Hh-factor ae called Rh negative (Rh). + Rl-factor i needed to be checked before Hood transfusion, Avwell known example of Ri-incompatibility is sen in ‘ease of Rh” mother pregnant with ts Rh” foetus, + During pregnancy. Rh antibodies trom Rh mother pass to Ath” foetus and destroy foetal RBC, This condition is known as erythroblastosis foetais The foetus sulers from severr anaernte and jaundice + Fest pregnancy is quite safe fn this ease however. in subsequent pregnancies anti-th antibodies are salonnstered to the ruther mneditely after the delivery af fist child. Coagulation of Blood + When an injury te eaused, the wound normally does ot ‘continue to bleed fora long time andthe blood stops lowing alter some tne. Its the natural property exhibited by the blo to eee the exeesstve loss of blood fr an ‘jury or tram. + Clotting of bloat «complex process that involves various ‘enzvmutealy contrafled steps forts completion Natural Anticoagulants Anside an intact blood veosel, the Mood does not coagulate becuse of the presence of an active auticnagpbants, 6 heparin any These procompubants are _preseut in the blood in their mactte forms, acmophilia v4 genetic disease, which i cansed due to deficiency of fibargen and yanin-K. tn this consio, the bod dow ott er ay try bo Pea at reer de Formation of a Clot + An injury ot trauma extses stinmaation of platelets cel to release cevtan platelet factors This in turn activates the mechanism of coagulation af eltting af howd af the ste of sayy + Heoceurs in following three steps @ thctps an formation of an enzyme (i) Thrombin thus ets a a eanme to convert Fibeinogen molecu (poaiaced from the het the presence of stain: to for insluble Bri lryoms tance Bond eaeee lowe a Therein nes cat" rote (PO “=a Prone | cases Fermagee —_h (Feee + Boor cat — Cat fate ot nrombocyesn od cougut on ‘Tha wraction required thrombokinase an cacy comps. which is formed by «series of linked fy male reactions (with cascade elect) wich involves a number of varios factors preset the ‘plasma tn thet inactive state Both the changes mentioned bone rete Ca” was for thet react, is These fies mapomers polymere to Toa sticky ‘wes, The fbr threads orm a ine network of threads called fibrin, which dead and damaged formed clincnts of Mod are trapped “This finaly leads to the formation of « lot or eoagulam, sehich va dark rei bron sete forte oer the Surface of guy ‘Step Step ‘StepFunctions of Blood heel performs the llr weurtant fue ts (0 Helps in tansportation uf reyparatory eaves (te. Oy. C04, ete) (40 Help ts eng of wom (iit) Maintains body pH. water and tonic lance, in) Faght aeanet mfeetons hy forms ew amma (9) Also helps in transportation of hormone from cendoerite laos to arcet ors (08) Caaggsition of land (1 Bite perme dwt et WBC: (specialised hnnphocytes, The overall campesition ‘of yauph smal to hood with the exception of absece ‘of RBCs platelets and some plasma proteins and sm having, less caletum and phosphoruas than their levels inthe ‘bond It also contains all the ons. present wv the blood plasm Weis an elaborate network of vessel, which collets the interstitial Maid tse td) along with same protein smolecules drains hack into the major vems. The Imphate seniel are present my al tuesies cept the ‘central nervous system and cornea Functions of Lymph Lamph performs the following wnpexrtant fueron (vy Macs yan enportant carrier of wutnents hormones ete of fat also vec through mph a the present in the testinal ville (it) Ato hepsi the renewal of ECF. (i) Matoration of ie. Bell and T-celle aceur with the elpof mph nodes ereusng them into the haeph, Human Circulatory System Bleed vascular sytem of man consis os scar chambered heart, network of choed | blood ‘emelsand Hod. (ae. the fed which erated) Heart Risa ‘exviy in between fibromuscular ‘organ. sighth conical tm shape of about 12m length ated derived organ. situsted in the thoracic $m breadth. The upper load partis called the ae andthe lower marrow part known asthe apen I has a size of x euthed fst Protective Covering Tat pte yaad means ao smecinnee eked pecan ail Tas Qedtpe Lcpinethe wuface ft het as anda protects fran dock and mechanical injure Strectre of famsan est cas be sadled under te heads for cary woderendiog, Le exteael aed ahaa vcstare External Structure Externally the human heart of four chambers, ‘Le. two relatively small upper ealled auricles (sing. atria) and too larort lore chusulers alled ventricles “The right atrion i lightly Large than the eft trian. Both (has ms enat eet Ud ea arse by acts Internal Structure Internally, the chambers of heart Le two waricles (ata andl ventncley are separate by diferent septa and valves Auricles (Atria) These are the upper te thin-sealled and smaller chambers, They sere to recene the blood. therefore are called receiving chambers (right atria and let arn, Both the right and the left atria are separated by Ui, muscular wall Anu as interatrial septum. (4) Right Atrium ‘This right chamber deals with ony impure (dewygenated) blow It receives impure blood from various parts of the bud through two taj veins, Le. superior and inferior ena ca 1t abo receives blood from the walls ofthe heart itself ‘through « coraaary ss) (b) Left Atrium This chamber és meant to deal with only (oxygenated bload It receives blood (pure) from eds te peer vi. ce mi Ventricles “Theo are Lover tro camaro he hem, that pops the ‘od weet hr ert This ont os peeping chembors Both the ight andthe wets are meprated ure elec Ther nd eet te ar spurned by moticy spt thick Brows ee alle [Aeeveairiccarvopeam fr AV septum (0) Riga Venti H series inpre bod rom sight ‘mien sl pumpuiicotene yemeomey eosy ek Sorte tae thn Hl! a ngs fr pation (8) elt Ventre 1 receives pre mygrmatd bead Goo ki ead el popes pe aad(largest artery in the pathway), which in turn t blood to whole body and organs. —_— Aorta Pulmonary artery Sinoatial node Let avium Right atriuen Atrioventricular Bundle of His node Vena cava. Left ventricle Chordae tendinae Interventricular septum Right ventricle Apex Section of @ human heart Cardiac Valves Apart from septum, heart is also separated by the various valves, These valves act as a door-like structure in the heart that serves to maintain the unidirectional flow of blood. Different valves present in the rt are given below (i) Tricuspid Valve It is formed by three muscular flaps or cusps to guard the opening between the right atri and the right ventricle. (ii) Bicuspid Valve (Mitral valve) It is the type of valve that guards the opening between the left atrium and the left ventricle. (iii) Semilunar Valve The opening of the right and the left ventricles into the pulmonary artery and the aorta, respectively are provided with the semilunar valves. Functions of Cardiac Valves ‘The valves in the heart allow the flow of blood onl; direction, ie. from the atria to ventricles and from the ventricles to the pulmonary artery or aorta and prevent any backward flow of blood into four chambers. Conducting System of Heart ‘The heart is made up of cardiac muscles. The ventricular walls are thicker than that of the atrial walls. The rhythm of heart is maintained by a highly specialised cardiac musculature called the nodal tissue distributed evenly in the heart n 1. The Sinoatrial Node or SA Node (SAN) SA node is a small flattened patch of specialised tissue present in the right upper comer of the right a ‘The impulse generated by this node spreads of the heart (i.e. go to both auricles and causes the: relaxation and contraction). one2. The Atrioventricular Node or AV Node (AVN) The signals which arise from SA node become weak when they reach ventricles because ventricles are far away from SA node. Thus, to strengthen these signals, another mass of tissue is seen in the lower left corner of the right atrium close to the atrioventricular septum (i.e. at the junction of ventricles and atrium) known as AV node. This is also known as pacesetter. 3, Bundle of His A bundle of nodal fibres, i.e. Atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle) continues from the AV node, which passes through the atrioventricular septa to emerge on the top of the interventricular septum immediately dividing into a right and left bundle. This bundle gives rise to a network of minute fibres (which are myocardial in origin) throughout the ventricular musculature of the respective side known as Purkinje fibres. These fibres along with the right and left bundles are called bundle of his, The Purkinje fibres conduct impulses to all portions of ventricular walls of the heart. Working of Nodal Tissue * The nodal musculature possesses the ability of generating action potentials without any external stimuli, ie. it is autoexcitable. However, the nodal system generates different number of action potential at different parts in a minute. The SAN can generate the maximum number of action potentials, Le. 70-75 min =, + Itis also responsible for the initiation and maintenance of the rhythmic contractile activity of the heart. Therefore, the SAN (ie. SA Node) is also called pacemaker. Our heart normally beats 70-75 times in a minute (i.e. average 72 beats/min).Features of Arteries (i) Valves are absent in arteries, (if) Arteries are divided into fine branches, known as arterioles, which are further divided to form finer branches, called capillaries. Veins ‘These are another type of blood vessels that bring blood from dierent body parts othe here, carry ood towards the heart, All veins are meant to carry impure blood except the pulmonary vein that carries pure blood, ic. from Jungs to the heart. Veins are provided with valves to prevent backward flow of blood. Cardiac Cycle + ‘The heart pumps the blood to all parts of the body. The changes that take place in heart during one heartbeat, together constitute cardiac cycle. + The heartbeats at an average rate of about 72 times/min, ‘Thus, the total duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 s. During a heartbeat, the contraction and relaxation of atria and ventricles take place. ‘The phase of contraction is known as systole, while the relaxation phase is called the diastole, Thus, a single heartbeat consists of a systole and diastole of both the atria and the ventricles. To begin with the cardine cycle, all four chambers of heart are in a relaxed state, ie. they are in joint diastole, during which, the blood flows from the superior and the inferior ‘vena cava into the atria and from there to the respective ventricles through auriculoventricular valves. “The complete cardiac cycle is comprised of following events that take place in a sequential manner Atrial Systole + A.wave of contraction occurs from anterior to posterior side stimulated by the SA node. The blood flows from the pulmonary veins and vena cava into the left and right ventricles, respectively as the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open. During this time the blood does not return to the great veins (as blood is already present in them), The semilunar valves are closed. The atrial systole increases the flow of hood into the ventricles by about 30% (as 70% filling of ventricles occurs passively during relaxation of ventricles, before the atrial contraction), At the end of the atrial systole, there start relaxation of the atria (atrial diastole) and contraction of the ventricles (ventricular systole) simultaneously. The atrial systole occurs for 0.1s, while the atrial diastole on the other hand. is of about 0.75.Ventricular Systole + This step involves the simultaneous relaxation of atria (atrial diastole) and contraction of ventricles (ventricular systole). As the contraction of the ventricles begins, the pressure of blood rises in them almost immediately (above the pressure in the atria). This rapidly closes the atrioventricular valves, in order to prevent the back flow of blood from ventricles to atria. * The conduction of action potential to the ventricular side occurs by the AV node and AV bundle from where the bundle of His transmits it through the entire ventricular musculature. The contraction of ventricles thereby, increases the ventricular pressure causing the closure of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves due to attempted backflow of blood into the atria. Finally, due to this, the increase in the pressure occurs in the great arteries (i.e. pulmonary and aortic arches), so semilunar valves guarding the pulmonary artery (right side) and the aorta (left side) are forced open and blood enters through great arteries into ventricles. When ventricles relax (ventricular diastole), the ventricular pressure falls which causes the closure of semilunar valves preventing the backflow of blood into the ventricles. A further decline in the ventricular pressure, opens the tricuspid and bicuspid valves by the pressure in the atria exerted by the blood, which was being emptied into them by the veins, This allows the blood to move freely to the ventricles once again. ‘The ventricles and atria are now again in a relaxed state Joint diastole) as earlier. Soon, the SAN generates a new action potential and the events described above sequencially repeated to continue the process (next cardiac cycle), Heart Rate and Cardiac Output + We have just studied that, our heartbeats for about 72 times per minute (on an average). This concludes that in a single minute, many cardiac cycles are performed. Thus, deducing that duration of a each cardiac cycle is 0.8 s. + During each cardiac eycle (i.e. in one beat) each ventricle pumps out about 70 ml. of blood. This is known as stroke volume. + The volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle in one minute is called cardiac output. * We know that, in one minute heartbeats for 72 times, Thus, cardiac output will be 5040 mL. or approximately 5L in a normal individual. ‘Thus, Cardiac output = Stroke volume x Numbers of beats Anin.Double Circulation The mammalian heart is four-chambered, undergoing the process of complete separate double circulation. This means that blood passes twice through the heart to supply the blood for once to the body. This transmission is neccessary, as it helps in oxygenation of blood. The following processes constitute the double circulation (i) Pulmonary Circulation In this system, blood completes its circulation from right ventricle to the left atria through the lungs. Here, the deoxygenated blood pumped by the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery while, the left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta, The deoxygenated blood is passed on to the lings from where, the oxygenated blood is carried out by the pulmonary veins into the left atrium of heart. (ii) Systemic Circulation In this system, the pure blood is supplied to all parts of the body. During transport, the oxygenated (pure) blood entering the aorta is carried by a network of arteries, arterioles and capillaries to the tissues from where the deoxygenated (impure) blood is collected by a system of venules, veins and yena cava, thus, emptying it into the right atrium. This system provides essential nutrients, O, and other essential substances to all the tissues of body and eventually takes away CO, and other harmful substances away from tissues for their elimination from body.