Chapter 2

• L2 Reading / Focus on the Reader

• Reading is a complex interaction of cognitive processes and strategies, with previous models of
reading instruction focusing on bottom-up processes or top-down skills.

• However, an overemphasis on either side of the interaction can leave some students behind.

• This chapter focuses on the reader, especially the L2 reader, to understand how readers' prior
knowledge and individual characteristics impact their interaction with a particular text.

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Academic Language and Literacy Development Across Different L2 Student Audiences.
Adapted from Ferris (2009).

Language International/ Immigrant Generation

Skill or EFL 1.5
Knowledge
Area

Formal Yes In some cases No

Knowledge
about L2

Listening/ Weak (but varies Adequate Appear fluent

Speaking cross-culturally) listening and and confident
Skills conversation in aural/oral
skills, skills
pronunciation
weaknesses

L1 Academic Strong Varies Weak or none

Literacy Skills considerably

L2 Academic Strong Varies Weak

Reading Skills foundation, depending upon
limited educational
experience profile

L2 Writing Adequate, with Weak Stronger than

Skills some areas of immigrant
weakness group

• L2 readers bring various factors into the reading process, including purposes for reading, background
influences, attitudes towards reading and literacy, prior knowledge related to the information in the
text, and individual differences in personality, learning styles, reading strategies, and life experience.

• These factors can vary across readers, making it essential to consider these variables when designing
needs assessment, course design, text selection, and classroom instruction.
 ………………………………………..

• Children learning to read in their L1 language have years of oral language exposure, which has
helped them develop a vocabulary of thousands of words, mastery of the phonological system, and
strongly developed intuitions about L1 morphology and syntax.

• College students who have always been educated in their L1s have 12 or more years of literacy
experience and exposure in that language.

• In contrast, L2 readers began in acquiring their target language later, have less acquired knowledge
of it, and have had less experience with (and exposure to) L2 texts.

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• Academic literacy demands in upper-secondary and postsecondary education are challenging, with
many L1 students not adequately prepared.

• Over the past 25 years, English-language programs have been impacted by a growing number of ESL
students, including refugees, immigrants, and first-generation immigrants.

• Teachers should consider the diverse "immigrant" audience and not assume strong language or
literacy skills.

• Generation 1.5 students, who have received most of their education in the L2, may fall below
grade level in academic subjects.

• Strong L1 literacy skills and consistent educational experiences may predict a student's ability to
succeed at more advanced levels.

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Implications of Multiple Student Audiences for Reading Instruction

• L2 students often struggle with academic reading tasks due to various educational and sociocultural
factors.

• International students, who are usually fully literate in their L1s and have formal instruction in L2,
have transferable reading skills and experience, but may have limited opportunities to read
extensively in L2.

• Later-arriving immigrants may not be fully literate in their L1s, and their L2 may be developed
through "ear learning."

• Generation 1.5 students may also struggle with academic reading, as they may not have fully
developed L1 literacy skills to transfer to L2 reading.

• While Generation 1.5 students have a strong oral foundation, they may need instruction and practice
in intensive reading skills to overcome these challenges.
 L2 Reading in Non-academic Settings
L2 reading instruction can occur in non-academic settings like adult education or vocational programs,
catering to students from various backgrounds.

These students may be illiterate, nonliterate, or have no experience with the orthography of the second
language.

The immediate goals of reading instruction may differ in adult education or vocational courses, but teachers
should expose students to enjoyable reading experiences.

Teachers should be aware of the differing levels of literacy skill and knowledge that may co-exist in the
same class, even if oral L2 proficiency appears equivalent.

Understanding students' prior experiences with language and literacy is crucial for course design.

A list summarizes variables that could be included in a student intake form or

background questionnaire
• Birthplace (student’s or parents’);
• Visa, immigration, or citizenship status;
• Educational context(s) (in L1 or L2 setting or both);
• Schooling in English;
• English language instruction (when and where);
• Self-reported language use (Do students read and write in both L1 and L2? Which language do they
use most frequently or consider their “best” or “primary” language?);
• Other information about educational history (e.g., TOEFL or IELTS results, GPA, high school
diploma) (for sample instruments, see Ferris [2009]; Goen, Porter, Swanson, & van Dommelen
[2002]; Reid [1998]).

What a Reader Knows

• Student schemata, or knowledge or contribution to the reading process, is crucial in selecting texts
and teaching, especially when readers have diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

Influences of Family and Society

• Reading is influenced by home environments and cultural attitudes, with socioeconomic and
educational disparities contributing to differences.
• Heath's study found cross-cultural attitudes, as reading is often seen as a social and practical activity.
• Immigrating to the United States may cause confusion about homework assignments and classroom
practices.

Heath's 1983 study, Ways with words,

• It explores literacy practices and attitudes in three southeastern US communities, revealing
differences that impact children's reading knowledge and expectations.

• For instance, in Trackton, children were praised for storytelling, but sometimes labeled as "liars."
 School Influences
• School-based reading experiences can impact children's attitudes towards reading, either positively or
negatively.
• Teachers should be aware of preschool literacy experiences and provide opportunities for reading
activities.
• However, school-based reading can counteract positive models, such as mechanical worksheets or
artificial texts.
• Reading skills have declined in highly educated societies, especially for minority language students.
• School-based reading variables are complex and can be influenced by educational systems.

• Types of Reader Schemata

• Reading comprehension involves different subtypes of schemata, including linguistic schemata,

formal schemata, and content schemata.

• Linguistic schemata provide the basic threshold for beginning to read a text, as it includes sounds,
symbols, metaphors, words, phrases, sentences, and markers of cohesion.

• Formal schemata refers to the understanding of how different text types are organized. It is
developed in young children through stories and later through life experiences.

• However, some L2 readers may have gaps in formal schemata due to limited reading experience and
extensive reading in their L1s.

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• Content schemata, a reader's prior knowledge of a text, can be challenging for L2 readers,
especially when referencing biblical references or American board games.

• Teachers should identify gaps in students' schemata and develop strategies to improve
comprehension.

What the L2 Reader Knows: Final Thoughts

• Student schemata, or knowledge or contribution to the reading process, is crucial in selecting texts
and teaching, especially when readers have diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

• Salient features are as follows;

Influences of Family and Society

• Reading influences children's background knowledge and schema formation, with varying attitudes
based on socioeconomic, educational, and cultural factors. Heath's study in the southeastern US
found these differences can affect children's knowledge and expectations.

• School-based reading experiences can influence children's views and attitudes towards reading, either
positively or negatively. Teachers should be aware of preschool literacy experiences and provide
activities that demonstrate the usefulness of reading.
• Reading skills have declined in highly educated societies, with many young adults finishing high
school and entering college with below-average literacy skills. School-based reading variables are
more complex for L2 readers, who are influenced by their educational system's literacy views.

Types of Reader Schemata

• Reading comprehension involves
• linguistic, formal, and content schemata,
• with linguistic schemata providing the basic threshold for reading,
• while formal schemata helps older readers grapple with L2 texts sooner due to school or work
settings.
• Formal schemata refers to knowledge about organizing text types, such as narrative presentation in
chronological order and problem-solution sequences.
• As students gain life experience, they develop other types of formal textual schemata.

• However, some L2 readers may have gaps in formal schemata due to limited reading experience and
extensive reading experience.

• Content schemata, the reader's prior knowledge of ideas in a text, is crucial for all readers, but
specific aspects may be problematic for L2 readers.

What the L2 Reader Knows: Final Thoughts

• Eskey (1986) introduced a two-part gap model for L2 readers, focusing on the comprehension gap
and the confidence gap.

• The comprehension gap is divided into linguistic, pragmatic, and cultural components.

• The confidence gap is related to the comprehension gap and is influenced by factors such as
inefficient reading strategies, misuse of dictionaries, and avoidance of L2 reading.

• L2 reading teachers should be aware of these confidence issues to develop empathy and patience
with students' anxieties and resistance to reading.

• This knowledge can help design effective reading exercises, strategy training activities, and
assignments to address students' less successful L2 reading practices.

Individual Differences among L2 Readers

• This chapter explores L2 readers' audiences, background knowledge influences, and learner attitudes.

• It highlights individual differences in second language acquisition, focusing on motivation, learning

styles, and strategies.

• It acknowledges that these subgroups are made up of individual students, and the study of individual
differences is beyond the scope of this chapter.

Motivation
• Learner motivation is a crucial aspect of education, especially in language learning. It can be divided
into intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
• Intrinsic motivation is more powerful than extrinsic motivation, and teachers should promote it to
help students achieve excellence and autonomy.
• Engaging students in extensive reading can help them discover the benefits of reading and develop
effective reading strategies.
• Teachers should be aware of students' diverse interests and the resources available to them, but note
that reader interest may vary depending on external circumstances.
• Teachers should be sensitive to the interests and knowledge base of a specific student audience and
not assume that what interests them will also appeal to students.

Learning Styles
• Cognitive and learning styles, including global and analytical, verbal and auditory, and visual and
nonverbal, have been studied by educators and psychologists for decades.

• Global learners process information holistically, often focusing on the gist of the input without
paying much attention to specific details.

• These styles are reflected in various learning, cognitive, and personality styles, such as field
independence, left- or right-brain dominance, tolerance of ambiguity, and the Sensor or Intuitive
continuum on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.

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• Analytical and global learning styles significantly impact reading processes, with analytical learners
focusing on specific questions but struggling to understand the overall meaning of a text.

• Teachers should recognize these differences and facilitate balanced, nuanced reading experiences that
meet individual learners' needs.

• Learning styles play a significant role in teaching reading, with visual learners processing
information best through visuals and auditory learners processing information through their ears.

• Teachers can help students identify their primary mode of input-processing by asking questions about
their preferred methods of receiving information.

Learner Strategies
• Learning strategies are essential for effective second language (L2) reading courses, aiming to
improve students' reading skills for academic, professional, and personal life.

• Teachers should consider students' prior experiences and unconscious reading strategies when
designing courses and planning classroom instruction.

• Classroom strategy instruction should be individualized, including initial assessment of strategy

knowledge, instruction that accommodates students' needs, and assessments that evaluate students'
strategy use and subsequent reading experiences.

Focus on the Reader: Implications

• The discussion discusses the diverse audience profiles of L2 readers, the influences of family, school,
and society on their background knowledge, and individual differences in motivation, learning styles,
and strategies, providing practical implications for L2 reading teachers.
 Needs Assessment and Course Goals
• Chapter 4 discusses course design, needs analysis, and goal-setting.

• It emphasizes the importance of understanding reader-based issues and institutional and curricular
constraints in course planning.

• Teachers often rely on textbooks to set priorities for literacy instruction, allowing textbook authors or
publishers to make crucial decisions.

• Learning about the student audience is crucial for effective L2 literacy instruction, and should be
done before, during, and after a course.

Text Selection
• Teachers should understand student characteristics and interests when selecting texts for courses.
• They should ask detailed questions about students and allow them some choice in what they will
read.
• However, they should not discard unfamiliar texts if they help address course goals and student
needs.
• Awareness of student background knowledge and experience should inform teachers when using
materials for instructional purposes.

Classroom Instruction
• Understanding students' background knowledge can impact pre-reading activities and instruction,
influencing vocabulary instruction and development.

• Teachers should be aware of students' learning styles and strategies, which can help design
syllabuses, lesson plans, and instruction that appeal to a range of learners.

• Considering students' knowledge, experience, interests, and needs can also help design classroom
assessment and post-reading extension activities.