Physical Optics

Waves
Wave is a disturbance through space and time, which transfer energy from one point to
the other without any particle of the medium being permanently displaced

Longitudinal waves → oscillations of the particle

are in the direction of wave propagation: sound
waves, ultrasonic waves

Transverse waves → oscillations of the particles

are perpendicular to the wave propagation → EM
waves
- Light is an electromagnetic wave, explained by Maxwell’s theory of
Electromagnetic radiation

- Examples of EM waves: Radio and infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet

radiation, and X-rays

- Light has a dual nature: particle & wave nature

- Some phenomena like the Photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, etc. → particle
nature

- Phenomena like Interference, diffraction, polarization → wave nature

Propagation of light
- Speed of light in vacuum ~ 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s

- Speed of light in medium:

• The speed of light through matter is less than it is in a vacuum because
light interacts with atoms in a material.

• The speed of light depends strongly on the type of material since its
interaction varies with different atoms, crystal lattices, and other substructur
es

The speed of light is medium (𝑣) is given by:

𝑐
𝑣=
𝜇
where 𝜇 is index of refraction of the medium (𝜇 ≥ 1), where 𝑐 is speed of light in
vacuum.
EM wave spectrum

Visible range:
400 nm – 800 nm
Wave front

There are three types of wavefronts:

- Spherical wave fronts
- Plane wave fronts
- Cylindrical wave fronts
Spherical Wave front
When the source of light is a point source, the wave front is spherical.

Point source means the source of light is so small that it is considered as point. It can be
considered as dimensionless.

Example → Ripples in water are in the form of concentric circles, which are spherical
wave fronts.
Plane wave front
A point source of light in an isotropic medium at an infinite distance will give rise to a plane
wave front.

For example: -Rays coming from infinity like Sun

Cylindrical wave front
A linear source of light such as a slit illuminated by a lamp, will give rise to cylindrical wave
front
Huygens’ principle
- Proposed wave theory of light in 1678
- Explained reflection, refraction

Huygens’s principle:

Every point on a wavefront is a source of wavelets → that spread out

in the forward direction at the same speed as the wave itself. The new
wavefront is tangent to all of the wavelets

We can draw these wavelets at a time 𝑡 later, so that they have moved
a distance
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡
The new wavefront is a plane tangent to the wavelets and is where we
would expect the wave to be a time 𝑡 later.

Huygens’s principle works for all types of waves, including water waves
, sound waves, and light waves.
Phase & phase difference
If a sinusoidal function is given as
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃
Then 𝜃 is the phase angle and 𝐴
is the amplitude

For a traveling wave, we have

𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡)
where 𝜔𝑡 is the phase.

Phase difference
Relation between Phase and path difference

Wave from slit S1

𝑦1 = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑟1 )
With phase, 𝜑1 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑟1

Wave from slit S2

𝑦2 = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑟2 )
With phase, 𝜑2 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑟2

𝜃 = 𝜑2 − 𝜑1 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑟2 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑟1 = 𝑘 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
2𝜋
= 𝛿
λ

The relation between phase difference and path diffe

rence is:
2𝜋
𝜃= 𝛿
λ
Phase difference
If the phase difference between two wa
ves is 180o, waves will be in “antiphase” If two waves have the same phase at a point,
they add up in intensity → constructive interfe
If such waves meet in space, they rence (b)
cancel out each other → destructive int
erference (a)
Interference of Light
What is the interference of light?
a) The bending of light rays as they pass through a medium
b) The interaction of two or more light waves resulting in reinforcement or cancellation
c) The scattering of light due to particles in the atmosphere
d) The conversion of light energy into heat energy

Which phenomenon is responsible for the colours seen in soap bubbles?

a) Diffraction
b) Polarization
c) Interference
d) Dispersion
What is the interference of light?
a) The bending of light rays as they pass through a medium
b) The interaction of two or more light waves resulting in reinforcement or cancellation
c) The scattering of light due to particles in the atmosphere
d) The conversion of light energy into heat energy

Which phenomenon is responsible for the colours seen in soap bubbles?

a) Diffraction
b) Polarization
c) Interference
d) Dispersion
Interference of light occurs when:
a) A single light wave interacts with itself
b) Two light waves with different frequencies collide
c) Light passes through a vacuum
d) Light reflects off a mirror

Which type of interference occurs when two waves are in phase and reinforce each other?
a) Constructive interference
b) Destructive interference
c) Partial interference
d) Total interference

What happens during destructive interference?

a) Waves amplify each other
b) Waves cancel each other out
c) Waves change direction
d) Waves refract
Interference of light occurs when:
a) A single light wave interacts with itself
b) Two light waves with different frequencies collide
c) Light passes through a vacuum
d) Light reflects off a mirror

Which type of interference occurs when two waves are in phase and reinforce each other?
a) Constructive interference
b) Destructive interference
c) Partial interference
d) Total interference

What happens during destructive interference?

a) Waves amplify each other
b) Waves cancel each other out
c) Waves change direction
d) Waves refract
Interference of Light
The modification or change in the uniform distribution of light intensity in a medium

due to the superposition of two light waves is called INTERFERENCE.

Wave A

Wave B
Interference of Light
Consider two light sources having intensities I1 and I2 and amplitudes 𝒂1 and 𝒂2

𝑦1 = 𝑎1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡

𝑦2 = 𝑎2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝑎1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝑎2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙

𝑦 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 − 𝑎2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑦 = 𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 − 𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑦 = 𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿

𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛿 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙

𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛿 = 𝑎2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜙
 𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛿 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙

𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛿 = 𝑎2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜙

Squaring and adding we get

𝐴2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙

I = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2 𝐼1 𝐼2
 𝐴2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙

I = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙

I𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2

I𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑎12 + 𝑎22 − 2𝑎1 𝑎2
if 𝒂1 = 𝒂2 = 𝒂
I𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 = 4 𝑎2

I𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑎12 + 𝑎22 − 2𝑎1 𝑎2 = 0
Conditions for sustained interference
➢ Two light sources must be coherent.

➢ Two coherent sources must be narrow, otherwise, a single source will act as a
multi sources.

➢ The waves from coherent sources must have the same frequency.

➢ The amplitude of the two waves should be equal so that we can get a good contrast b
etween bright and dark fringes.

➢ The distance between two coherent sources must be small.

➢ The distance between two coherent sources and the screen should be reasonable.
The large distances of the screen reduce intensity.

➢ The line of propagation of the waves must be same.

Coherent sources

Sources having zero or constant phase difference

Type of interference

➢Interference by division of wavefront

▪ Young’s double-slit experiment
▪ Fresnel’s Bi-prism experiment
▪ Lloyd’s mirror

➢Interference by division of amplitude

▪ Thin Film interference
▪ Newton’s rings
▪ Michelson interferometer
Young’s Double Slit Experiment:

Path difference, BP – AP = ?
Path difference BP –AP=?
Young’s Double Slit Experiment:

(  D )
(   )
 1
   
 d
Young’s Double Slit Experiment:

(  D )
(   )
 1
  
 d
Two narrow and parallel slits 0.1 cm apart are illuminated with a monochromatic light of wavelength 5893 Å.
The interference pattern is observed at a distance of 25 cm from the slits. Calculate the fringe width.
[Ans: 0.147]
Fresnel Bi-Prism

Two virtual coherent sources of light

Llyod’s Mirror
Thin Film Interference


2t cos r = (2n − 1) Maxima
2

2 t cos r = n Minima
Newton’s Rings

𝜆
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 2𝜇𝑡 = 2𝑛 − 1
2

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎 2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆