Article

Balancing Security and Efficiency: A Power Consumption

Analysis of a Lightweight Block Cipher
Muhammad Rana *, Quazi Mamun * and Rafiqul Islam

School of Computing, Mathematics and Engineering, Charles Sturt University, Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (M.R.); [email protected] (Q.M.)

Abstract: This research paper presents a detailed analysis of a lightweight block cipher’s (LWBC)
power consumption and security features, specifically designed for IoT applications. To accurately
measure energy consumption during the execution of the LWBC algorithm, we utilised the Qoitech
Otii Arc, a specialised tool for optimising energy usage. Our experimental setup involved using the
Otii Arc as a power source for an Arduino NodeMCU V3, running the LWBC security algorithm.
Our methodology focused on energy consumption analysis using the shunt resistor technique. Our
findings reveal that the LWBC is highly efficient and provides an effective solution for energy-limited
IoT devices. We also conducted a comparative analysis of the proposed cipher against established
LWBCs, which demonstrated its superior performance in terms of energy consumption per bit. The
proposed LWBC was evaluated based on various key dimensions such as power efficiency, key and
block size, rounds, cipher architecture, gate area, ROM, latency, and throughput. The results of our
analysis indicate that the proposed LWBC is a promising cryptographic solution for energy-conscious
and resource-limited IoT applications.

Keywords: IoT security; power consumption; security trade-off; resource efficiency; lightweight
block cipher

1. Introduction
Citation: Rana, M.; Mamun, Q.; Islam,
R. Balancing Security and Efficiency: In modern cryptography, block ciphers serve as fundamental building blocks to secure
A Power Consumption Analysis of a data across various applications, including communication protocols, cloud storage, and
Lightweight Block Cipher. Electronics digital transactions. Block ciphers function by encrypting data in fixed-size blocks, ensuring
2024, 13, 4325. https://doi.org/ the confidentiality of information through complex mathematical algorithms [1]. Popular
10.3390/electronics13214325 examples of block ciphers include AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) and DES (Data
Encryption Standard), both of which have been widely adopted for securing sensitive
Academic Editors: Ping-Feng Pai,
KiSung Park and Seungho Jeon
information. However, the increasing proliferation of resource-constrained devices, such as
Internet of Things (IoT) gadgets, smart cards, and embedded systems, has led to the demand
Received: 3 October 2024 for cryptographic algorithms that are secure and lightweight in terms of computational
Revised: 30 October 2024 and memory requirements.
Accepted: 31 October 2024
Published: 4 November 2024 1.1. Lightweight Block Ciphers (LWBCs): Necessity and Importance
The explosion of interconnected devices in the IoT era brings unique challenges in
ensuring data security. Though highly secure, traditional block ciphers like AES tend to
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
be resource-intensive, requiring significant computational power and memory, which can
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. be impractical for constrained environments. Devices such as RFID tags, wireless sensor
This article is an open access article networks (WSNs), and embedded systems are characterised by limited energy, processing
distributed under the terms and power, and memory capacity. Therefore, the cryptographic operations required to secure
conditions of the Creative Commons these systems must be optimised to minimise resource consumption without sacrificing
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// security. This is where lightweight block ciphers (LWBCs) become crucial [2].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Lightweight block ciphers are designed to provide security in environments with
4.0/). constrained resources. Their primary goal is to offer robust encryption with minimal

Electronics 2024, 13, 4325. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13214325 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 2 of 35

computational overhead, making them well-suited for IoT, smart grids, and mobile devices.
Given the surge in cyber threats targeting low-resource devices, the necessity of LWBCs
becomes clear. There is an urgent need to secure these systems without exhausting their
limited power and processing capabilities [3]. Additionally, with the growing focus on
edge computing and smart cities, LWBCs will be critical in securing large-scale real-time
data transactions.

1.2. Features of Lightweight Block Ciphers

Lightweight block ciphers differ from their traditional counterparts in several ways,
often optimised for efficiency and adaptability to constrained environments. Some of their
distinguishing features include the following:
• Smaller block sizes: LWBCs use smaller block sizes (e.g., 64 bits rather than the typical
128 bits of AES) to reduce the memory footprint and computational load.
• Simple key schedules: LWBCs often have simpler key scheduling algorithms, which
help minimise the time and resources needed to generate encryption keys.
• Reduced round functions: Fewer encryption rounds are implemented, reducing the
number of complex operations while maintaining adequate security.
• Optimised S-box designs: LWBCs use smaller and simpler substitution boxes (S-boxes)
to lower the processing demands during substitution steps.
Some well-known lightweight block ciphers include PRESENT, CLEFIA, and Si-
mon/Speck. Each is designed with specific hardware and software optimisations to fit
within the constraints of its target environment.

1.3. Pros and Cons of Lightweight Block Ciphers

The use of lightweight block ciphers has advantages and limitations, particularly
compared to traditional block ciphers, which is demonstrated in Table 1.

Table 1. Pros and cons of lightweight block ciphers (LWBCs).

Pros Cons
Low resource consumption: LWBCs are designed to use less Weaker security margin: due to their smaller block sizes and
power, memory, and processing capacity, making them ideal for reduced round functions, LWBCs may offer a lower security
devices with limited resources. margin than traditional block ciphers like AES.
High efficiency in constrained environments: they are Limited to specific use cases: while suitable for low-resource
specifically optimised for performance in devices with environments, LWBCs may not be as effective in high-security
constrained energy sources, like IoT devices and smart cards. applications requiring large-scale encryption.
Faster encryption and decryption: with fewer rounds and Potential vulnerability to specific attacks: LWBCs’ reduced
optimised operations, LWBCs often provide faster encryption complexity may expose them to cryptanalytic attacks that target
and decryption processes, enabling real-time data security. their specific design trade-offs.
Adaptable for both hardware and software implementations: Smaller key sizes: LWBCs may employ smaller key sizes,
LWBCs can be implemented on a wide range of platforms, from potentially reducing their resilience to brute-force attacks,
tiny microcontrollers to more powerful processors. especially as computational power increases.

As the demand for secure communications in resource-constrained environments

grows, the importance of LWBCs becomes undeniable. They offer a pragmatic solution
for the encryption needs of IoT networks, RFID tags, and mobile devices. However,
their implementation requires a careful consideration of security trade-offs, as lightweight
ciphers, while efficient, may not always provide the same level of robustness as traditional
cryptographic algorithms.
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Despite its potential, significant challenges must be addressed to successfully imple-

ment the IoT [4]. These challenges primarily relate to the energy efficiency and security
of IoT devices [5]. Researchers have proposed lightweight cryptography as a promising
solution to address these issues. This cryptographic approach is designed for IoT applica-
tions and balances safety, performance, and energy efficiency. Doing so may facilitate the
adoption and expansion of future IoT technologies.

1.4. Background of This Study

Over the past few years, our research team has been engaged in designing a lightweight
block cipher (LWBC) [6] and its constituent components, namely the substitution box (S-
Box) [7], permutation box (P-Box) [8], and key management field [9]. These components
were tested individually to assess their performance. Currently, our research is focused on
investigating the proposed LWBC’s power consumption by integrating all the components
and comparing the proposed Cipher with other lightweight ciphers.
This study aims to evaluate the proposed cipher’s energy efficiency under varying
operational circumstances. Specifically, we seek to quantify the cipher’s power consump-
tion and analyse its performance under different operational scenarios. The results of this
investigation will provide valuable insights into the proposed cipher’s energy efficiency
and potential suitability for practical applications.
The research addresses the crucial trade-off between energy efficiency and security by
analysing the power usage of the proposed LWBC for IoT. The primary goals of this research
include evaluating energy efficiency, comparative analysis, security power trade-off, and
practical application.
Given the inherent energy constraints of IoT devices, it is necessary to measure the
power consumption of the proposed cipher in several operational conditions to determine
its energy efficiency. To assess its viability, this research compares the cipher’s energy
efficiency to currently used IoT cryptography techniques. The study also examines the
trade-off between power consumption and security strength, which is crucial in IoT contexts
with limited resources. The research demonstrates the practical application of the cipher on
the IoT and confirms its suitability for the proposed cryptographic solutions.
The proposed cipher employs a 64 bit plaintext block and a 64 bit key from 32 bit
pre-distributed partial keys. The encryption procedure involves four steps in each round:
XORing with the key, traversing an S-box, applying an additional layer, and ultimately
passing through a P-box. The cipher balances complexity and efficiency by minimising the
number of encryption rounds. This objective is achieved by incorporating a strong S-box
and P-box, which significantly enhance the security of the encryption process.
The study’s findings have significantly improved IoT security, particularly for devices
with limited battery life. The study introduces a cipher that enhances security across
multiple IoT domains, sheds light on the importance of energy-efficient cryptographic
design, and contributes to creating safe and energy-efficient algorithms for the future.
Additionally, the study highlights the crucial need for designing cryptographic protocols
tailored to contexts with limited power. These findings bear significant implications for IoT
security and serve as a stepping stone for further research in this domain.
This research contributes to IoT security by comprehensively evaluating the power
consumption, use of other resources, and security aspects of the LWBCs we developed [6–9].
The key contributions of this study are as follows:
• It developed a physical setup to measure the energy consumption of security algo-
rithms on Arduinos, targeting IoT resource requirements.
• It introduced a scalable approach to evaluate power consumption across different
platform algorithms for IoT devices.
• Created an architecture that allows the flexible analysis of security applications on
various systems.
• It utilised the Arduino NodeMCU V3 platform for energy consumption analysis,
leveraging its compatibility with IoT security needs.
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• It employed the Qoitech Otii Arc to measure energy consumption accurately, utilising
the shunt resistor methodology for a systematic analysis. It also offers high sampling
rates and accuracy and is suited for low-resource IoT devices.
• It demonstrated the proposed LWBC’s energy efficiency, with an average power
consumption of 4.5 µJ/bit, making it suitable for resource-constrained IoT devices.
The rest of the paper is organised as follows: it begins by discussing key performance
metrics for IoT applications (Section 2) and the challenges of deploying ciphers across
diverse IoT environments (Section 3). Section 4 analyses energy efficiency in cryptographic
protocols, exploring lightweight cipher designs to balance security and power use. A
comparison of existing lightweight block ciphers with the proposed cipher is provided in
Section 5, while Section 6 outlines methods for evaluating power usage in these protocols.
The proposed lightweight block cipher (LWBC) is detailed in Section 7, followed by the
experimental setup for measuring its energy consumption in Section 8. Results and compar-
isons with other ciphers are discussed in Section 9, leading to the Conclusion (Section 10),
highlighting the LWBC’s effectiveness and future potential for energy-efficient security
in IoT.

2. Performance Metrics in IoT Applications

Performance metrics in IoT applications are critical in assessing functionality, reliability,
efficiency, and suitability for different use cases. Below is a detailed breakdown of the key
performance metrics, along with implications for various types of IoT applications.

2.1. Latency
• Definition: The time data travels from the IoT device to the central server or endpoint
and back.
• Implications:
- Critical for real-time applications: low latency is crucial for real-time applica-
tions like healthcare monitoring (e.g., heart rate or glucose monitoring) and au-
tonomous driving, as high latency could lead to delayed responses and potentially
life-threatening situations;
- Moderately important for industrial IoT (IIoT): manufacturing processes and
machine control require low latency to ensure synchronisation and safety but may
tolerate slightly higher latency than real-time healthcare;
- Less critical for smart home applications: smart lighting or thermostat control
applications can tolerate higher latency, as responses can take time.

2.2. Reliability
• Definition: The ability of an IoT system to perform consistently over time without failure.
• Implications:
- High priority for industrial IoT: high reliability is essential in manufacturing and
critical infrastructure to avoid costly downtime, production issues, and potential
safety hazards.
- Critical for healthcare applications: reliability is vital to patient safety. A failure in
medical monitoring devices could lead to undetected health risks.
- Moderately important for consumer IoT: a temporary failure may only cause
inconvenience for smart home devices. However, reliability remains essential to
avoid user frustration and maintain trust.

2.3. Scalability
• Definition: The ability of the IoT system to handle an increasing number of devices
and users.
• Implications:
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- Essential for smart city applications: as urban IoT infrastructure expands, systems
must accommodate more devices like sensors, traffic cameras, and public service
monitors without degrading performance;
- Important for large-scale industrial applications: IIoT systems in factories must
support scaling to hundreds or thousands of devices as new equipment or pro-
cesses are added;
- Less critical for small consumer IoT networks: for single households or small
setups, scalability is less critical but should still support additional devices as
technology evolves.

2.4. Data Throughput

• Definition: The volume of data that the IoT network can handle in a given time period.
• Implications:
- High requirement for video surveillance and AR/VR applications: applications
transmitting high-definition video or augmented reality data, such as smart
security cameras, require high throughput to avoid data loss or buffering;
- Moderate requirement for industrial monitoring: IIoT applications with sensors
producing steady streams of data require adequate throughput to handle this flow
but do not have the same intensive demands as video applications;
- Low requirement for basic sensor networks: basic environmental sensors (e.g.,
temperature, humidity) in agriculture or home settings generate smaller amounts
of data and thus require lower throughput.

2.5. Energy Efficiency

• Definition: The power consumption of IoT devices and their ability to function effec-
tively with minimal energy.
• Implications:
- Critical for remote and battery-powered applications: IoT devices used in agricul-
ture, wildlife tracking, and remote monitoring often rely on battery power, making
energy efficiency essential to extend operational life and reduce maintenance;
- Important for wearable and healthcare devices: in wearables and health monitor-
ing, long battery life improves usability and ensures continuous monitoring;
- Less important for mains-powered applications: for devices that are consistently
plugged in, such as home assistants or industrial IoT equipment, energy efficiency
is beneficial but not a primary concern.

2.6. Bandwidth
• Definition: The maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a network in a
specific time frame.
• Implications:
- Critical for high-data applications: surveillance systems, video streaming, and
smart grids require high bandwidth to handle large volumes of data;
- Moderate need for industrial automation: IIoT systems often generate moder-
ate data flows from numerous sensors, necessitating reliable but not excessive
bandwidth;
- Low requirement for small IoT devices: low-power, small data-transmitting
devices (e.g., simple environmental sensors) can operate effectively on lower
bandwidth, making them suitable for low-power wide-area networks (LPWANs).

2.7. Security
• Definition: The resilience of IoT systems against unauthorised access, data breaches,
and other security threats.
• Implications:
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- Essential for healthcare and financial applications: any application handling

sensitive health or financial data must have robust security to protect user privacy
and meet regulatory compliance;
- Critical for industrial IoT and smart grids: security breaches in IIoT or critical in-
frastructure can lead to operational disruptions, safety hazards, and even national
security risks;
- Important for consumer IoT: while security is often less prioritised in consumer
devices, breaches can lead to personal data leaks and network vulnerabilities that
impact user trust.

2.8. Interoperability
• Definition: The ability of IoT devices and systems to work seamlessly with other
devices, systems, or networks.
• Implications:
- Highly relevant for smart homes and cities: devices from multiple vendors must
interact to ensure a cohesive smart environment, whether for home automation
or urban infrastructure;
- Important for healthcare: health IoT applications need to integrate data across
different platforms (e.g., hospitals, wearables) for comprehensive patient care;
- Moderately important for industrial IoT: while IIoT can benefit from interoper-
ability, many industrial environments use proprietary systems, so compatibility
within the facility’s systems is prioritised.

2.9. Accuracy and Precision

• Definition: The degree to which the data collected by IoT devices is correct and precise.
• Implications:
- Crucial for healthcare and environmental monitoring: accuracy is vital to ensure
reliable health assessments and environmental data, as incorrect data could lead
to misinformed decisions;
- Important for industrial IoT: accurate data from machinery sensors can prevent
breakdowns and optimize performance;
- Less critical for some consumer applications: while still beneficial, precision is
often less critical for applications like smart lighting or thermostats, where minor
deviations in data do not significantly impact the outcome.

2.10. Cost Efficiency

• Definition: The overall cost-effectiveness of deploying, maintaining, and operating
IoT devices.
• Implications:
- Essential for large-scale deployments: smart cities and large industries need cost-
effective solutions to manage thousands of devices while maintaining service
quality;
- Important for consumer IoT market: cost efficiency determines consumer adop-
tion of smart home devices, as high costs can deter users;
- Moderately important for specialised applications: cost efficiency is secondary to
performance and reliability for critical applications like healthcare or military IoT.
A Summary of Metric Relevance for Different IoT Applications is given in Table 2:
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 7 of 35

Table 2. A summary of metric relevance for different IoT applications.

Metric Smart City Industrial IoT Healthcare Consumer IoT Remote Monitoring
Latency High Moderate High Low Moderate
Reliability High High High Moderate High
Scalability High Moderate Moderate Low High
Data Throughput High Moderate High Moderate Low
Energy Efficiency Moderate Moderate High Moderate High
Bandwidth High Moderate High Low Low
Security High High High Moderate High
Interoperability High Moderate High High Moderate
Accuracy and
High High High Moderate High
Precision
Cost Efficiency High High Moderate High Moderate

Understanding these metrics enables IoT designers and stakeholders to optimize

system performance, prioritise security, and address specific requirements across diverse
applications, ensuring that IoT solutions fit for purpose.

3. Challenges and Considerations for Cipher Deployment in Diverse IoT Ecosystems

Deploying a cipher in diverse IoT ecosystems involves navigating various challenges
and considerations due to the IoT networks’ unique characteristics and demands. These
networks are heterogeneous, containing devices with varying processing capacities, power
limitations, and security requirements, which can complicate the implementation of a
uniform encryption standard. The discussion below explores the key challenges and
considerations for deploying a cipher in IoT environments with high data throughput
requirements, varied device types, and operational constraints.

3.1. Performance Impact on Low-Powered Devices

- Challenge: IoT devices span many capabilities, from high-performance to low-power
sensors. Many low-powered devices, particularly those in remote or battery-operated
applications, have limited computational resources and may need help with complex
encryption algorithms.
- Consideration: To ensure that the cipher performs efficiently across all devices, lightweight
encryption protocols, such as those based on symmetric key encryption (e.g., AES), may
be preferable. Alternatively, adopting lightweight versions of asymmetric encryption
algorithms can balance security needs with computational constraints.

3.2. Latency and Data Throughput

- Challenge: Certain IoT applications, such as video surveillance, autonomous systems,
and industrial monitoring, require high data throughput and minimal latency. Apply-
ing a cipher with significant processing overhead can introduce delays, impacting the
system’s real-time performance.
- Consideration: In high-throughput systems, choosing a low-latency cipher is essential
to maintaining performance. Stream or block ciphers with smaller block sizes may be
suitable in these environments, as they generally offer faster encryption and decryption
processes. Optimising the encryption process to handle large volumes of data without
disrupting system responsiveness is crucial.

3.3. Heterogeneity of Device Types

- Challenge: IoT ecosystems often contain devices from various manufacturers with
diverse architectures, operating systems, and communication protocols. Ensuring com-
patibility and interoperability between these devices while maintaining a consistent
encryption standard can be complex.
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 8 of 35

- Consideration: Using standardised ciphers recognised across the industry, such as

AES or elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC), may improve compatibility. Implementing
encryption algorithms at a protocol level, for instance, using TLS or DTLS over
networks can provide uniform encryption support across heterogeneous devices
without requiring changes to individual device software.

3.4. Energy Efficiency and Battery Life

- Challenge: IoT devices deployed in remote or hard-to-reach locations often rely on
battery power. Applying energy-intensive ciphers may significantly reduce battery life,
requiring frequent maintenance or replacement and leading to potential operational
downtime.
- Consideration: Energy-efficient ciphers, such as those optimised for minimal process-
ing and memory usage, are ideal for battery-powered IoT devices. Implementing
encryption algorithms with adaptive power management, which selectively applies
full encryption or lightweight alternatives based on current power levels, can extend
device lifespans in power-constrained environments.

3.5. Scalability and Key Management

- Challenge: Large-scale IoT ecosystems, such as smart cities or industrial IoT, involve
managing encryption keys across thousands or even millions of devices. These chal-
lenges ensure secure and efficient key distribution, storage, and renewal.
- Consideration: Adopting centralised key management systems, such as public key
infrastructure (PKI), can facilitate secure and scalable key handling. However, in
specific IoT scenarios, decentralised or lightweight key management protocols like the
Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) protocol can be effective. Incorporating
periodic key rotation mechanisms and mutual authentication protocols can enhance
security and scalability.

3.6. Security vs. Performance Trade-Off

- Challenge: Balancing strong security with system performance remains a critical
concern. High-level encryption protocols add computational load, hindering perfor-
mance in IoT environments requiring immediate data processing and response, such
as autonomous driving or health monitoring systems.
- Consideration: Adaptive encryption protocols can offer flexibility, adjusting security
levels based on the device’s capabilities and the sensitivity of the transmitted data.
For instance, compassionate data can undergo full encryption, while less critical
information may use lighter encryption schemes, optimising the performance–security
trade-off.

3.7. Compliance with Data Privacy Regulations

- Challenge: Different regions have unique data privacy regulations (e.g., GDPR in
Europe, CCPA in California) that impose stringent data protection standards, which
may conflict with the technical capabilities of specific IoT devices.
- Consideration: Ensuring the chosen cipher complies with relevant regulations while
remaining functional across IoT devices of varying capacities is essential. This may
involve using compliant, industry-standard encryption algorithms and adopting
privacy-focused measures like data minimisation to limit sensitive data exposure on
devices with lower security capabilities.

3.8. Security for Data in Transit and at Rest

- Challenge: IoT systems generate a high volume of data that moves across networks
and is stored on various devices. Protecting this data during transmission and when
stored is essential to mitigate interception and unauthorised access risks.
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 9 of 35

- Consideration: Encrypting data in transit with secure protocols like TLS or DTLS is
widely adequate for IoT networks. In contrast, data at rest can be protected using
hardware-based encryption on devices with insufficient storage and processing power.
Devices with limited capabilities may benefit from lightweight encryption at the
firmware level to secure data locally without significantly impacting performance.
Successfully deploying a cipher across diverse IoT ecosystems requires a nuanced
approach, carefully considering device capabilities, network requirements, and operational
constraints. Lightweight, flexible encryption solutions offer an adaptable option, while
standardisation and interoperability improve compatibility across heterogeneous systems.
Addressing these challenges with adaptable, low-latency, and energy-efficient encryption
methods will ensure secure and scalable IoT systems that maintain performance standards
across various applications.

4. Evaluating Energy Efficiency for Lightweight Cryptographic Protocols

This section thoroughly analyses the energy consumption of cryptographic algorithms
in IoT devices, specifically focusing on finding the right balance between security and
energy efficiency. The section also examines the key features of lightweight ciphers and
reviews relevant research to understand design enhancements that minimise power usage
in IoT settings.

4.1. Features to Consider for Power Consumption Analysis of LWBC

Power consumption analysis for LWBCs has gained considerable attention in resource-
constrained environments [10]. Examining the various features associated with LWBCs is
crucial to balance security requirements and energy efficiency. In this regard, the following
features are worth considering:
Firstly, a comprehensive evaluation of the cipher overhead is essential when imple-
menting a lightweight block cipher (LWBC), as it necessitates an analysis of the additional
burdens introduced, such as message expansion and the requirement for extra computa-
tional rounds. Message expansion can result in increased encrypted message sizes, leading
to greater bandwidth consumption and extended processing times. At the same time,
additional computational rounds may exacerbate the processing workload, thus impacting
the overall performance and efficiency. Therefore, the meticulous management of these
elements is crucial to minimise unnecessary protocol overhead, streamlining processing,
and enhancing energy efficiency; this is particularly significant in resource-constrained
environments or mobile devices where higher energy consumption can accelerate battery
depletion. Striking a balance between robust security measures and reduced overhead is im-
perative to achieve optimal energy efficiency while maintaining the integrity of the cipher
against potential vulnerabilities, a necessity for the effective deployment of cryptographic
algorithms across various applications [11].
Secondly, examining how much the LWBC (lightweight workload-based controller)
supports features like parallelisation and piping is crucial, as these capabilities significantly
enhance computational performance. Parallelisation allows for the simultaneous execution
of tasks across multiple cores, leading to a noticeable reduction in execution time and the
ability to handle complex computations more efficiently. Meanwhile, piping facilitates the
direct flow of data between processes, allowing the output of one task to serve as the input
for another, thereby streamlining workflows and minimising resource consumption. By
effectively leveraging both parallelisation and piping, the LWBC can maximise the benefits
of multicore architectures, resulting in lower energy consumption and improved overall sys-
tem performance. A thorough investigation of these features is essential to fully understand
their impact on efficiency and effectiveness in various computing environments [12].
Thirdly, evaluating memory usage is crucial for optimising the applications’ memory
requirements, particularly when managing key storage and data structures. By carefully
analysing and refining how memory is allocated and utilised, developers can significantly
reduce the overall footprint of their applications. This optimisation enhances performance
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 10 of 35

and minimises power consumption, which is particularly important for devices with
limited memory resources, such as mobile phones and embedded systems. By striking a
balance between efficiency and functionality, developers can ensure that their applications
run smoothly while conserving battery life and maximising the capabilities of the hardware
they operate on [13].
Fourthly, the energy-aware cipher design focuses on developing lightweight block
ciphers (LWBCs) that prioritise energy efficiency, which is increasingly vital in resource-
constrained environments such as mobile devices and IoT systems. By exploring this
design approach, researchers can identify ciphers that maintain robust security standards
and incorporate mechanisms to dynamically adjust their operations based on the available
energy resources and prevailing power conditions. This adaptability can lead to more
sustainable cryptographic solutions, allowing devices to conserve energy while performing
necessary encryption tasks effectively. As a result, integrating energy-awareness in cipher
design could significantly enhance the longevity and performance of battery-dependent
systems in various practical applications [14].
Fifthly, to effectively evaluate the efficiency of various lightweight block ciphers (LW-
BCs), it is essential to employ quantitative metrics that specifically measure and compare
power consumption. Key metrics such as energy per encryption and energy per bit serve
as concrete benchmarks, allowing for a clearer understanding of the energy demands
associated with each cipher during operation. By utilising these metrics, researchers and
developers can identify which LWBCs provide robust security and optimise energy use,
making them more suitable for deployment in resource-constrained environments like em-
bedded systems and mobile devices. This approach enhances the performance evaluation
process but also aids in promoting more energy-efficient cryptographic solutions in the
industry [15].
Finally, real-world testing is essential for accurately assessing the power consumption
of the LWBC in practical scenarios, as it allows for the direct observation of how the system
performs on actual target devices. Considering factors such as communication delays, idle
times, and varying workloads, this approach comprehensively explains the device’s energy
efficiency under realistic conditions. This kind of testing not only highlights the operational
challenges faced by the system but also reveals opportunities for optimisation, leading to
better energy management strategies and improved performance in real-world applications.
By considering these features in the context of power consumption analysis for an
LWBC, informed decisions can be made to achieve the desired balance between security
requirements and energy efficiency.

4.2. Related Works

In the literature review for optimising the design to reduce power consumption in IoT
end devices, several studies have been examined.
High Throughput Architectures for Lightweight
Crypto-primitives: A study by Mishra et al. delves into high-throughput architec-
tures for substitution modules in lightweight cryptographic primitives, emphasising their
suitability for pervasive computing. The research focuses on hardware implementation to
enhance speed while optimising the physical area and power consumption. The resulting
architectures demonstrate high throughput and reduced energy consumption, making
them well-suited for IoT environments [16].
Cryptographic security of the ANU-II block cipher: Fan et al. critically evaluate the
cryptographic security of the ANU-II ultra-lightweight block cipher, which is designed
for IoT devices. The cipher is noted for its minimal hardware resource requirements, low
power consumption, and rapid encryption capabilities. However, the research identifies
and addresses specific security vulnerabilities in ANU-II, particularly in its resistance to
differential cryptanalysis, and proposes an improved cipher version [17].
Serial hardware architectures for the Piccolo algorithm: Mhaouch et al. propose six
serial hardware architectures for the Piccolo lightweight algorithm, which uses a 128 bit key
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 11 of 35

length. These architectures are assessed based on hardware resource usage, latency, and
throughput criteria. Security evaluations of these architectures demonstrate the robustness
of the Piccolo block cipher against statistical attacks, affirming its appropriateness for
lightweight applications that prioritise privacy [18].
This study analyses the energy consumption of 3G, GSM, and WiFi networks, high-
lighting the high tail energy overhead in 3G and GSM. It proposes TailEnder, a protocol
that optimises energy usage by scheduling data transfers for delay-tolerant apps and
prefetching data for others like web search. Evaluations show that TailEnder reduces
energy consumption and improves performance, enabling 60% more news updates and
50% more web queries compared to default policies [19].
Another research proposes Secure and Energy Efficient Prefetching (SEEP) to enhance
security and reduce energy consumption in smartphone prefetching systems. SEEP uses
a local proxy for data validation and a remote proxy for encrypted storage, operating
transparently within the existing browser–server framework. It ensures confidentiality,
resists replay attacks, and reduces energy usage by one-fourth and data transmission by
95% compared to traditional prefetching over Wi-Fi [20].
Ming et al. [21] introduce a service-specific end-to-end energy-efficiency model to
analyse energy consumption across different applications, from messaging to virtual reality.
It shows that smartphones consume the most energy for web browsing and messaging,
while LTE networks dominate for data-heavy applications like video streaming and VR.
The study suggests that using small cell offloading and mobile edge caching can reduce
energy consumption by over four-fifths.
These studies contribute to understanding design optimisation in LWBCs, focusing on
enhancing power efficiency for IoT devices while maintaining high security and perfor-
mance standards.
Common implementation [22]: This study examined the runtime performance of
encryption techniques. The absence of other measurements reflects a focused investigation
of how long the encryption process takes without considering system stress, throughput,
or power usage.
Soft profiling [23,24]: These studies did not assess the specified performance indica-
tors. This suggests that the analysis of encryption algorithms may focus on theoretical
or qualitative aspects rather than quantitative ones. The UPS Battery [23] is thoroughly
assessed in these tests, comprehensively evaluating four key metrics: runtime, workload,
throughput, and power consumption. Using a UPS battery as a methodology suggests a
potential emphasis on the performance of encryption algorithms when power is limited or
reliant on portable batteries.
External measurement [25]: These studies evaluated runtime, throughput, and power
consumption but did not examine workload. This method emphasises the importance of
efficiency and energy considerations in encryption algorithms, namely their speed and
power consumption, which is critical for IoT devices.
In the next section, we briefly describe some examples of LWBCs that were designed
considering the abovementioned discussions.

5. Comparison of Lightweight Block Ciphers with the Proposed Block Cipher

This section discusses several LWBCs compared with our proposed cipher [6]. Each
block cipher’s main characteristics are described, highlighting their distinct characteristics
and efficiency in ensuring secure communication in IoT devices with limited resources.
RECTANGLE (a bit-slice lightweight block cipher) [26]: This compact substitution
permutation network (SPN) cipher operates on 64 bit blocks and uses 80 and 128 bit keys.
It performs its encryption or decryption process through 24–32 cycles. The system includes
16 parallel 4×4 S-boxes and three rotational permutations. Building upon the cryptanalysis
of PRESENT, this innovation incorporates a unique S-box and an asymmetrical permutation
layer. RECTANGLE is proficient in both hardware, with a capacity of 1467 GE for 80 bit
keys and a speed of 246 Kbps, and software, with a performance of 5.38 cycles per byte on
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 12 of 35

Intel SSE. This cryptographic algorithm is energy efficient and suitable for lightweight and
rapid implementations.
PRESENT (an ultra-lightweight block cipher) [27]: The PRESENT cipher, which meets
lightweight conditions, significantly advances LWBCs. It has been standardised in ISO/IEC
29192 [28]. The encryption algorithm utilises 80 and 128 bit keys, operates on 64 bit blocks,
and employs 31 rounds. It is built upon an SPN structure and incorporates a distinctive
single S-box architecture to optimise hardware efficiency. The 80 bit version of the algorithm
necessitates 1030 GE for its execution. Software solutions exhibit a condensed code size
and perform excellently on microcontrollers. Nevertheless, it is susceptible to side-channel,
related-key, biclique, and differential attacks, particularly on variants with fewer rounds.
Piccolo (an Italian word that means small or little) [18,29]: This block cipher uses a
generalised Feistel network to process blocks of 64 bits with either 80 or 128 keys. The
device is highly energy-efficient, particularly the 80 bit key version, which has a tiny size
of 432 GE. An additional 60 gate area (60 GE) is needed for decryption. Piccolo uses
multiplexers and scan flip-flops to store data states and utilises AND-NOR and OR-NAND
gates for performing operations, eliminating the need for extensive key storage. The
software utilises 2434 bytes of code and 79 bytes of RAM. Nevertheless, it exhibits a low
throughput of 7.8 Kbps. The security of Full-roundPiccolo-80 has been assessed by biclique
cryptanalysis, revealing that Piccolo-128 offers a somewhat higher level of security.
PRINT (based on integrated circuit printing) [30]: This cipher employs 48 and 96 rounds,
with 80 and 160 bit keys, and 48 and 96 bit blocks. The process of IC printing, specifically
PRINTcipher-48 and 402 GE, as well as EPC encryption, specifically PRINTcipher-96 and
726 GE, involves the use of 3 bit operations. The software implementation is wasteful
because it unconventionally utilises bits. PRINT cipher is currently investigating this
application domain but must be prepared for implementation. Although it is impossible to
execute related-key attacks on IC printing, they have been successfully demonstrated on
the full-round cipher.
ICEBERG (metaphorically reflect to an iceberg) [31,32]: This cipher is a fast and
complex encryption algorithm that employs 128 bit keys and 64 bit blocks in 16 rounds.
Reconfigurable hardware enables the modification of critical parameters in every clock
cycle without any decrease in performance and allows for generating round keys in real-
time. It efficiently performs encryption and decryption using 5800 gates at 400 Kbps. The
most renowned attack is differential cryptanalysis performed on eight rounds. Modern
ciphers employ this structure to achieve efficient encryption and decoding at a low cost.
HIGHT (high-security and lightweight) [33]: HIGH is a cipher that uses 128 bit keys
and 64 bit blocks throughout 32 rounds. It circumvents the use of S-boxes by relying solely
on fundamental computations. The minimum hardware version requires a 2608 GE for a
data transfer rate of 188 Kbps. The cryptographic algorithm has seen multiple attacks, such
as impossible differential, related-key, biclique, and zero-correlation attacks, on both 26 and
27 round variants.
TEA (tiny encryption algorithm) [34]: TEA is a lightweight block cipher designed
to offer simplicity and efficiency with minimal computational resources. It operates on
64 bit data blocks using a 128 bit key, and its structure involves 64 Feistel rounds to ensure
security through the repeated mixing of data and key material. The algorithm’s design
emphasizes ease of implementation, with a minimal code footprint suitable for embedded
systems and constrained environments. However, TEA is vulnerable to key-related attacks,
such as equivalent keys and weak key schedules, prompting the development of revised
versions like XTEA and XXTEA to address these vulnerabilities.

6. LWBC Power-Usage Evaluation Techniques

The assessment of encryption method performance, especially in battery-limited
portable wireless devices, heavily relies on power consumption. Assessing the energy
usage of a low-weight block cipher requires a comprehensive methodology. This article
examines three separate measurement categories: software profiling for rapid comparisons,
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 13 of 35

battery evaluation for insights into real-world usage, and external assessment for the in-
depth analysis of individual components. Every method has distinct benefits that cater to
specific research objectives and limitations in the available resources. An in-depth analysis
of all three aspects thoroughly comprehends the algorithm’s performance characteristics,
which is essential for optimising and implementing it in instances with limited resources.

6.1. Software Profiling

Software profiling uses software models to evaluate the power consumption of an
encryption technique without the need for hardware intervention. It provides rapid
estimations, though the level of accuracy is dependent upon the quality of the model.
The categorisation of software profiling techniques for analysing power consumption in
lightweight block ciphers can be divided into four primary types: application-level profil-
ing (such as PowerScope), architectural-level modelling (such as Wattch and SimplePower),
microprocessor-specific estimation (such as JouleTrack), and simulation-based profiling
(such as SimpleScalar). Each method involves a compromise between accuracy, suitability,
and the amount of information provided, influencing the choice depending on the specific
needs of the power consumption analysis.
PowerScope, developed by Flinn and Satyanarayanan [35], is a specialised tool for
profiling app power usage. It connects software behaviour to energy consumption. It
combines hardware measurements and software monitoring distinctively to conduct a
comprehensive analysis. PowerScope v1.0 is a rapid and software-driven technique for
evaluating the power usage of an application. However, it may only partially encompass the
entire situation due to its indirect methodology. The overall power usage was determined
by integrating the product of the instantaneous current and voltage across time. The power
consumption value was estimated by concurrently sampling the current It and voltage
Vt at a regular time interval ∆t. The effective power across n samples was determined
by substituting the observed voltage value Vmeans for Vt . The calculation is displayed in
Equation (1) [36].
E ≃ Vmeans ∑ It δt (1)
Ye et al. [37] presented ‘SimplePower’, virsion 1.0 a power calculation tool at the
register-transfer level that accurately models execution and cycle timing. The software
tool ‘SimplePower’ can simulate executables, allowing for precise power consumption
estimations and switch capacitance statistics. It covers many components such as the
processor datapath, memory, and on-chip bus. The tool determines the aggregate power
consumption of a module by adding up the power consumed at each bit transition. The
‘Wattch’ and ‘SimplePower’ models allow computer architects and designers to incorporate
power consumption considerations into the initial design phases. Nevertheless, errors in
determining the activity factor can result in discrepancies in the predicted power usage.
Brooks et al. [38] developed ‘Wattch,’ a power modelling program that utilises cycle-
level analysis. This model is included in an architectural simulator to estimate the power
consumption of CPUs precisely. Their technique primarily focuses on dynamic power
consumption pd , as outlined in Formula (2). The model employs parameters such as vdd
and f display, denoting the supply voltage and clock frequency. The parameters in question
remain consistent for a specific CPU process technology. The model estimates the load
capacitance C, which is determined by the size of the circuit or transistor.
Furthermore, the model incorporates an activity component that varies between zero
and one, representing the typical frequency of switching activity initiated by ticks. The
activity factor is determined using benchmarks with an architectural simulator or by
making assumptions. According to Mishra et al. [39], ‘Wattch’ provides a swifter, more
precise alternative to the currently available power measurement instruments.
2
Pd = CVdd af (2)
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 14 of 35

Sinha and Chandrakasan [40] created ‘JouleTrack v0.1’, a power estimating software
program that does not necessitate specific command characteristics. Their findings re-
vealed a negligible disparity in current consumption among various instructions and even
complete programs. It was inferred that the current usage is mainly influenced by the
operating frequency and supply voltage rather than the executed program. Nevertheless,
the utility of ‘JouleTrack’ is restricted to quantifying the energy usage of microprocessors.
The power consumption of a subroutine executed on a microprocessor can be expressed on
a macroscopic level as follows. The variable Ptot represents the combined power of both
the static and dynamic components. CL represents the average capacitance switched by the
program executed every clock cycle, and f represents the operating frequency [41].
2
Ptot = Pdyn + Pstat = CL Vdd f + VddI leak (3)

SimpleScalar v3.0e, as highlighted by Naik and Wei [42], is a software tool designed
for architectural modelling and simulation focusing on power conservation in software
implementation. It facilitates execution-driven simulation, which is more efficient than
traditional trace-based methodologies. Nevertheless, it is only guaranteed to consistently
offer accurate simulations down to the clock cycle for some architectural types, as there
are observed differences between the simulated power consumption and the accurate
measurements. This implies that the precision of the system can vary, so it is essential to
carefully evaluate its use in situations where power consumption is a concern.

6.2. Battery Evaluation

Battery evaluation is a practical approach to measuring the power consumption of en-
cryption algorithms in IoT devices. It is advantageous due to its simplicity and real-world
applicability, eliminating the need for complicated equipment. Under the assumption of
steady power consumption, this methodology calculates energy consumption by compar-
ing the decrease in battery capacity between periods of device inactivity and algorithm
execution. It directly explains the compromises between security and power effective-
ness [43,44]. Nevertheless, the method’s dependence on regular usage fails to consider the
devices’ varying workloads and power states. This could lead to distorted outcomes due to
background processes and the absence of accounting for battery degradation and nonlinear
discharge characteristics [45,46]. Although there are limitations, battery evaluation is essen-
tial for developers prioritising energy saving in battery-operated IoT devices. However,
further study is necessary to enhance its accuracy and reliability.

6.3. External Evaluation

The third category comprises techniques that use instruments and electronic equip-
ment to establish a specialised measurement system. This approach is divided into two
primary methodologies: external evaluation and onboard evaluation.
Researchers utilised mobile devices, specifically the NOKIA N70, as reference plat-
forms to assess software power usage [47]. This entails altering the power contact of the
device to generate two cables, which are subsequently utilised to gauge the current ex-
tracted from the battery. This measurement can be conducted using a basic multimeter or a
sophisticated oscilloscope. Alternatively, a battery emulator can serve as a substitute for the
physical battery. The emulator supplies the phone with electricity and offers precise power
consumption measurements. The electrical power (E) is determined by the product of the
voltage (v), time (t), and current (I). An inherent benefit of this approach is the consistent
and unwavering voltage provided for the whole test duration.
Nevertheless, it cannot accurately assess the energy usage of integrated elements
such as the CPU or memory. Creus and Kuulusa [48] presented NOKIA S60 v5.0 software
profiling tools that allow developers to determine power usage on the device itself without
the need for any external equipment. The analysis can be performed on a mobile device or
a personal computer. Nevertheless, this approach must be optimally suited to assessing
the power consumption of encryption algorithms. Efforts to apply a cipher on a mobile
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 15 of 35

device using this approach frequently led to interference with other applications or the
device itself.
Creighton et al. [25] conducted a study to quantify the energy usage of apps on devices
with restricted resources, specifically focusing on the HP iPAQ 4150. Their configuration
entailed sequentially connecting the device between a benchtop power supply and an
Agilent 3458A 8½ digit multimeter developed by Keysight Technologies, Inc., based in the
USA. The multimeter was assigned to measure the voltage across a resistor at a frequency
of 10,000 Hz. The power value was determined by multiplying the resultant voltage with
the input voltage and dividing by the resistance, as specified in formula (4) [26]. The energy
consumption for each encryption and decryption task was calculated using formula (5) [25],
which denotes the frequency of measurements and indicates the execution duration of the
encryption algorithm.
P(t) = V (t) ∗ (Vi nput /R) (4)
Etask = Σ[P(ti ) − Pidle ] ∗ T (5)
On the other hand, Bob and his colleagues at Intel improved the measurement of
power utilisation in applications using a precise methodology incorporating data collection
(DAQ) technology [49]. This system, which combines a main PC, NetDAQ manufactured
by Fluke Corporation based in the USA, and a target PC with motherboards outfitted
with sensors, enables thorough power consumption analysis. The researchers achieved
precise current and voltage monitoring by attaching the NetDAQ to target components
using sensing resistors and wiring it to the host PC. The implementation, backed by logger
software on a host PC running an IA32 system, greatly enhanced the precision of power
evaluation. It provides a robust framework for analysing the energy use of applications.
This study employs a hybrid methodology to comprehensively assess the proposed
LWBC for IoT devices. This approach utilises the accuracy of external measurements using
the Otii Arc device and combines it with the practicality of battery evaluation. It examines
energy consumption, efficiency factors (such as gate area, throughput, and memory effect),
and security in real-world scenarios. This technique effectively combines rigorous technical
examination with practical applicability, resulting in a thorough comprehension of the
appropriateness of LWBC for energy-efficient encryption in resource-limited contexts.

7. Description of the Proposed Lightweight Block Cipher

Figure 1 illustrates the general architecture of the LWBC method in an SP network.
In this diagram, “R” represents a round, and “Rn” indicates the total number of rounds
starting with R1 as the initial round, R2 as the second round, and so on. The picture
also emphasises the key schedule, noting that each round requires a distinct key. In the
context of LWBCs, a “round” refers to a series of operations that are iteratively performed
on plaintext to increase security and complexity, making decryption and analysis more
difficult. These processes usually entail a blend of permutations, substitutions, and other
mathematical functions.
We proposed a simplified block cipher specifically developed to enhance communica-
tion security in IoT devices with limited resources. Figure 2 depicts the structure of our
proposed encryption algorithm. This cipher achieved higher efficiency and complexity with
fewer encryption cycles. The system accepts 64 bits of plain text and utilises a 64 bit key
generated from a pool of 32 bit keys. The cipher’s functioning in a single round involves
four stages: First, the plaintext is XORed with the generated key. Then, the result of this
initial step is passed through the suggested Substitution layer, followed by a padding layer,
and finally goes through the Permutation layer. The Permutation box (P-box) executes a
linear bitwise permutation, whereas the Substitution box (S-box) offers a fixed nonlinear
substitution layer.
 work. In this diagram, “R” represents a round, and “Rn” indicates the total number
of rounds starting with R1 as the initial round, R2 as the second round, and so on.
The picture also emphasises the key schedule, noting that each round requires a
distinct key. In the context of LWBCs, a “round” refers to a series of operations
that are iteratively performed on plaintext to increase security and complexity,
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325
making decryption and analysis more difficult. These processes usually entail16aof 35
blend of permutations, substitutions, and other mathematical functions.

Figure1.1.The
Figure Thelightweight
lightweightblock
blockcipher
cipher(LWBC)
(LWBC)architecture
architecture illustrates
illustrates the
the iterative
iterative process
process of the
of the round function, key mixing, and nonlinear transformations used in each encryption
round function, key mixing, and nonlinear transformations used in each encryption round. The figure
round. The figure highlights how these components interact to balance security and effi-
highlights how these components interact to balance security and efficiency, showcasing the steps
ciency, showcasing the steps involved in the encryption process to enhance resistance to
involved in the attacks
cryptanalytic
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW encryption process
while to enhance
maintaining lowresistance
resource to cryptanalyticsuitable
consumption attacks while
for IoTmaintaining
17appli-
of 38
low resource consumption suitable for IoT applications.
cations.

We proposed a simplified block cipher specifically developed to enhance

communication security in IoT devices with limited resources. Figure 2 depicts
the structure of our proposed encryption algorithm. This cipher achieved higher ef-
ficiency and complexity with fewer encryption cycles. The system accepts 64 bits
of plain text and utilises a 64 bit key generated from a pool of 32 bit keys. The
cipher’s functioning in a single round involves four stages: First, the plaintext is
XORed with the generated key. Then, the result of this initial step is passed
through the suggested Substitution layer, followed by a padding layer, and fi-
nally goes through the Permutation layer. The Permutation box (P-box) exe-
cutes a linear bitwise permutation, whereas the Substitution box (S-box) offers a
fixed nonlinear substitution layer.

Figure2.2.AAvisual
Figure visualrepresentation
representation of of
thethe lightweight
lightweight block
block cipher
cipher (LWBC)
(LWBC) encryption
encryption pro-
process show-
cess showcasing the sequence of iterative rounds and the application of nonlinear opera-
casing the sequence of iterative rounds and the application of nonlinear operations through S-boxes
tions through S-boxes and P-boxes. The figure also illustrates the key schedule mechanism,
and P-boxes. The figure also illustrates the key schedule mechanism, demonstrating how keys are
demonstrating how keys are dynamically integrated in each round to enhance security.
dynamically integrated
This structure in eachthe
underscores round to enhance
LWBC’s security.
balance betweenThiscomputational
structure underscores the and
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resource-limited environments such as IoT devices.

7.1. Key Management

Utilising a fixed P-Box involves inherent vulnerabilities, especially in the
event of a hacked node. To address this issue, performing an XOR operation
between the plaintext and a key is crucial. The plaintext is merged with the key
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 17 of 35

7.1. Key Management

Utilising a fixed P-Box involves inherent vulnerabilities, especially in the event of a
hacked node. To address this issue, performing an XOR operation between the plaintext
and a key is crucial. The plaintext is merged with the key before being input into the S-box
and P-box at each stage.
Nevertheless, handling a wide range of keys presents difficulties, necessitating extra
storage and processing resources to produce keys that can change over time. We suggest
incorporating partial keys pre-loaded onto IoT devices during the initial setup process.
This approach is commonly referred to as pre-distribution. This key management strategy
primarily emphasises two aspects: the prior distribution of these fragmented keys to
minimise resource consumption and the effective use of these partial keys instead of full
keys to uphold security integrity.
A detailed explanation of key management algorithms can be found in [9]. The
significant parts are highlighted with simple examples to aid understanding.
When deploying IoT devices, a set of partial keys is distributed and embedded into
each device before deployment, forming a key pool. This pre-distribution is considered
secure since the IoT system is generally safe during this initial phase. Moreover, it is a
security mechanism to identify unauthorised users utilising unapproved keys. To minimize
storage requirements and safeguard against attackers gaining access to whole encryp-
tion/decryption keys in case of a compromised node, each IoT node stores a portion of
these keys. Nodes create their unique keys by merging their partial keys using a simple
concatenation method to communicate. Using these randomly given partial keys from the
pool, nodes can generate several secure keys for different interactions.
This feature of our cipher enhances both the security and data freshness. Consider
two devices, A and B, each with a partial key list, such as a, b, c, d, e, and p, q, r, s, t. They
agree on a key order choice before encrypting the data. An order list 3, 2, 0, 1, 4 is sent
from A to B, and B sends an order list 0, 2, 4, 1, 3 to A. Finally, they use the concatenation
function and generate the full key sequence dp, cr, at, bq, es. This dynamic key shuffling
and agreement process prevents attackers with only one partial key list from protecting
confidential data, even in resource-constrained environments. Regularly refreshing the key
order further strengthens the security and ensures data freshness.

7.2. Substitution Box (S-Box)

The S-box and P-box are crucial components in constructing a robust block cipher as
they ensure the properties of confusion and diffusion, respectively. The S-box conceals
the connection between the ciphertext, key, and plaintext, enhancing the cipher’s secu-
rity. Conversely, the P-box is crucial in obscuring the relationship between the ciphertext
and plaintext.
A robust S-box is essential for ensuring the dependability and effectiveness of the
block cipher [50]. A 4 bit S-box is advantageous because of its reduced physical space
and memory requirements compared to an 8 bit S-box, necessitating a larger gate area
and memory usage. We designed an S-box specifically designed for IoT devices with
limited resources. The S-box employs a 4 × 4-bit design well-suited for LWBC. The S-box is
generated using an irreducible polynomial derived from the Galois Field. The utilisation of
multiplicative inverse and affine translation further enhances the robustness of the S-box.
Empirical research has verified that the suggested S-box demonstrates resilience against
statistical and differential cryptanalysis [7].

7.3. Padding Layer Between S and P Layers

Our lightweight cipher incorporates an additional padding layer between the S-box
and P-box in the SPN structure (Figure 3). This strategic addition aims to achieve a dual
benefit: to strengthen security by increasing confusion and diffusion and to improve
efficiency by reducing the number of encryption rounds by introducing extra complexity.
 7.3. Padding Layer Between S and P Layers
Our lightweight cipher incorporates an additional padding layer between
the S-box and P-box in the SPN structure (Figure 3). This strategic addition aims
to achieve a dual benefit: to strengthen security by increasing confusion and
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 18 of 35
diffusion and to improve efficiency by reducing the number of encryption
rounds by introducing extra complexity.

Figure 3. The middle layer of the proposed lightweight block cipher (LWBC), depicting the process
of nonlinear transformation through S-boxes and P-boxes, alongside key mixing operations. This
layer emphasises the role of nonlinear functions to enhance security by introducing high levels of
confusion and diffusion, effectively obfuscating the relationship between the plaintext and ciphertext.
The key mixing operations ensure a dynamic key application across rounds, adding an extra layer of
complexity to resist cryptanalytic attacks, making the LWBC robust and efficient for IoT applications.

The function of this layer is to split the output of the S-box into two segments, each
consisting of 32 bits. It then performs an XOR operation to generate a new segment for
the left side and combines it with the right segment. The result is a 64 bit output that
resembles an enhanced version of the S-box output. The enhanced data are subsequently
transmitted to the P-layer. Our SPN-based cipher offers security comparable to that of
the PRESENT cipher while providing faster and perhaps more resilient encryption. By
applying a robust S-box to intensify confusion, we decrease the number of rounds by
employing a distinctive padding layer, optimising speed and resource efficiency. This
design emphasises the importance of a lightweight implementation while ensuring robust
security measures against potential attackers.

7.4. Permutation Box (P-Box)

We developed a customised 64 bit P-box for IoT devices with limited resources. This
P-box utilises a nonlinear feedback shift register (NFSR) to rearrange bits and improve
security. Table 3 is an example of the 64 bit P-box generated by the NFSR. The selection of
this 64 bit design method is aimed at reducing the effects on both hardware and software,
making it especially well-suited to environments with restricted resources. The cyclic
behaviour and feedback mechanism of the NFSR enables effective bit reordering, resulting
in robust diffusion and rendering it challenging for attackers to establish connections
between input and output bits. The P-box, based on the NFSR, improves the security and
efficiency of the cipher by creating unique sequences and eliminating pre-periods. This
makes it a viable solution for boosting communication security between IoT end devices.
Figure 4 shows the implementation of the proposed LWBC encryption and decryption
mechanism, S-box, and P-box. This process involves generating random keys, convert-
ing plaintext into binary format, encrypting the data using substitution and permutation
techniques, such as S-box and P-box, and decrypting the cipher text to retrieve the origi-
nal plaintext.
 Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 38

Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 19 of 35

Table 3. Proposed LWBCs P-box.

i P(i) i P(i) i P(i) i P(i)

Table0 3. Proposed
51 LWBCs16P-box. 14 32 8 48 34
1 42 17 58 33 56 49 54
2i 28 P(i) 18 i 3 P(i) 34 i 59 P(i)
50 1 i P(i)
3 16 19 41 35 18 51 43
0 51 16 14 32 8 48 34
4 33 20 53 36 39 52 21
1 42 17 58 33 56 49 54
5 0 21 37 37 2 53 7
6
2 13
28 22
18 4
3 38
34 6 59
54 63
50 1
73 19 16 23 19 9 41 39 3511 18
55 6151 43
84 5 33 24 20 26 53 40 3617 39
56 2952 21
95 38 0 25 21 31 37 41 3755 2
57 2253 7
106 45 13 26 22 57 4 42 3835 6
58 4654 63
117 49 19 27 23 20 9 43 3915 11
59 2555 61
128 44 5 28 24 23 26 44 4024 17
60 5256 29
139 30 38 29 25 12 31 45 4140 55
61 4757 22
10
14 27 45 30 26 60 57 46 4236 35
62 1058 46
15
11 48 49 31 27 50 20 47 4332 63
15 6259 25
12 44 28 23 44 24 60 52
Figure
13 4 shows
30 the implementation
29 of the proposed
12 45 LWBC40 encryption 61and 47
decryption
14 mechanism,
27 S-box,
30 and P-box.60This process
46 involves36generating 62
ran- 10
dom 15
keys, converting
48 plaintext
31 into binary
50format, encrypting
47 the32data using 63
sub- 62
stitution and permutation techniques, such as S-box and P-box, and decrypting
the cipher text to retrieve the original plaintext.

Figure 4. Pseudocode algorithm for encryption and decryption in the proposed LWBC.

8. Experimental Setup to Evaluate the Energy Consumption of the LWBC

In this section, we introduce a carefully designed physical structure that measures the
energy consumption of security algorithms on Arduinos. Arduinos are a popular choice for
IoT development, and our system explicitly targets the resource requirements of security
algorithms on these devices. This approach lays the foundation for a scalable method
to evaluate different platform algorithms. By highlighting the power consumption of
security processes on Arduino, we demonstrate our architecture’s versatility and possible
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 20 of 35

applicability in various scenarios. Our specialised study setup is flexible and enables us to
analyse the execution of different security applications on multiple systems.
Explanation for scientific publication:
The above pseudocode provides a comprehensive overview of the encryption and
decryption operations in the proposed LWBC. The algorithm comprises several inter-
linked components:
Key management: the function generate_64_bit_keys() generates dynamic keys by
combining 32 bit subkeys, enhancing security through key variability.
Text conversion and encryption: plaintext is converted into binary form, encrypted
through iterative rounds using S-box substitutions, P-box permutations, and XOR opera-
tions with keys.
S-box construction: the S-box, a critical component for ensuring nonlinearity, is built
using irreducible polynomials in GF(24 ) and an affine transformation. This combination
ensures that the cipher resists linear cryptanalysis.
P-box construction: the P-box is constructed using an NFSR-based approach to gener-
ate unique permutations. This ensures high diffusion, further obfuscating the relationship
between input and output data.
Decryption: decryption reverses the encryption operations using the final encryption
key as the starting point, ensuring the correct retrieval of the original plaintext.
This modular design ensures the proposed LWBC is both efficient and secure, bal-
ancing the requirements of lightweight cryptography with the need for robust resistance
against cryptanalytic attacks.
The Arduino NodeMCU V3 is the selected platform for analysing the energy usage
of the LWBC algorithm, as shown in Figure 5 [51]. This widely used development board
is equipped with a high-performance Tensilica Xtensa® 32-bit RISC processor running at
80 MHz, which offers sufficient processing capability for executing algorithms. Equipped
with four megabytes of flash memory and 64 kilobytes of SRAM, it effortlessly stores
program code and operational data. The NodeMCU V3 enhances its functionalities by inte-
grating EEPROM, which allows for the secure and durable recording of important LWBC
parameters. In addition, the device has Wi-Fi capabilities that follow the 802.11 b/g/n
standards. It also has WPA/WPA2 encryption to secure contact with external services.
The platform’s adaptability is augmented by its 30 digital I/O ports and one analogue
input, enabling seamless connection with a wide range of sensors and actuators
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 38 for LWBC
analysis [52].

Figure 5. Arduino ESP8266 NodeMCU V3 device front and back view. The NodeMCU V3
Figure 5. Arduino ESP8266 NodeMCU V3 device front and back view. The NodeMCU V3 devel-
development board is an open-source hardware platform based on the ESP8266 Wi-Fi SoC devel-
opment board isSystems,
oped by Espressif an open-source hardware
headquartered platform
in Shanghai, based on the ESP8266 Wi-Fi SoC developed by
China.
Espressif Systems, headquartered in Shanghai, China.
Our methodology involves measuring the outside of the component, en-
suring that our approach remains independent of the device’s individual
properties. This architectural style’s inherent lightweight nature allows for ver-
satile measurement capabilities across various contexts, unrestricted by the
need for controlled surroundings.
Determining electrical power entails computing the multiplication of the
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 21 of 35

Our methodology involves measuring the outside of the component, ensuring that
our approach remains independent of the device’s individual properties. This architectural
style’s inherent lightweight nature allows for versatile measurement capabilities across
various contexts, unrestricted by the need for controlled surroundings.
Determining electrical power entails computing the multiplication of the current (I)
passing through the component and its operational voltage (Vcc ). The voltage is measured
directly using a voltage sensor. IoT determines the present electrical flow; we determine by
computing the voltage (Vshunt ) measured across a shunt resistor that is incorporated into
the USB power line. The procedure is depicted comprehensively in Equation (6).

P = Vcc ∗ I = (Vcc ·Vshunt )/R (6)

The determination of the current flow is derived from Ohm’s law, expressed as
I = (Vsh unt /R). The variable represents the resistance of the shunt resistor in this equa-
tion. Choosing an adequately low resistance value is essential to minimise the voltage
drop at the device’s input while guaranteeing that our sensor can detect the drop. In our
measurements, we employed the minimum resistance value that our sensor can precisely
detect, opting for a shunt resistor with a resistance of 0.02 Ω and ADC measurement point.
To calculate the power consumption of the device (P), we utilise the Formula (6):
This equation enables the computation of power by utilising the device’s operational
voltage (Vcc ), the measured voltage across the shunt (Vshunt ), and the resistance of the shunt
resistor (R).
To precisely assess the energy consumption of our LWBC algorithm, we employed
the Qoitech Otii Arc, a specialised instrument designed to optimise the energy usage of
devices, software, and algorithms. It is beneficial for understanding and improving the
energy characteristics of battery-powered devices with low resources, like IoT devices. The
Qoitech Otii Arc is a precise and flexible power analyser for IoT applications, especially
those involving low-current, battery-operated devices. This device works very well as
a flexible source measure unit (SMU) and can measure power in many fields with great
accuracy and good detail. The device’s high sampling rate of kilo samples per second
(kbps) and wide analogue bandwidth of kilohertz (kHz) allow the precise monitoring of
fast current fluctuations, making it well-suited for high-frequency situations. The Otii
Arc is equipped with user-friendly software compatible with multiple operating systems.
It allows for real-time monitoring, data synchronisation, and a simple setup, enabling a
thorough study of power usage in IoT devices with no effort [53].
The Otii Arc utilises the shunt resistor technique to achieve precise current measure-
ment in IoT devices. This is a critical process for analysing power consumption trends
and enhancing device effectiveness, as Figure 6 depicts. The unit of measurement for
power is milliwatts (mW), and the energy efficiency of IoT electrical systems is assessed by
analysing their energy consumption. The energy consumption (E) is calculated in joules (J)
by multiplying the power (P) in watts (W) by the time (t) in seconds (s), according to the
following equation.
E=P∗t (7)
The experimental structure utilises the Otii Arc (Figure 7) as a power source and battery
emulation for the Arduino NodeMCU V3 while simultaneously running the LWBC security
algorithm. As illustrated in Figure 8, the Arduino’s “3V” and “G” terminals are directly
linked to the corresponding outputs of the Otii Arc to ensure precise voltage and current
measurements. Facilitating data interchange is achieved through a physical connection
between the Arduino’s UART TX pin and the Otii Arc’s UART RX pin. This connection
allows for the real-time monitoring and synchronisation of power usage with algorithm
execution. The Otii Arc can be linked to a specialised high-capacity USB charging connector
to provide an ample power supply for intensive tasks. The Otii software automatically
initiates the powering and data recording processes. This process entails the straightforward
steps of activating the power supply, adjusting the settings, and pressing the start button.
 time monitoring and synchronisation of power usage with algorithm execu-
tion. The Otii Arc can be linked to a specialised high-capacity USB charging connector
to provide an ample power supply for intensive tasks. The Otii software auto-
matically initiates the powering and data recording processes. This process
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 entails the straightforward steps of activating the power supply, adjusting 22 of
the35
settings, and pressing the start button.

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 38

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 38

Figure
Figure 6.6.Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of aofUSB
a USB power
power line featuring
line featuring a shunt
a shunt resistorresistor and an ADC.
and an ADC.

Figure 7. Qoitech Otii Arc power measuring device manufactured by Qoitech AB, a company
based in Malmö, Sweden.
Figure7.7.Qoitech
Figure Qoitech Otii
Otii ArcArc power
power measuring
measuring devicedevice manufactured
manufactured by Qoitech
by Qoitech AB, a company
AB, a company based
based in Malmö,
in Malmö, Sweden. Sweden.

Figure8.8.Connection
Figure Connection diagram
diagram between
between Otii Otii anddevice.
and IoT IoT device.

The
The
Figure 8.existing
existingmethodology
methodology
Connection meticulously assesses
meticulously
diagram between Otii and the energy
assesses
IoT device. consumption
the energy of IoT secu-
consumption of
rity algorithms. By employing the ESP8266 NodeMCU V3 in conjunction
IoT security algorithms. By employing the ESP8266 NodeMCU V3 in conjunction with the Otii Arc,
with The
the Otii Arc, methodology
existing we have established the foundation
meticulously assesses for
theexamining and improv-
energy consumption of
ing
IoTenergy
securityefficiency in IoT
algorithms. devices. The
By employing upcoming
the ESP8266 section
NodeMCU will V3
explore the find-
in conjunction
ings
withandthe consequences of this
Otii Arc, we have analysis. the foundation for examining and improv-
established
ing energy efficiency in IoT devices. The upcoming section will explore the find-
9. Experimental
ings Results and
and consequences Discussions
of this analysis.
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 23 of 35

we have established the foundation for examining and improving energy efficiency in IoT
devices. The upcoming section will explore the findings and consequences of this analysis.

9. Experimental Results and Discussion

The following sections of this research will comprehensively evaluate the suggested
LWBC, analysing its suitability and efficiency in IoT applications. When assessing the en-
ergy consumption of a cryptographic algorithm compared to other LWBCs, several factors
must be considered, including algorithm complexity, operational modes, and hardware
optimisation. Lightweight ciphers are specifically designed to maximise computational
efficiency while minimising energy usage. Therefore, the energy per bit metric becomes a
critical criterion for comparison.
To evaluate the effectiveness of a created cipher, its performance on similar systems
can be compared to established ciphers such as PRESENT, PRINT, TEA, RECTANGLE,
and PRINT. This comparison can help to determine the cipher’s suitability for specific
applications and system configurations.
Table 4 compares our proposed lightweight block cipher and well-known alternatives,
providing insights into its efficiency and resource usage. This comparison is essential
for comprehending the efficacy and potency of our approach about current algorithms.
Necessary measurements, such as the size of the encryption key, the size of data blocks,
the number of encryption rounds, the structure of the network, the amount of energy
consumed per bit (measured in microjoules), the area occupied by the encryption circuitry
(measured in gate equivalents or GEs), the amount of memory needed for read-only
memory (ROM) in bytes, the time delay per block (measured in cycles), and the rate of
data transfer (measured in kilobits per second per kilobyte at 100 MHz), are taken into
account. This comparison emphasises each cipher’s advantages and compromises, offering
a thorough view of the latest advancements in LWBC design. We analysed our suggested
cipher, as well as established algorithms such as Piccolo, RECTANGLE, PRINT, PRESENT,
PUFFIN, ICEBERG, HIGH, and TEA, to gain a comprehensive grasp of its performance in
key features relevant to IoT and comparable applications. This research presents an efficient
block cipher tailored explicitly for IoT end devices. The cipher considers the limitations of
power, memory, and processor capabilities, which are crucial factors in this context. The
evaluation of this encryption and decryption method is systematically divided into two
fundamental components: resource allocation, specifically, power consumption, followed
by security analysis.

Table 4. Comparison of various resource consumption by various LWBC algorithms.

Key Type Throughput

Network Energy Gate Area Memory ROM Latency
Algorithms (Partial/Full Block Size Rounds (@100 MHz
Structure (µJ/bit) (GE) (byte) (Cycles/block)
Key) Kbps/KB)
Proposed Partial Key 64 10 SPN 4.50 1450 1408 11,892 180
Cipher or half key
Piccolo [18,29] Full key 64 25, 30 GFN 4.80 1136 2654 25,681 237
RECTANGLE [26] Full key 64 25 SPN 5.96 1787 - - 246
PRINT [30] Full key 48 48 SPN 7.54 503 6210 35,161 100
PRESENT [27] Full key 64 31 SPN 11.77 1570 1562 10,792 200
PUFFIN [54] Full key 64 32 SPN 19.32 2577 - 1240 200
ICEBERG [31,32] Full key 64 16 SPN 21.81 5800 - 16,660 400
HIGH [32] Full key 64 32 ARX + GFN 29.14 3048 1340 - 470
TEA [33,54,55] Full key 64 64 Fiestel 35.32 3872 1354 9129 194

9.1. Resource Utilisation Analysis

The practical implementation of cryptographic solutions in the context of the IoT
depends on efficient resource use, particularly power consumption. This analysis section
will comprehensively evaluate the proposed cipher’s power efficiency. Given the energy-
constrained nature of IoT devices, the power consumption test is not just an indicator of
efficiency but also a critical factor in determining the technology’s feasibility for real-world
applications.
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 24 of 35

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 38

In addition to evaluating power efficiency, this examination encompasses assessments
of gate area, throughput, key and block sizes, and the impact on device memory (ROM).
However, the primary focus remains on power usage, which aligns with the research’s title
draws
and inspiration
underscores fromfor
the need research investigations,
energy-efficient such techniques
cryptographic as the survey conducted
in IoT by
systems with
Eisenbarth
limited et al. This
resources. on lightweight
methodologycryptographic algorithms
draws inspiration [55]. investigations, such
from research
as the survey conducted by Eisenbarth et al. on lightweight cryptographic algorithms [55].
9.1.1. Energy Consumption Analysis
9.1.1. This
Energy Consumption
analysis aims toAnalysis
measure and understand the power and current de-
mands
Thisof a lightweight
analysis block cipher
aims to measure algorithm
and understand thewhen
powerexecuted on demands
and current the ESP8266 of a
lightweight
NodeMCUblock cipher
V3. The algorithm
Otii Arc Prowhen will executed
be used onforthe ESP8266
accurate NodeMCU
energy V3. The Otii
measurement.
Arc Pro
Thewill be Arc
Otii useddevice
for accurate energyessential
provides measurement.
insights into the energy consump-
The Otii Arc device provides essential
tion of the cipher during operation. These findings insights into theareenergy consumption
helpful of the
for optimising
cipher
energy efficiency in practical applications. When evaluating the energy usage in
during operation. These findings are helpful for optimising energy efficiency of
practical applications.
cryptographic When evaluating
algorithms, it is crucialthetoenergy usage
consider of cryptographic
various algorithms,
factors that can influ- it
is crucial
ence theirtoperformance.
consider various By factors
carefullythatanalysing
can influence
thesetheir performance.
factors By carefully
and comparing them
analysing these factors
to established andresearchers
ciphers, comparing them to establishedcan
and developers ciphers,
create researchers and devel-
more efficient and
opers can create more efficient and effective lightweight ciphers
effective lightweight ciphers that meet the demands of modern computing sys-that meet the demands of
modern computing systems. Figure 9 visually represents the interconnection
tems. Figure 9 visually represents the interconnection between IoT devices, Otii between IoT
devices,
Arc, andOtii Arc, and computers.
computers. The connectionThe connection details
details are are already
already discussed
discussed in Section
in Section 6. 6.

Figure9.9.AAphysical
Figure physical connection
connection between
between devices
devices whilewhile measuring
measuring power consumption.
power consumption.

Themeasurements
The measurements obtained
obtained from
from Figure
Figure 10, using
10, using the Arc
the Otii Otiidevice,
Arc device, indi-
indicate an
cate an power
average average power
usage usage
of 138.4 of 138.4
milliwatts milliwatts
during during
encryption andencryption
decryption, and decryp-
equivalent to
tion, equivalent
0.1384 to 0.1384and
watts. The encryption watts. The encryption
decryption and decryption
procedure involves transforming procedure in-
a 64 bit plain-
text to ciphertext
volves and vice
transforming a versa
64 bitand is completed
plaintext in 2.1 milliseconds
to ciphertext and vice (equal
versato 2.1 −3 s).
and×is10com-
By multiplying
pleted the values of(equal
in 2.1 milliseconds power toand2.1time,
× 10we can
−3 s). Bydetermine
multiplyingthe overall energy
the values usage,
of power
which amounts to 290 microjoules.
and time, we can determine the overall energy usage, which amounts to 290 mi-
Dividing this energy consumption by the number of processed bits (64) yielded an
crojoules.
energy efficiency of approximately 4.50 microjoules per bit. This key metric underlines
the cipher’s suitability for resource-constrained devices, such as IoT endpoints, where
energy preservation is critical. It quantitatively measures the cipher’s performance in
energy-hungry environments, highlighting its potential for practical applications.
An examination of resources utilising the ESP8266 NodeMCU V3 and the Otii Arc Pro,
explicitly focusing on power usage, provides valuable insights into the energy efficiency
of an LWBC. This research is essential for optimising IoT devices, guaranteeing their
efficient operation.
The energy consumption of block ciphers has been a topic of significant interest in
recent years, particularly in the context of energy-limited devices such as IoT end devices.
In this regard, the power consumption rate of various block ciphers has been measured
and expressed in microjoules per bit. Figure 11 illustrates the results of this analysis.
 cate an average power usage of 138.4 milliwatts during encryption and decryp-
tion, equivalent to 0.1384 watts. The encryption and decryption procedure in-
volves transforming a 64 bit plaintext to ciphertext and vice versa and is com-
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 38
pleted in 2.1 milliseconds (equal to 2.1 × 10−3 s). By multiplying the values of power
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 25 of 35
and time, we can determine the overall energy usage, which amounts to 290 mi-
crojoules.
Figure 10. Power consumption measurement by Otii Arc.

Dividing this energy consumption by the number of processed bits (64)

yielded an energy efficiency of approximately 4.50 microjoules per bit. This
key metric underlines the cipher’s suitability for resource-constrained devices,
such as IoT endpoints, where energy preservation is critical. It quantitatively
measures the cipher’s performance in energy-hungry environments, highlight-
ing its potential for practical applications.
An examination of resources utilising the ESP8266 NodeMCU V3 and the Otii
Arc Pro, explicitly focusing on power usage, provides valuable insights into the en-
ergy efficiency of an LWBC. This research is essential for optimising IoT devices,
guaranteeing their efficient operation.
The energy consumption of block ciphers has been a topic of significant in-
terest in recent years, particularly in the context of energy-limited devices such as
IoT end devices. In this regard, the power consumption rate of various block
ciphers has been measured and expressed in microjoules per bit. Figure 11 illus-
Figure 10. Power consumption measurement by Otii Arc.
trates the results of this analysis.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Evaluate
Evaluate various
various LWBCs’
LWBCs’ energy
energy consumption.
consumption.

Ourproposed
Our proposed cipher
cipher has has
shownshown the efficient
the most most efficient designthe
design among among the
ciphers, ci-
with
aphers,
powerwith a power rate
consumption consumption rate of 4.50
of 4.50 microjoules permicrojoules
bit. This designper bit. This design
is superior is
to the
superior toand
alternatives the provides
alternatives and provides
a promising solutionaforpromising solution
energy-limited for energy-lim-
devices. The Piccolo
ited devices.
cipher comes in The Piccolo
a close second,cipher
with ancomes
energyin efficiency
a close second,
of 4.80 with an energy
microjoules efficiency
per bit, which
is
ofstill
4.80competitive.
microjoulesHowever,
per bit, whichthe RECTANGLE cipher falls
is still competitive. in the middle
However, range with a
the RECTANGLE
power
cipherdemand
falls in ofthe5.96 microjoules
middle rangeperwithbit.a power demand of 5.96 microjoules per bit.
On
Onthe theother
otherhand,
hand, thethe
PRINT
PRINTandand PRESENT
PRESENT ciphers show show
ciphers relatively high energy
relatively high
consumption
energy consumption levels of 7.54 and of
levels 11.77 microjoules
7.54 and 11.77 permicrojoules
bit, respectively, making
per bit, them less
respectively,
suitable
makingfor energy-limited
them less suitable situations. The ICEBERGsituations.
for energy-limited and HIGH The ciphers exhibit significantly
ICEBERG and HIGH
higher
ciphers power
exhibit utilisation levels higher
significantly of 21.81power
and 29.14 microjoules
utilisation perofbit,
levels 21.81respectively.
and 29.14This mi-
suggests a substantial increase in power consumption, which could
crojoules per bit, respectively. This suggests a substantial increase in power con- be a critical constraint
when using these
sumption, whichciphers
couldin beIoT end devices
a critical wherewhen
constraint powerusing
efficiency
theseisciphers
crucial. in IoT end
The findings of this study
devices where power efficiency is crucial. highlight the crucial role of power consumption rate in
designing
The energy-efficient
findings of this IoT end devices
study withthe
highlight various block
crucial ciphers.
role Our proposed
of power consumptioncipher
presents
rate in adesigning
compelling solution for such
energy-efficient scenarios,
IoT owingwith
end devices to itsvarious
highly efficient architecture
block ciphers. Our
and low power consumption rate.
proposed cipher presents a compelling solution for such scenarios, owing to its
highly efficient architecture and low power consumption rate.
9.1.2. Key Type (Full/Partial Key)
We
9.1.2. useType
Key the 64(Full/Partial
bit key to ourKey)
cipher, ideally suited for IoT devices, striking a balance
between security and efficiency. The proposed cipher is a balanced solution between 80 bit
and 128 bit ciphers such as Piccolo, RECTANGLE, PRINT, PRESENT, PUFFIN, ICEBERG,
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 26 of 35

HIGH, and TEA. It may offer a different level of complexity than 128 bit ciphers. We use a
middle layer to overcome this restriction and regularly update the key. The middle layer
enhances the complexity, while key freshness enhances the resilience of the cipher with
the smaller key. A 64 bit key decreases the computational and memory requirements,
which are crucial for IoT devices with limited resources. This enhanced efficiency results
in reduced power usage for portable IoT devices. A lower key size decreases the memory
used, which is valuable for systems with limited ROM and random access memory (RAM).
The scalability and versatility of the cipher make it suitable for a wide range of applications,
from basic sensors to large IoT systems.

9.1.3. Block Size

Selecting an appropriate block size is crucial in achieving an optimal balance between
security and efficiency in cryptographic algorithms. While bits play a vital role, other
aspects, such as processing speed and resource usage, should also be considered. Several
ciphers, including Piccolo, RECTANGLE, PRESENT, PUFFIN, ICEBERG, HIGH, and TEA,
have adopted the 64 bit block size due to its reliable cryptographic capabilities and efficient
data processing without overburdening resources. This preference for the 64 bit block size
in the industry is a testament to its effectiveness in balancing security and efficiency.
We confidently propose a cipher that aligns with the industry standard of the 64 bit
block size. Our cipher provides robust security and optimal performance, making it ideal
for the high standards of the IoT industry, where both factors are crucial. The 64 bit
block size assures the necessary cryptographic strength to secure data transmissions while
ensuring the efficient processing of vast data. In the context of IoT, where billions of devices
are connected and data transfer is constant, our cipher provides a dependable and secure
solution that meets the industry’s demands.
Therefore, selecting an appropriate block size is critical in achieving the optimal
balance between security and efficiency. The industry preference for the 64 bit block size is
a testament to its effectiveness in meeting these requirements. Our proposed cipher aligns
with this industry standard and provides a robust and efficient solution that meets the
demands of the IoT industry.

9.1.4. Rounds
The use of traditional LWBCs such as Piccolo, PRESENT, and PUFFIN for security
purposes has been widely acknowledged. However, these ciphers rely on multiple rounds
(25–31, 31, and 32, respectively) to achieve a desirable level of security. In contrast, our
innovative technique achieves the same level of security with only ten rounds, which
is remarkable. This approach unlocks unparalleled efficiency by drastically reducing
computational requirements and processing time, making it an ideal choice for resource-
constrained devices.
While it may be tempting to assume that simplicity implies weakness in security,
it is essential to note that our cipher employs an advanced middle layer and dynamic
key refreshes to address the limitations of a single round. A multitiered security system
enhances intricacy and resilience, protecting against prevalent threats, particularly in IoT
devices with limited resources.
Furthermore, our cipher’s distinctive architecture makes it a superior choice for opti-
mising efficiency in applications where utilising bits and cycles is crucial. For instance, the
cipher can be used in sensor networks to enable rapid communication while consuming
minimal resources.
The innovative technique we have developed for LWBCs is a significant milestone in
the quest for efficient and secure ciphers. Using a single round to achieve a desirable level
of security, coupled with advanced middle-layer techniques and dynamic key refreshes,
makes the cipher a robust and efficient choice for resource-constrained devices.
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 27 of 35

9.1.5. Cipher Architecture

The SPNs have emerged as a popular choice among several architectures used in
lightweight ciphers due to their efficient and smart combination of protection. SPNs
have been utilised in well-known ciphers like ICEBERG, PUFFIN, PRINT, PRESENT, and
RECTANGLE. In resource-constrained environments such as those encountered in military
applications, SPNs offer an attractive solution due to their simple deployment and inherent
strength in security.
The proposed cipher, which leverages SPN, has been specifically designed to meet the
security and performance requirements of soldiers with limited resources. The cipher has
been developed to emphasise efficiency, utilising a generalised Feistel network (GFN) to
balance security and performance.
To enhance its strength, HIGH combines ARX with GFN. On the other hand, TEA
relies on a traditional Feistel network for simplicity. However, in the resource-constrained
environment of IoT, SPNs have demonstrated superior performance due to their simple
deployment and inherent strength in security.
The proposed cipher has demonstrated remarkable efficiency in the resource-intensive
domain of IoT, facilitating secure connectivity while minimising resource consumption. Its
SPN architecture offers a balanced trade-off between security and efficiency, making it an
attractive solution for resource-constrained environments.
Using the SPN architecture, the proposed cipher offers an efficient and secure solution
for resource-constrained environments. Its use of GFN ensures a balance between security
and performance, while its inherent security strength makes it an attractive option for
IoT applications.

9.1.6. Gate Area (GE)

The gate area (GE) is a crucial parameter for evaluating the hardware efficiency of
lightweight block ciphers. It is quantified by the number of basic logic gates (such as
two-input NAND gates) required for implementation. Minimising silicon space and power
consumption is vital in resource-constrained contexts like IoT devices. A lower GE value
signifies a more efficient cipher in terms of area, making it suitable for applications with
limited space and energy resources [56].
The proposed cipher for the LWBC gate area is strategically designed to provide a
footprint of 1450 GE. It balances compactness and functionality that surpasses several
existing ciphers, such as RECTANGLE, PRESENT, PUFFIN, ICEBERG, HIGH, and TEA.
This balance makes it a viable option for IoT applications where limited resources and
power usage are critical factors.
The proposed cipher offers a smaller hardware size and reduced power usage, which
makes it an exceptional choice for IoT applications. Although Piccolo and PRINT may cover
a smaller area, the proposed cipher remains strong, providing a competitive advantage
when balancing size, strength, and security, which are crucial for IoT applications. This
establishes it as a strong competitor for IoT applications where the performance of each gate
and the power consumption of every milliwatt are crucial, demonstrating the effectiveness
of the proposed cipher in achieving efficiency in several ways, not solely by minimizing size.
Overall, the proposed cipher for the LWBC gate area shows significant promise in
compactness, functionality, and security, particularly for IoT applications. Its strategic
design and competitive advantage make it a strong contender in the field and support its
potential for broader implementation in IoT environments.

9.1.7. ROM
Low-power wireless devices, such as those used in the IoT, have limited resources and
require a critical factor for their functionality: read-only memory (ROM) [57]. The amount
of ROM used is a crucial factor in determining the efficiency and functionality of these
devices. This research proposes a new cipher that stands out for its impressively small
ROM size of only 1408 bytes, offering clear benefits over existing counterparts.
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 28 of 35

The proposed cipher outperforms existing ciphers regarding ROM size, demonstrating
a substantial decrease in reliance on ROM compared to Piccolo, which requires a vast
2654 bytes, and PRESENT, which needs a more moderate 1562 bytes. Furthermore, the
proposed cipher offers more efficiency improvements than PRINT (1268 bytes) and TEA
(1354 bytes). The cipher’s small size results from its design, which balances efficiency and
functionality, making it an attractive option for IoT applications with limited resources.
The proposed cipher’s shallow ROM requirement makes it a promising candidate for
IoT applications where each byte is significant. Its potential to relieve memory constraints
while guaranteeing solid cryptographic security makes it suitable for diverse IoT applica-
tions. In conclusion, the proposed cipher offers a solution to the challenge of ROM size in
LWBCs, making it a valuable contribution to the field of cryptography.

9.1.8. Latency
Table 3 compares the latency, expressed in cycles per block, for different LWBCs,
including the cipher we proposed. The latency of our cipher is 11,892 cycles per block,
which gives it a competitive advantage compared to most of the mentioned algorithms,
particularly ICEBERG (16,600 cycles/block), Piccolo (25,681 cycles/block), and PRINT
(35,161 cycles/block). This suggests that our cipher is more efficient in terms of cycle
usage. Nevertheless, it exhibits more delay than PRESENT (10,792 cycles/block) and TEA
(9129 cycles/block). While the cipher might not be the fastest in absolute terms, it certainly
does a commendable job when considering other crucial factors for IoT devices, such as
security, battery consumption, and implementation size. In real-world applications for IoT
end devices, balancing security and efficiency is crucial, and these concerns are often more
significant. Our cipher has a reasonably short delay and is likely designed to be efficient
in other aspects. This makes it a potentially better option for specific IoT applications
requiring a trade-off between speed and other performance measures.

9.1.9. Throughput
Our proposed cipher achieves a data transfer rate of 180 kilobits per second per kilo-
byte at a frequency of 100 megahertz, which exceeds the performance of PRINT. However,
it is positioned among several other data transfer rates in the field of LWBC throughput.
Piccolo, RECTANGLE, and other well-established counterparts dominate the field, demon-
strating exceptional velocity. Nevertheless, our approach is particularly well-suited for IoT
devices with limited resources, where a moderate level of data transfer is usually adequate
because the tasks involved are not highly data intensive. Our method achieves a promising
equilibrium when prioritising maximal throughput may not result in optimal real-world ef-
ficiency. By demonstrating superior performance in critical aspects such as power efficiency,
data protection, and compact design, it can become the preferred option for IoT applications
requiring a comprehensive cryptographic solution. Ultimately, the most suitable candidate
depends on the overall speed and complex interaction of performance measurements that
align with the application’s requirements.

9.2. Security Analysis

Assessing the security of a suggested cipher is a critical aspect that necessitates ex-
tensive research on resource utilisation. In the IoT domain, the security of cryptographic
implementations is of utmost importance as devices face increasingly sophisticated cyberat-
tacks. Consequently, a thorough analysis encompassing a range of tests is crucial to evaluate
the cipher’s resistance against prevalent cryptographic attacks such as differential and
linear cryptanalysis, chosen plaintext attacks, and known plaintext assaults. The cipher’s
resilience against these assaults is fundamental in ensuring the integrity and confidentiality
of data in IoT applications.
This subsection presents an in-depth analysis of the security features of our proposed
LWBC, which is explicitly designed for IoT end devices. Our primary focus is to evaluate
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 29 of 35

the cipher’s ability to withstand brute force, man-in-the-middle (MitM), and side-channel
attacks, which are critical for ensuring robust data security in IoT environments.

9.2.1. Brute Force Attack

The security of a cipher is of utmost importance in ensuring the confidentiality of
sensitive information. The exponential growth of the key space significantly enhances the
cipher’s security by protecting against brute-force assaults. As the size of the key space
increases, the number of potential key combinations also increases.
To assess the probable time needed for a brute force attack to breach a cipher, two
crucial factors must be considered: the size of the key space and the speed at which an
attacker can test different keys. Assuming that an attacker had a machine capable of trying
1 billion (10 to the ninth) keys per second, which is a reasonable estimate for modern high-
power systems, the average time required to obtain the appropriate key would involve
examining half of the 64 bit key space, which is around 2 to the 63 keys.
Based on these assumptions, the calculations indicate that finding the proper key
would take around 292 years. However, it is essential to note that this estimate is based on
ideal conditions, and the time needed could be much longer. Furthermore, the protocol
regularly updates encryption keys, making it even more difficult for an attacker to decipher
the information.
Protecting against brute force attacks is significant in the real world, especially when
dealing with sensitive information. Current technology must improve the time needed to
launch a brute-force attack on a 64 bit cipher. Hence, it is essential to have a robust and
secure encryption mechanism in place to safeguard against potential attacks.

9.2.2. Man-in-the-Middle Attack

An MitM attack is a cyberattack in which an unauthorised individual intercepts, de-
crypts, or alters encrypted data delivered through a network. The decryption of intercepted
data usually requires the attacker to determine the encryption key, which can be time-
consuming and computationally demanding. In some cases, the process can take several
years to complete, especially in the context of brute-force attacks. The viability of this
strategy is dependent on the computational resources the attacker has at their disposal.
We conducted targeted experiments to evaluate the resistance of our proposed LWBC
against MitM attacks. One particular test involved modifying the cipher text produced by
our proposed cipher. We added an extra binary bit to the cipher text obtained from the
“Hello World” input. After decrypting, the modified cipher text produced a result that,
although fully deciphered, contained nonsensical or garbled information. The cipher’s
susceptibility to even minor changes in the cipher text is desirable for preventing man-in-
the-middle attacks involving data tampering.
In another experiment, we replaced a ‘1’ in the cipher text with a binary ‘0’. This
seemingly insignificant modification led to a substantially different decrypted outcome,
illustrating our LWBC’s resilience against discreet attempts to manipulate encrypted mes-
sages. Such trials are crucial for evaluating the cipher’s integrity and capacity to preserve
data confidentiality in the face of MitM attack scenarios.
Overall, the results of our experiments suggest that our proposed LWBC is resistant to
MitM attacks. The cipher’s susceptibility to even minor changes in the cipher text makes it
challenging for attackers to manipulate encrypted messages without being detected. These
findings support using our proposed LWBC for secure communication over networks.

9.2.3. Side-Channel Attack

During cryptographic operations, side-channel attacks (SCAs) exploit physical in-
formation leaks, such as timing, power consumption, and electromagnetic emissions. In
resource-constrained IoT environments, where devices may lack advanced countermea-
sures, lightweight block ciphers are particularly vulnerable to SCAs. Our LWBC addresses
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 30 of 35

these vulnerabilities by employing several strategies, including key randomisation, struc-

tural complexity, and operational techniques to obfuscate side-channel signatures.
a. Key Randomisation for Enhanced Unpredictability
A primary defence mechanism against SCAs in our LWBC is its key randomisation
approach. For every encryption cycle, a fresh 64 bit key is derived from a pool of 32 bit
subkeys, creating a unique key instance for each operation. This randomisation increases
entropy, as the keys are drawn from an order list of diverse devices, introducing a layer of
unpredictability. Consequently, attackers cannot rely on static key correlations, as they face
different keys per encryption cycle, making it challenging to exploit observed power or
timing characteristics across cycles.
- Preventing key guessing: the frequent key variation ensures that side-channel informa-
tion related to a particular encryption cycle has limited value, as it becomes infeasible
for attackers to predict or reuse key-based patterns.
- Key isolation across cycles: selecting a fresh key for each cycle limits any cross-cycle
correlation, thus reducing the effectiveness of correlation-based side-channel analysis
(e.g., differential power analysis, DPA) that relies on consistent key information.
b. Robust S-box and P-box Design for Enhanced Confusion and Diffusion
Our cipher’s S-box and P-box structures are designed to maximise confusion and
diffusion, effectively obfuscating any direct relationship between the input, output, and in-
termediate states. The S-box, a nonlinear substitution function, generates high nonlinearity,
thereby complicating the identification of side-channel leaks through linear analysis.
- High nonlinearity: the high nonlinearity of the S-boxes ensures that even minor input
changes cause substantial output changes, disrupting the potential for simple power
analysis (SPA) and other direct SCAs.
- Permutation for diffusion: the P-box permutations disperse the bits across differ-
ent segments, minimising leakage points and making it challenging for attackers to
correlate observed power usage or timing data with specific input–output pairs.
c. Iterative Processing with XOR Operations and Data Chunking
The iterative nature of LWBCs, involving multiple encryption rounds with XOR
operations and data chunking, introduces dynamic transformations in each encryption
phase. Each XOR operation disrupts the intermediate values of data blocks, complicating
the attackers’ ability to analyse and predict the internal states based on side-channel
information.
- Randomised intermediate states: by performing repeated XORs with key bits and
splitting data into chunks, our cipher creates randomised intermediate states that
reduce consistency in side-channel signatures, thus hampering the effectiveness of
DPA attacks.
- Variable round outputs: the iterative rounds in LWBCs modify power consumption
patterns and timing behaviour for each round, creating variability in side-channel
emissions that prevent precise analysis across cycles.
d. Masking and Noise Injection for Increased Ambiguity
While inherent to the cipher’s structural properties rather than explicit masking
techniques, the design of LWBCs incorporates elements akin to random noise in side-
channel outputs. This is achieved through multiple data transformation and key-mixing
rounds, effectively diluting any identifiable power or timing patterns.
- Natural noise and ambiguity: the data transformation and XOR operations within
each round generate inherent variability in power consumption and electromagnetic
emissions. This masks the operational patterns, making it difficult for attackers to
distinguish between meaningful data and noise.
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 31 of 35

- Adaptive complexity: The variation in bitwise transformations across rounds natu-

rally introduces signal noise, thus mitigating differential side-channel analysis where
attackers attempt to deduce secrets by analysing the differences in side-channel data.
e. Temporal Obfuscation through Modified Side-Channel Signatures
The cipher’s iterative design, characterised by frequent modifications in each encryp-
tion stage, disrupts side-channel signatures, making it difficult for attackers to correlate
observed patterns with specific stages of the encryption process.
Multistage modifications: every round in the LWBC performs unique bitwise oper-
ations that significantly alter the data flow, effectively breaking the temporal correlation
necessary for SCAs.
Dynamic timing patterns: by introducing slight variations in processing time across
rounds, our cipher creates inconsistent timing profiles, which serve as an additional layer
of protection against timing attacks, where attackers leverage execution timing data to
deduce key information.
f. Balancing Lightweight Design with SCA-Resistance
While achieving complete immunity to side-channel attacks remains challenging,
our LWBC incorporates these design principles while maintaining a lightweight structure
suitable for IoT devices. By optimising key randomisation, nonlinear transformations, and
multistage processing, our LWBC ensures that side-channel protection does not compromise
performance or exceed the resource constraints of IoT environments.
In summary, the proposed LWBC’s combination of key randomisation, robust S-
box and P-box configurations, iterative XOR-based transformations, and natural noise
generation offers a multilayered defence against side-channel attacks. These design choices
balance the need for efficient cryptographic operations with effective SCA resistance,
making the LWBC suitable for securing IoT devices against physical data leakage while
preserving lightweight operation. This enhanced resilience is particularly beneficial in
heterogeneous IoT ecosystems where devices may lack additional hardware-based security
support, as the cipher’s design inherently mitigates key SCA vectors.

9.3. Results Summary

The block cipher we propose demonstrates remarkable cryptographic robustness. The
vast 64 bit key space makes brute-force attacks impossible, necessitating an extremely long
time for decryption, even in the most favourable circumstances. Periodic key upgrades
significantly improve security. The effectiveness of robust defences against man-in-the-
middle attacks is proved by studies in which even little adjustments to the ciphertext
make the data unintelligible, ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of the information.
Furthermore, the cipher integrates advanced countermeasures to mitigate side-channel
attacks, a significant problem in the IoT environment. The features contributing to increased
unpredictability and hamper side-channel data analysis are dynamic key generation per
iteration, a sophisticated S-box and P-box architecture, and iterative processing. The
complex security measures make the cipher an excellent option for protecting sensitive
data in limited-resource contexts like IoT devices.
The suggested LWBC is highly appropriate for IoT devices due to its extraordinary
power consumption efficiency of only 4.5 µJ/bit. The low energy need of this technology is
a crucial advantage in IoT situations.

9.4. Leveraging the Proposed LWBC in Existing Mobile Applications

The proposed LWBC can be leveraged in existing mobile applications to enhance both
security and energy efficiency in the following ways:
• Offloading computational workloads to smartphones: similar to the approach de-
scribed in “Smartphone-assisted energy-efficient data communication,” our LWBC
can be deployed in mobile applications where smartphones handle the bulk of crypto-
graphic computation. Wearable or IoT devices transmit minimally processed data to
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 32 of 35

a smartphone, which performs the encryption using LWBC. This allows low-power
devices to conserve energy while benefiting from the robust encryption provided by
the LWBC on the smartphone, where computational resources are less constrained.
• Optimising energy consumption through lightweight cipher characteristics: the LWBC’s
lightweight design minimises processing load and memory usage, making it suitable
for mobile and wearable devices that communicate frequently. By integrating the
LWBC, existing mobile applications can secure data transmissions from wearables
without significant additional energy consumption, extending battery life in both the
wearable device and the smartphone.
• Compatibility with energy-sensitive data transfer protocols: the LWBC is adaptable
for secure, energy-efficient data communication protocols commonly used in mobile
applications, such as Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) and Wi-Fi Direct. These protocols,
often used to link wearables with smartphones, can leverage the LWBC to encrypt
data before transmission, ensuring secure communication without the overhead of
more resource-intensive cryptographic methods.
• Modular integration: our proposed method’s lightweight structure allows it to be
integrated as a modular encryption component within mobile applications, facilitating
retrofitting into existing software with minimal modifications. This modular approach
aligns well with applications focused on smartphone-assisted data handling, where
the security layer can be optimised independently.
By adapting our LWBC within the data-handling architecture of mobile applications, it
is feasible to achieve both security and energy efficiency in systems that support wearable
devices and other low-power IoT peripherals.

10. Conclusions
The comprehensive investigation into the proposed lightweight block cipher (LWBC)
has unveiled a compelling cryptographic solution specifically tailored for the intricate
landscape of Internet of Things (IoT) applications. This study offers a thorough analysis
of the LWBC’s power consumption and overall efficiency, complemented by a meticulous
exploration of its security features through rigorous examination. Notably, the LWBC
demonstrates exceptional power efficiency, with a minimal consumption rate of 4.5 micro-
joules per bit, significantly extending the operational lifespan of IoT device batteries. This
remarkable efficiency renders the cipher an ideal candidate for energy-sensitive environ-
ments, such as those utilising energy-harvesting techniques or operating under low-power
conditions. Moreover, the LWBC’s design—featuring a 64 bit key and a single-round
architecture with dynamic key updates—displays resilience against common cryptographic
attacks, underscoring its commitment to robust security.
The security analysis further affirms the LWBC’s credibility in the domain of cryptog-
raphy. Its expansive 64 bit key space fortifies resistance to brute-force attacks, rendering
decryption via exhaustive key search a challenging endeavour. Additionally, the cipher
exhibits notable resilience against man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks, as even minor alter-
ations to the ciphertext yield unintelligible deciphered data, thus ensuring both the integrity
and confidentiality of the information. The LWBC’s heightened resistance to side-channel
attacks is achieved through dynamic key generation and a sophisticated S-box and P-box
architecture, effectively mitigating vulnerabilities associated with physical data execution.
Overall, the LWBC achieves a balanced approach to key dimensions such as key and block
size, latency, and throughput, thereby positioning itself as a competitive solution within the
resource-restricted environments typical of IoT applications. Its holistic strengths in power
optimisation, security robustness, and efficient resource utilisation mark it as a pioneering
development in lightweight cryptography, with the potential to significantly enhance the
evolving field of IoT security.
Electronics 2024, 13, 4325 33 of 35

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.R. and Q.M.; Methodology, M.R.; Validation, M.R. and
R.I.; Formal analysis, M.R.; Investigation, Q.M.; Writing—original draft, M.R.; Writing—review &
editing, Q.M. and R.I.; Visualization, M.R.; Supervision, Q.M. and R.I. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Cyber Security Cooperative Research Centre (CSCRC)
Australia, Project #P23-00299. The APC was waived by MDPI.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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