Lecture – 02

DIGITAL LAND SURVEYING

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 CONTENTS
• FUNDAMENTALS
– DIVISIONS
– OBJECTIVES
– ASSUMPTIONS
– BASICS
– PRINCIPLES
• OPERATIONS
• SUMMARY
• GLOSSARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• FURTHER READING

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 FUNDAMENTALS - DIVISIONS
• Shape of the earth : Oblate Triaxial Ovaloid.
• Surveying two types : Plane surveying and Geodetic surveying.
• Geodetic Surveying considers true shape of the earth.
• For projects extended to large area or for highly precise works.
• Very complicated as measurements are taken over long distances and computations are based on a
curved surface.
• Plane Surveying consider earth as a flat horizontal surface.
• Measurements, calculations and representation of earth’s surface gets simplified.
• Valid for small areas (less than nearly 200 square kilometer) having side less than 10-15 km in extent
in any direction.
• Plane surveying methods are applicable for Civil Engineering projects.
• This course is restricted to the different aspects of plane surveying
• Word surveying, in this course, implies plane surveying.

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 OBJECTIVE OF SURVEYING
• To collect field data;
• To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;
• To analyse the design of actual engineering
works and to calculate the field parameters for
setting out work ;
• To set out field parameters at the site for further
engineering works.
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 ASSUMPTIONS
• BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF PLANE SURVEYING
– All distances and directions are horizontal;
– The direction of the plumb line is same at all points
within the limits of the survey;
– All angles (both horizontal and vertical) are plane
angles;
– Measurement of elevation is with reference to a
datum which is a level surface.

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 BASICS OF SURVEYING
• Surveying involves measurement of distance and direction.
• Measurement of horizontal distance between objects;
• Measurement of vertical elevation between objects;
• Finding out the slope distance by measuring vertical with
reference to horizontal or zenith line;
• Finding out the relative direction of lines by measuring
horizontal angles with reference to any arbitrary direction;
• Finding out absolute direction by measuring horizontal angles
with reference to a fixed direction.

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 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
• working from the whole
to the part :
– to localize the errors;
– to control the accumulation
of errors.

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 Establishment of References
After deciding the position of any STATION/CONTROL POINT, its reference must be kept
from at least two permanent objects or stations whose position have already been well
defined.

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 SURVEYING OPERATIONS
Four stages
Planning: To decide the methods of surveying to be adopted; the resources (instruments &
personnel) to be used and control points / stations to be used ( those already available
and/ or to set up). The planning operation needs a priori field visit to the site and this is
known as reconnaissance survey.
Field observation: It involves collection of field data by making necessary measurements and
recording of observed data in a systematic manner. Before taking any measurements,
the permanent adjustments of the instruments needs to be checked thoroughly by
trained personnel and if required, it must be adjusted.
Office work: It involves processing, analyzing and calculation of observed data; preparation
of necessary data for making plan or map of the area; computation of relevant field
parameters as per design for setting out engineering works at site.
Setting out works: To locate and establish different parameters/ dimensions at the site as
per design for further engineering work.

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 Summary
• Two types of surveying : Plane and Geodetic.
• Objectives of surveying - to prepare plan or map; to calculate
the field parameters and to set out engineering works.
• BASICS OF SURVEYING - to measure distances and directions.
• Principles of surveying - to work from whole to part and to
maintain references of control points or stations.
• Four stages of surveying operations: planning, field
observation, office works and setting out of works.

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 Glossary
Plumb line: The direction of the lines of force of earth’s gravity field. In field surveying, it is defined by the direction
of a freely suspended plumb-bob.
Level surface: A level surface is the equi-potential surface of the earth's gravity field. It is a curved surface and
every element of which is normal to plumb line. A body of still water provides the best example of a level surface.
Level line: A line lying in a level surface is a level line. It is thus a curved line normal to the plumb at all points.
Horizontal plane: at a point is a plane perpendicular to the plumb line passing through that point. It is also
tangential to a level surface at that particular point.
Horizontal line: Any line lying on a horizontal plane is a horizontal line.
Horizontal distance: distance between two points on any horizontal plane is horizontal distance.
Horizontal angle: An angle measured between two intersecting lines in a horizontal plane, is defined as a
horizontal angle.
Vertical line: A vertical line is a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane.
Vertical plane: A plane containing a vertical line is vertical plane.
Vertical angle: The angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane, is called vertical angle.
Zenith line: A vertical line in the direction away from the centre of the earth and above the observer's head, is said
to be directed towards zenith.
Zenith angle: An angle between two lines in a vertical plane where one of the lines is directed towards zenith is
known as zenith angle.

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 Review questions
1. Define the following terms along with their significance in Surveying:
(i) Plumb Line; (ii) Level line; (iii) Vertical angle; (iv)Zenith angle.
2. How do we define the shape of the earth and why does it so?
3. Why does it justified to use methods of plane surveying for Civil Engineering
projects and to what extent the justification is valid?
4. What types of Civil Engineering projects need geodetic consideration?
5. Enumerate the objectives of plane surveying.
6. What are the basic assumptions of plane surveying methods?
7. Enumerate the fundamental parameters of surveying measurement?
8. State and explain with diagram the basic principles of surveying along with
their significance.
9. List the different phases of surveying operation along with their objectives.

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 Further reading
• Elements of Engineering Survey (2016) by Jayanta Kumar Ghosh,
CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (An Amazon Company),
US [https://www.createspace.com/5121778].
• Surveying for Engineers (2006) by J. Uren & W.F.Price

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Thanking You

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