COURSE: ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

EME Syllabus
Introduction to Energy Systems: Concept of heat and work, Steam formation, Types of steam, Steam
properties, numerical on steam properties, Introduction to boilers, working of Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

Prime Movers: Types and working principle of turbines, IC Engines, numerical on IC engines.
Introduction to Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: Working principle of refrigeration system, working of
domestic refrigerator and window air conditioner

Materials and Manufacturing Processes: Introduction to engineering materials and classifications, casting,
Machine Tools- lathe & drilling machine, metal joining process-welding, brazing and soldering, modern
manufacturing technology-CNC machines, laser engraving and 3D printing.

Machine Elements: Types and applications of springs, belt drives, gear drives and chain drives, numerical on
belt drives and gear trains.

Introduction to Mechatronics and Robotics: Need of Mechatronics in industries, measurement system, open
and closed loop control system, Robot anatomy, applications of Robotics.

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UNIT – 4

Springs-Springs are devices that store mechanical potential energy.

Types of Springs
1. Helical springs
2. Extension springs
3. Torsion springs
4. Compression springs
5. Spiral springs
6. Disk springs
7. Leaf springs
8. Linear springs
9. Variable-rate springs
10.Flat springs

Power Transmission System

Power Transmission System: Introduction to drives, classification, belt drives (open and
crossed-No derivations) and gear drives and types of gear, Numerical on gear drives.
2.1 Introduction to Drives:
 Mechanical power transmission is the transfer of energy from where it‟s generated to a place
where it is used to perform work using simple machines, linkages and mechanical power
transmission elements.
Reasons for Power Transmission
 Generated power or energy can be converted into a useful form
 Physical constraints limit the power generation at the place where its used hence it can be
transferred from source to a place where it is needed
 It can be used to change direction and magnitude such as speed or torque
 It can be used to change the type of energy i.e. rotational to linear and vice versa
 The rotational motion has been found to be the most ideal & the simplest means of
transmission of mechanical power almost with negligible losses.
 The rotational motion can be transmitted from one mechanical element to the other with the
help of certain systems called Transmission system or Drives, which may be employed to drive a

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device either by connecting it directly to a prime mover or the rotational motion can be
transmitted to the various parts of a machine within itself.
 The one that drives is called Driving system, while the other which is driven is called Driven
system.
 Usually round rods called Shafts are employed to transmit the rotational motion.
2.2 Types of Drives:
The following represent various types of drives based on distance between them, speed & power
1. Belt Drives
2. Gear Drives
3. Chain Drives
4. Rope Drives
2.3 Belt Drives:
Belt drives are used to transmit power or motion from one shaft to the other by means of a thin
inextensible belt running over two pulleys.

Figure: Typical Belt Drive

A pulley is a circular disc having a hole at the centre so as to accommodate a shaft in it.
The following fig represents a suitable belt drive
From the fig, the arrangement consist of

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 Two pulleys mounted on two different shafts. One shaft called „The Driving shaft‟ receives
power from the mains & transmits it to another shaft called „Driven shaft‟.
 The pulley mounted on the driving shaft is called „Driving pulley‟ while the other pulley
mounted on the driven shaft is called „Driven pulley‟
 The belt passing over the pulley is kept in tension so as to avoid slip over the pulley, which
helps in transmitting power effectively from one shaft to another.
2.4 Classification of Belt Drives:
Based on the direction of the driving shaft & driven shaft, Belt drives are classified into the
following two types.
1. Open belt drive &
2. Cross belt drive.

2.4.1 Open Belt Drive:

Open belt drives are used to connect two parallel shafts that are rotating in the same direction as
shown in the following figure.

From the fig,

 The driving pulley pulls the belt from the lower side „CD‟ & delivers it to the upper side
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„AB‟. Therefore the tension in the lower side belt „CD‟ will be more than the tension in the upper
side belt „AB‟.
 The lower side, because of more tension is known as „The tight side‟, whereas the upper side
belt, because of low tension is known as „The slack side‟.
 Due to the lesser tension on the slack side, the belt sags due to its own weight.

2.4.2 Cross Belt Drive:

Cross belt drives are used to connect two shafts that are parallel & rotating in opposite direction,
as shown in the following figure.

From the fig,

 The driving pulley pulls the belt from one side „BD‟ & delivers it to the other side „AC‟.
Thus the tension in the belt side „BD‟ will be more than the tension in the belt side „AC‟.
 The belt side „BD‟, because of more tension is known as‟ The tight side‟, whereas the belt
side „AC‟, because of less tension is known as „The slack side‟.

2.5 Applications of Belt Drives:

The following represent applications of belt drives.
 To transmit power directly from the prime mover to any external device.
 To transmit rotational motion to various parts of the machine within itself.
 They are largely used for general purposes in mills & factories, especially when the distance
between the two shafts is not very large.

2.6 GEAR DRIVES

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Gear drives are toothed wheels used to transmit considerable power over a short distance
positively with a constant velocity ratio.

Figure: Gear Drives

2.7 Types of Gears:
The following represent different types of gears, which are classified based on the position of the
axis of the shaft.
1. Spur gears
2. Helical gears
3. Bevel gears
4. Worm gears
5. Rack & pinion gears.
2.8 Spur Gears:
Spur gears are the simplest & the most commonly used gears designed to transmit motion
between two parallel shafts, as shown in the following fig.

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From the figure

 The axis of driving shaft & driven shaft are parallel to each other.
 The teeth are cut straight on the circumference of the gears & are parallel to the axis.
Application: Spur gears are used in machine tools, gear boxes, windup alarm clocks & watches,
precision measuring instruments etc.,
2.9 Helical Gears:
Helical gears are similar to the spur gears except that the teeth are curved, each being helical in
shape & hence the name, as shown in the following fig.
The helical gears are used to transmit power or motion between two parallel shafts or between
non parallel but non-intersecting shafts.
Application: Compared to spur gears, helical gears are used when smooth & quiet running at
higher speeds are necessary.

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2.10 Bevel Gears:

Bevel gears are used for transmitting power between two intersecting shafts a shown in the
following fig,

From the fig,

 The teeth of the bevel gears are cut on the conical surfaces.
 They are usually mounted on shafts that are 900 apart, but can be designed to work at other
angles as well.
 Since the diameter of the cone is greatest at its base, the teeth will be thicker at the base.
 The size of the driving & driven bevel gears may be varied depending upon the gear ratio, but
if the size of both driving & driven gears are equal & their axes are 900 apart, then they are called
‘miter gears’.

2.11 Worm Gears:

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Worm gears are used to transmit power between the driving & driven shafts having their axes at
right angles & non-coplanar, as shown in the following fig.

From the fig, Worm gears consist of

 A worm, which is essentially a screw having one or more number of helical threads of
trapezoidal shape cut on it.
 A worm wheel, with tooth profile segment consisting of a small segment of a helix, which
engages with the worm.
Applications:
 Worm gears are suitable for power transmission when a high velocity ratio as high as
60:1 is required.
They are generally employed in machine tools like lathe, milling machine, drilling machines etc.,

2.12 Rack & Pinion Gear:

When a rotary motion is to be converted into a linear motion, rack & pinion arrangement is used,
as shown in the following fig.

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From the fig, the arrangement consist of

 A rack, which is a gear having teeth cut along a straight line
 A pinion, which is a gear with teeth cut along its periphery.

Applications: They are used in machine tools such as lathe, drilling, planning machines etc.

2.13 Velocity Ratio:

 Let N1 & N2 be the speed of the driving gear and driven gear respectively in r.p.m

 Let d1 & d2 be the pitch circle diameters of the driving gear and driven gear
respectively.

 Let T1 & T2 be the number of teeth on the driving gear and driven gear respectively

 Then the Surface Speed is

 π d1N1 = πd2N2

 d1N1 = d2N2

 N2/N1 = d1/d2

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 Since the diameter of pitch circles are proportional to the circumference and the
driving and driven gear work together, must have the same pitch, the
circumferences are proportional to the number of teeth in the wheels

 Therefore

 N2/N1 = d1/d2 = T1/T2

2.14 Numerical on Velocity Ratio

Numerical – 1

A Simple gear drive consists of Driving gear and Driven gear with 500 mm and 250 mm
pitch circle diameter respectively. The driving gear rotates at 300 rpm. Calculate the speed
of rotation of the driven gear and also velocity ratio.

Numerical – 2

A Simple gear drive consists of Driving gear 100 mm of pitch circle diameter. The driving
gear rotates at 200 rpm and driven gear rotates at 300 rpm. Calculate the diameter of the
driven gear and also velocity ratio

Chain Drives

Chain drive is a type of mechanical power transmission system that uses chains to transfer power
from one place to another.

Mechatronics-Mechatronics is a branch of engineering that focuses on designing, manufacturing

and maintaining products that have both mechanical and electronic components.

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Need or Applications of Mechatronics

 Automation in Advanced Manufacturing: Mechatronics allows you to design a

continuous chain process that incorporates modern equipment like barcodes
readers as well as image and sound processors that identify and classify
products as they move along.
 Measuring of Products: To manufacture products with the right specifications
regarding size, weight, and quantity, companies need to apply mechatronic
technology. Intelligence sensors and calibration systems are used to make sure
of uniformity of products.
 Control Systems: For a manufacturing plant to maintain optimum conditions,
parameters like temperature and pressure need to be properly regulated and
monitored. Mechatronics ensures that this regulation is remotely automated,
improving efficiency and productivity

ROBOTICS:

Robots are devices that are programmed to move parts, or to do work with a tool.
Robotics is a multidisciplinary engineering field dedicated to the development of autonomous
devices, including manipulators and mobile vehicles.
An industrial robot is a general purpose, programmable machine possessing certain
anthropomorphic characteristics. The most typical anthropomorphic or human like,
characteristics of a robot is its arm. This arm, together with the robots capacity to be
programmed, make it ideally suited to a variety of production tasks, including machine loading,
spot welding, spray painting and assembly. The robot can be programmed to perform sequence
of mechanical motions, and it can repeat that motion sequence over the over until programmed to
perform some other job.
An industrial robot is a general purpose programmable machine that possesses certain
anthropomorphic features
• The most apparent anthropomorphic feature of an industrial robot is its mechanical arm, or
manipulator
• Robots can perform a variety of tasks such as loading and unloading machine tools, spot
welding automobile bodies, and spray painting
• Robots are typically used as substitutes for human workers in these tasks

Robot Physical Configuration

Industrial robots come in a variety of shapes and sizes. They are capable of various arm
manipulations and they possess different motion systems.
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Classification based on Physical configurations

1. Cartesian configuration: A robot which is constructed around
this configuration consists of three orthogonal slides, as shown in fig.
the three slides are parallel to the x, y, and z axes of the Cartesian
coordinate system. By appropriate movements of these slides, the
robot is capable of moving its arm at any point within its three
dimensional rectangular spaced work space.
Advantages:
 High resolution and accuracy.
 No counterbalance problem.
 3 linear axes
Disadvantages:
 Large structural framework.
 Complex mechanical design for linear sliding motions.
 Confinement of the workspace (limited).

2. Cylindrical configuration: in this configuration, the robot body

is a vertical column that swivels about a vertical axis. The arm
consists of several orthogonal slides which allow the arm to be
moved up or down and in and out with respect to the body. This is
illustrated schematically in figure.
Advantages:
 Almost no counterbalance problem.
 Mechanical design is less complex than Cartesian robots.
 2 linear axes +1 rotating can reach all around itself.
Disadvantages:
 Large structural framework.
 Lower accuracy compared with the Cartesian robots.
 Restriction of the workspace

3. Polar/Spherical configuration: this configuration also

goes by the name “spherical coordinate” because the
workspace within which it can move its arm is a partial
sphere as shown in figure. The robot has a rotary base and a
pivot that can be used to raise and lower a telescoping arm.
Advantages:
 Low weight and minimal structural complexity.
 Short joint travel for many motions.
 Good accuracy and resolution.
 1 linear + 2 rotational axes
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Disadvantages:
 Large variable torque on second joint creating counterbalance problem.
 Position error is large due to rotary joints.

4. Jointed-arm/Revolve configuration: is combination

of cylindrical and articulated configurations. This is
similar in appearance to the human arm, as shown in fig.
the arm consists of several straight members connected
by joints which are analogous to the human shoulder,
elbow, and wrist. The robot arm is mounted to a base
which can be rotated to provide the robot with the
capacity to work within a quasi-spherical space.
Advantages:
 Flexibility to reach over or under an object.
 Good workspace.
 3 rotational axes can reach above or below obstacles.
Disadvantages:
 Counterbalance problem.
 Poor resolution and accuracy due to rotary joints.
 High moment of inertia and dynamic instability (i.e. vibrations).

ROBOT APPLICATIONS

Need to replace human by robots:

• Work environment hazardous for human beings
• Repetitive tasks
• Boring and unpleasant tasks
• Multi shift operations
• Infrequent changeovers
• Performing at a steady pace
• Operating for long hours without rest
• Responding in automated operations
• Minimizing variation

Industrial Robot Applications:

Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:
1. Material-handling applications:
• Involve the movement of material or parts from one location to another.
• It includes part placement, palletizing and/or de-palletizing, machine loading and
unloading.

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2. Processing Operations:
• Requires the robot to manipulate a special process tool as the end effectors.
• The application include spot welding, arc welding, riveting, spray painting, machining,
metal cutting, debarring, polishing.
3. Assembly Applications:
• Involve part-handling manipulations of a special tools and other automatic tasks and
operations.
4. Inspection Operations:
• Require the robot to position a work part to an inspection device.
• Involve the robot to manipulate a device or sensor to perform the inspection.

Material Handling Applications

1. Part Placement:
• The basic operation in this category is the relatively simple pick-and-place operation.
• This application needs a low-technology robot of the cylindrical coordinate type.
• Only two, three, or four joints are required for most of the applications.
• Pneumatically powered robots are often utilized.
2. Palletizing and/or Depalletizing
• The applications require robot to stack parts one on top of the other, that is to palletize
them, or to unstack parts by removing from the top one by one, that is depalletize them.
• Example: process of taking parts from the assembly line and stacking them on a pallet or
vice versa.
3. Machine loading and/or unloading:
• Robot transfers parts into and/or from a production machine.
• There are three possible cases:
 Machine loading in which the robot loads parts into a production machine, but the
parts are unloaded by some other means. Example: a press working operation,
where the robot feeds sheet blanks into the press, but the finished parts drop out of
the press by gravity.
 Machine loading in which the raw materials are fed into the machine without
robot assistance. The robot unloads the part from the machine assisted by vision
or no vision. Example: bin picking, die casting, and plastic moulding.
 Machine loading and unloading that involves both loading and unloading of the
work parts by the robot. The robot loads a raw work part into the process ad
unloads a finished part. Example: Machine operation difficulties
• Difference in cycle time between the robot and the production machine. The cycle time
of the machine may be relatively long compared to the robot‟s cycle time.
4. Stacking and insertion operation:
• In the stacking process the robot places flat parts on top of each other, where the vertical
location of the drop-off position is continuously changing with cycle time.

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• In the insertion process robot inserts parts into the compartments of a divided carton.
The robot must have following features to facilitate material handling:
 The manipulator must be able to lift the parts safely.
 The robot must have the reach needed.
 The robot must have cylindrical coordinate type.
 The robot‟s controller must have a large enough memory to store all the programmed
points so that the robot can move from one location to another.
 The robot must have the speed necessary for meeting the transfer cycle of the operation.

Introduction to Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field that refers to the skill sets needed in
the contemporary, advanced automated manufacturing industry.

Control system

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UNIT – 3

Mechanical Machine Tools

Mechanical Machine Tools: Introduction- lathe, classification, major parts of engine lathe,
operations, Drilling machine, classification working bench drilling machine and operations, CNC
Machines-Block diagram and applications. Introduction to 3D Printing technology.

2.15 Introduction

Production or manufacturing can be simply defined as value addition processes by which raw materials of
low utility and value due to its inadequate material properties and poor or irregular size, shape and finish
are converted into high utility and valued products with definite dimensions, forms and finish imparting
some functional ability. The products are made by a combination of manual labor, machinery, tools and
energy.

The word manufacturing is derived from the Latin word “ manu factus” meaning made by hand; The
word manufacture first appeared in AD 1567 and the word manufacturing in 1683. The word production
and manufacturing is used interchangeably

a) Metal Cutting

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Several metal cutting operations are carried out to produce a part of required shape and size.

The metal cutting operations may be carried out either manually by using hand tools such as
chisels, files, saws, or using metal cutting machines.

Figure: Chisels and Hammer for wood shaping

b) Machine

A machine (or mechanical device) is a mechanical structure that uses power to apply forces
and control movement to perform an intended action.

Figure: Lathe Machine

c) Machine Tool

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A machine tool is defined as a power driven machine which accomplishes the cutting or
machining operations on it.

When machines perform the metal cutting operations by the cutting tools mounted on them,
they are called "machine tools".

Several machine tools are used to produce a part of required shape and size.

The fundamental machine tools that are used for most of the machining processes are,

 Lathe,

 Drilling,

 Milling,

 Shaping and

 Grinding machines.

2.16 Lathe:
The lathe is one of the oldest machine tools and also known as the father of the machine
tool. The first basic lathe was designed by Henry Maudslay, in the year 1797.
Definition: Lathe is a machine tool used to remove metal from the work piece, to a required
shape and size.

The work is held in a work holding device known as chuck. Work is rotated about its
axis, against a single point cutting tool. The tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation of the
work piece to produce a cylindrical surface. The tool should be harder than the material of the
work piece, should be rigidly held on tool post of the machine and should be fed in a definite
way relative to the work.

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Figure 1: Principle of a lathe

2.17 Parts of a Centre Lathe:

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*
CENTRE LATHE

Figure 2: Parts of a Lathe

 Bed: The bed is the main component of a lathe. All the major components are mounted
on the lathe bed, like tail stock, headstock, carriage, etc. Tailstock and carriage move
over the guide ways provided on top face of the bed. The bed material should have high

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compressive strength and high wear resistance. Cast iron alloyed with nickel chromium
forms a good material for bed.
 Headstock: Headstock is mounted on the left hand side of the lathe bed. The head stock
is hollow accommodates gear box, which helps to vary the spindle speed. The gear box
also transmits the power to other parts like feed rod and lead screw. The chuck or face
plate is attached to the spindle which provides mechanical means clutching and rotating
the work piece. The headstock contains speed and feed changing levers. Head stock is
also known as live center
 Tailstock: The tailstock is mounted on the right hand side of the lathe bed. The function
of the tailstock is to support the work piece, and to accommodate different tools like drill,
reaming, boring and tapping, etc. The tailstock moves on the guide ways over the bed, to
accommodate for different length of work piece. Tailstock is known as dead center.
 Carriage: The carriage is mounted on the lathe bed, which slides on the guide ways of
the bed. The carriage has various other parts like, saddle, cross slide, compound rest, tool
post and apron.

i) Saddle
The saddle is mounted on the bed and slides along the ways. The cross slide and
tool post are mounted on the saddle. The movement of the saddle is parallel along
the axis of the lathe, it is also known as feed.

ii) Cross slide

The cross slide is mounted on the top of the saddle. This moves the tool at
perpendicular to the work piece or machine axis. The cross slide can be moved
either by rotating the cross slide hand wheel or engaged with the apron
mechanism (Automatic movement). The perpendicular distance moved by the
cross slide is proportional to the amount of metal removed and it is known as
depth of cut.

iii) Compound slide

The compound slide (compound rest) is mounted on the top of the cross slide. The
rest part of the compound slide has graduations in degree. Compound slide is used

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to obtain taper on the work piece, even this helps to fix the tool right angle to
machine axis.

iv) Tool post

The tool post is mounted on top of the compound slide. The tool post holds the
tool rigidly.

v) Apron
The apron is fastened to the saddle and hangs over the front of the bed. It apron is
fitted with mechanism for both manual and powered movement of the saddle and
the carriage. Split nut engages the Apron with lead screw, which is used to cut
internal or external threads.

vi) Feed rod

Feed rod is a long shaft extending from the feed box. The power is transmitted
from a set of gears from headstock. The feed rod is used to move the carriage or
cross slide for turning, boring and facing operations.

vii) Lead screw

The lead screw is a long threaded shaft connected to the headstock. The lead
screw is used only when thread cutting operation is to be carried out on the work
piece. For normal turning operations the lead screw is disengaged.

2.18 Classification of lathe / Types of Lathe

Based on the construction and Functions, Lathes are classified as

 Speed Lathe

 Engine Lathe or Center Lathe

 Bench Lathe

 Tool room Lathe

 Capstan and Turret Lathe

 CNC (Computer Numerical Control) Lathe

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2.20 Lathe Operations:

Different types of operations that can be carried out
1. Facing
2. Turning
a) Cylindrical Turning
b) Taper Turning
3. Chamfering
4. Knurling
5. Grooving
6. Drilling
7. Thread cutting
Facing

Facing is the process of removing metal from the end of a work piece to produce a flat
surface. It is some time called squaring. The facing tool used is of round edge; if the tool is
pointed then the work piece will not have good finishing. It is also performed to reduce the
length of the given workpiece

Figure: Facing Operation

Turning
Straight Turning is the removal of metal from the outer diameter of a rotating cylindrical
work piece. Turning is used to reduce the diameter of the work piece, usually to a specified
dimension, and to produce a smooth finish on the metal.

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Figure: Turning Operation

Taper turning

A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of work piece

measured along its length. Taper surface is generated on a cylindrical work piece. The amount of
taper in a work piece is usually specified by the difference in diameters of the taper to its length.

Figure: Taper Turning Operation

tanα = D-d/(2l)

D-Large diameter of taper in mm.

d- Small diameter of taper in mm.

l- Length of tapered part in mm.

α- Angle of taper or half taper angle.

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Chamfering

It is a process of creating a slop or bevel type at the end of the work piece. This process is
carried out for removing the unwanted metals and burrs after turning operation. The tool is fed
perpendicular and parallel to the axis of the rotating work piece. The process is generally carried
out after knurling, rough turning, and thread cutting.

Figure: Chamfering Operation

Knurling:

Knurling is the process of embossing a required shaped pattern on the surface of the work piece.
This diagram shows the knurling tool pressed against a piece of circular work piece. The lathe is
set so that the chuck revolves at a low speed. The knurling tool is then pressed against the
rotating work piece and pressure is slowly increased until the tool produces a pattern on the work
piece.

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Figure: Knurling Operation

Figure: Knurling Patterns

Grooving / Parting

The term grooving usually applies to a process of forming a narrow cavity of a certain
depth, on a workpiece. The groove shape, or at least a significant part of it, will be in the shape
of the cutting tool.

This operation is carried out with a narrow cutting tool known as grooving tool or parting
tool.

Figure: Grooving Operation

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Drilling

Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a work piece using a drill. The work
piece is held in the chuck and the drill is held in the tailstock. The feed is provided by means of
moving the sleeve of the tailstock. The figure shows the drilling operation.

Figure: Drilling Operation

Drill bit Drill Attachment

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Thread Cutting

Thread cutting on the lathe is a process that produces a helical ridge of uniform section
on the workpiece.

This is performed by taking successive cuts with a threading tool, the same shape as the
thread form required.

Figure: Thread Cutting Operation

2.21 DRILLING:

Introduction

Any component manufactured has one or more cylindrical hole in them. Holes form the
fastening of the component. The process of making a hole is known a drilling. It forms the most
efficient and economical machining process for cutting a hole in a solid metal. The cutting tool,
which is used for making holes, is known as drill. The drill is a multipoint cutting tool.

Definition:

Drilling is the operation of making holes in a work piece using a drill bit. The hole generated by
the rotating drill, which exerts large force on the work piece clamped rigidly on the machine
table. The figure below illustrates a cross section of a hole being cut by a common twist drill.

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Figure: Drilling

The First drilling machine was designed to generate cylindrical holes (cavities) in the
work piece, later the was machine was redesigned to perform several operations like drilling,
reaming, boring, counter boring, deep hole drill, tapping, countersinking etc. Holes up to 80 mm
diameter can be machined from the solid on drilling machine, and holes above 80 mm are cut
using special drill head or it is performed in boring machines.

2.21 Classification or Types of Drilling Machines

1) Portable drilling machine

2) Bench Drilling Machine (Sensitive drilling machine)
3) Upright drilling machine
4) Radial drilling machine
5) Gang drilling machine
6) Multiple spindle drilling machine
7) Automatic drilling machine

Radial Drilling Machine.

The radial drilling machine is used for drilling medium or large holes of up to 50 mm in
heavy work pieces.

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Construction: The machine consists of the following parts:

Base: The base of the machine is a large cast iron material on which is mounted a
cylindrical vertical column. The base is provided with “T” slots, which helps the
workpiece to be clamped rigidly to the base of the machine.

Vertical column: The column is a long, cylindrical shaped part fastened rigidly to the
base. The column carries a radial arm that can be raised or lowered by means of an
electric motor and can be clamped to any desired position. The radial arm can also be
rotated (swiveled) in a complete circle around the column.

Drill head: The drill head is mounted on the radial arm and carries a driving motor and
a mechanism for revolving and feeding (power feed) the drill bit into the workpiece. The
drill head can be moved horizontally on the guideways provided in the radial arm, and
can be clamped to any desired position.

With the combination of the movements of radial arm and the drill head, it is possible to
move the drill bit, and hence generate a hole at any desired position without moving the
workpiece.

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2.23 Drilling operations

The different operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are:

• Drilling

• Reaming

• Boring

• Counter-boring

• Countersinking

• Spot facing

• Tapping

a) Drilling
Drilling is the operation of making holes in a work piece using a drill bit. The hole
generated by the rotating drill, which exerts large force on the work piece clamped rigidly
on the machine table.

Figure: Drilling Operation

b) Reaming
Reaming is a sizing and finishing operation performed on a previously drilled hole. The
tool used for reaming operation is known as reamer, which has multiple cutting edges.

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The spindle speed is half compared to drilling operation. Reamers cannot produce hole,
but follow the path already defined by the drilling. The metal removed in this process is
small, range is about 0.35 mm.

Figure: Reaming Operation

c) Boring

Figure: Boring Operation

d) Counter-Boring

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Figure: Counter-Boring Operation

It is the operation of enlarging the top end of a hole cylindrically. This forms a square shoulder
to the original hole. This is necessary in some cases to accommodate the heads of bolts, studs
and pins. The counter boring tool is a multi-point cutting tool.

e) Counter-Sinking

Counter sinking is the operation of making a conical shaped at the top of the hole in a previously
drilled cylindrical hole. Countersinking is done to fit in a screw or a countersink rivet. The top of the
hole is conical in shape compared to square shape in counter boring. Initially a hole is drilled in the
work piece using a drill bit. Then the counter sinking tool is used to make cone shaped hole at the top.

Figure: Counter Sinking Operation

f) Spot Facing

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Spot facing is the operation of smoothing and squaring the surface around a hole for the
seat for bolt head or nut. This operation is done with a special tool called facing tool.

Figure: Spot facing Operation

g) Tapping

Tapping is the process of cutting a thread inside a hole (internal surface) so that a cap screw
or bolt can be threaded into the hole. Also, it is used to make threads on nuts. Tapping is
done with a tool called a "Tap".

Figure: Tapping Operation

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CNC Machines-Block diagram and applications

2.24 Introduction to CNC

The first NC (Numerical Control) machines were built in the 1940s and 1950s by Prof.
John. T. Parsons at MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology – USA

CNC (Computer Numerical Control) Machine came into existence after evolution of computer
around 1980.

Modern CNC Machine are improving further as the technology is changing with a variety
of functions according to applications

The definition of CNC given by Electronic Industry Association (EIA)

 “A system in which actions are controlled by the direct insertion of numerical data at
some point. The system must automatically interpret at least some portion of this data”.

 Numerical control is a programmable automation in which process is controlled by

Numbers, Letters, and symbols.

The general definition

 “CNC is one in which the functions and motions of a machine tool are controlled by
means of a prepared program containing coded alphanumeric data”.

 CNC can control the motions of the work piece or cutting tool, the input parameters such
as feed, speed, depth of cut and the functions such as Spindle ON/OFF, Turning coolant
ON / OFF, Cutting Tool Selection, etc.,

 CNC Machining is a process used in the manufacturing sector that involves the use
of computers to control machine tools like lathes, mills and grinders.

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Figure: Typical CNC machine

CNC machine has:

 Storage of more than one part program

 Various forms of program input

 Program editing at the machine tool

 Interpolation

 Acceleration and deceleration computations

 Communications interface

2.25 Block Diagram / Components of CNC Machine

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Figure: Block diagram of CNC machine

 Input Device

 Central Processing Unit/ Machine Control Unit

 Machine Tool

 Driving System

 Feedback Devices

 Display Unit

(i) Input Devices: These are the devices which are used to input the part program in the
CNC machine. There are three commonly used input devices and these are punch tape
reader, magnetic tape reader and computer via RS-232-C communication.

(ii) Machine Control Unit (MCU): It is the heart of the CNC machine. It performs all the
controlling action of the CNC machine, the various functions performed by the MCU are

 It reads the coded instructions fed into it.

 It decodes the coded instruction.
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 It implements interpolation (linear and circular) to generate axis motion commands.

 It feeds the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis
mechanisms.
 It receives the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
 It implements the auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and tool
change.

(iii) Machine Tool: A CNC machine tool always has a slide table and a spindle to control of
the position and speed. The machine table is controlled in X and Y axis direction and the spindle
is controlled in the Z axis direction.

(iv) Driving System: The driving system of a CNC machine consists of amplifier circuits,
drive motors and ball lead screw. The MCU feeds the signals (i.e. of position and speed) of each
axis to the amplifier circuits. The control signals are than augmented (increased) to actuate the
drive motors. And the actuated drive motors rotate the ball lead screw to position the machine
table.

(v) Feedback System: This system consists of transducers that act as sensors. It is also called a
measuring system. It contains position and speed transducers that continuously monitor the
position and speed of the cutting tool located at any instant. The MCU receives the signals from
these transducers and it uses the difference between the reference signals and feedback signals to
generate the control signals for correcting the position and speed errors.

(vi) Display Unit: A monitor is used to display the programs, commands and other useful
data of CNC machine.

2.26 Advantages of CNC Machines

 High Repeatability and Precision e.g. Aircraft parts.

 Volume of production is very high
 Complex contours/surfaces can be easily machined.

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 Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less scrap.

 Safer, higher productivity, better quality
 Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction in lead times

2.27 Advantages of CNC Machines

 Costly setup,
 Skilled operators
 Computer programming knowledge required
 Maintenance is difficult.

2.28 Applications of CNC Machines

 Batch and High Volume production

• Repeat and/or Repetitive orders.

• Complex part geometries

• Mundane (Routine) operations

• Many separate operations on one part

• CNC Lathe – Faster Metal Cutting operations

• CNC Milling – Parts with complicated contour

• CNC Drilling – Producing cylindrical hole

• CNC Grinding- Parts requiring close Tolerances

• CNC Laser

• CNC Welding

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3D Printing

2.29 Introduction to 3D Printing Technologies

Charles Hull coined the term stereo-lithography (3D Printing) in his August 8, 1984 patent
application for "Apparatus for production of three-dimensional objects by stereo-lithography"
U.S.

2.31 3D Printing

3D Printing refers to a relatively new class of manufacturing methods which quickly produce
physical prototypes from 3D CAD data

CAD - Model Prototype from 3D Printing

3D Printing is known as rapid prototyping, layered manufacturing or additive manufacturing

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2.32 3-D Printing technologies / Methods

Stereo lithography (SLA)
Selective laser sintering (SLS)
Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
Laminated object manufacturing

Joining processes
Welding: Working of electric arc welding and soldering, Differences between
welding and soldering, Applications and safety tools.

2.34 Introduction to Metal Joining Processes:

 Metal Joining is defined as joining of two or more metal parts either temporarily or
permanently with or without the application of heat or pressure.

 Many products cannot be fabricated as a single piece, so components are fabricated first
and assembled later.

The joining process can be classified as

2.35 Classification of Metal Joining Processes:

a. Permanent Joining Process

It is done by fusing the metal together. The metal is heated to its melting state and then it
is fused to become one unit. Ex. Welding and brazing

b. Semi – permanent or Temporary Joining Process

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In this the metal is not heated. Process is carried out at room temperature. Temporary
joining process can be done using nuts, bolts, screws and adhesives.

2.36 Welding Process:

Welding is process of joining two or more metals (similar or dissimilar) by the application
of heat with or without the application of pressure and with or without application of filler
material.

With or Without Pressure

2.37 Electric Arc Welding:

Arc welding is a method of permanently joining two or more metal parts. It consists of
combination of different welding processes wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an
electric arc, (mostly without the application of pressure) and with or without the use of filler
metals depending upon the base plate thickness. A homogeneous joint is achieved by melting
and fusing the adjacent portions of the separate parts. The final welded joint has unit strength
approximately equal to that of the base material. The arc temperature is maintained
approximately 4400°C. A flux material is used to prevent oxidation, which decomposes under
the heat of welding and releases a gas that shields the arc and the hot metal. The second basic
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method employs an inert or nearly inert gas to form a protective envelope around the arc and the
weld. Helium, argon, and carbon dioxide are the most commonly used gases.

What is an arc?

Welding arc can be defined as a “Sustained electrical discharge through an ionized gas”.

There are two methods in which the arc formation can be explained

Ion exchange theory method

Electron theory of arc column

In arc welding the electrons are emitted from the cathode and ions form anode. The electrons at
cathode get accelerated and gain energy due to passage of high current and low voltage. As these
electrons enter the arc column, they lose their energy by colliding with gas molecules in the air
gap between the cathode (electrode) and the anode (work piece). Due to the collision, electrons
give out their kinetic energy and break the gas atoms into electrons and positive ions. The
electrons and ions move towards cathode and anode respectively, concentrate at anode and
cathode regions, get condensed and absorbed. This produces good amount of heat energy which
is employed for joining various metals and alloys by fusion.

In electron theory, when an electric arc is struck between the anode and the cathode, flow of
electrons takes place from cathode to anode. The electrons mass is very less and they attain high
velocities. High velocity electrons strike the anode giving out their kinetic energy into heat

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energy. The positive charge ions move from the anode to cathode encircling the stream of
electrons at the center. The maximum heat energy released from an electric arc column is at the
anode when DC arc welding is done.

2.37 Welding Applications:

 Manufacturing plants
 Fabrication of sheet metal.
 Construction Fields
 Shipbuilding
 Industrial piping
 Railroads
 Aerospace & Space Craft

2.38 Soldering
It is defined as “a joining process wherein coalescence is produced by heating to a
suitable temperature and by using a filler metal having a melting point not exceeding 450 oC and
below the solidification temperature of the base metals”. The filler metal fills in the gap of the
joint by capillary action. Soldering uses fusible alloys to join metals know as solder. Ordinary
gas flames or electric soldering iron is used to supply the heat to melt the solder. Fluxes are used
with solder in soldering process.

Fluxes are defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous material when heated accelerates the
wetting of metal with the solder. Due to wetting molten solder flow into the joint and fills the
space between the two pieces to be soldered. At elevated temperature flux is highly reducing in
nature preventing the formation of metal oxides. Fluxes that are generally used in soldering are
Rosin, Zinc Chloride and Aluminum Chloride.

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Figure: Soldering Process

The kind of solder used depends on the metals to be joined. There are two different types of
solders

Hard solders are called solder and hard soldering process is called silver solder brazing. The
hard solder has lead and silver as it constituents. The melting point of the hard solder is in the
range of 350 and above. This process gives greater strength and will stand more heat than soft
solder.

Soft solder is used for joining most common metals with an alloy that melts at a temperature
below that of the base metal, and always below 4500C. The melting range of soft solder is 150 to
2000C. The solder contains tin and lead as it constituents.

Advantages:

1. The process is done at low temperatures hence, no metallurgical damage to the base
metal.
2. The soldering joint can be dismantled by simple heating of the solder.
3. It is cost effective
Disadvantages:

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1. The strength of the joint is not good compared to welding.

2. Flux material has to be cleaned after soldering, as most of the fluxes are corrosive in
nature.
2.39 Differences between Welding and Soldering

Sl.No Welding Process Soldering Process

1 Welding joints are strongest joints used Soldering joints are weakest joints. Not meant
bear the load to bear the load.
2 Temperature required for welding is up-to Temperature requirement is up to 450 °C.
4000-5000 °C.
3 Metals to be joined need to be heated till No need to heat base metals.
their melting point.
4 Mechanical properties of base metal may No change in mechanical properties of base
change at the joint due to heating and metals after joining.
cooling.

5 High skill is required Not much skill is required

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