LEDGED DOORS

1. BATTENED AND for narrow

openingae
suitable
door, specially
simplest type of battens
This is the
17.6 is formed
of vertical bonds, known
tens, which
as

horizontal supporta h
door, shown in Fig. fixed together by supports own
k
to 30 mm thick. Tod
and are
and grooved, wide and 20 ges
usually tongued to 150 mm
lo
generally provid.e
ledges.
to 200
Battens

mm
are 100
wide and 25 to 30
mm
to the
thick. Three ledges
trame Dy
are

means of provided-
T-hinges
middle and bottom. The door is hung ifi
Wall AJUIIILN
Lintel
Head Head

-Top ledge

Hinge Frame Frame

Middle
ledge
Ledge
Inside

Frame
Outside
Bottom
Hinge Batten
ledge
(c) Enlarged part plan
(b) Vertical section
(a) Elevation
DOOR.
BATTENED AND LEDGED
FIG. 17.6.

DOORS
AND BRACED
2.
2. BATTENED, LEDGED,
Wall L
B Lintel-
Head

Topledge
Frame
Frame

Brace
Ledge 8race
Middle
Pad ledge
lock

Frame
Brace O u t s i d e

Boltom Batten
ledge
(b) Enlarged part plan (A-A)
B
(c) Section B-B
(a) Elevation
DOOR.
FIG. 17.7. BATTENED, LEDGED AND BRACED
 DOOL

These door
improved versions of battened and
385
1) members, called ledged
doors, in which
inchned T O r e r I g i d i t

Hence these doorsraces

v
are
provided, as show additional
wide have the can be
used in Fig.
1 5 0
mm
m i

ssential same thickness as the wider openings. The 17 to

for g. 17.7,
100
to
ledges. It that the braces ledges, and are braces,
n

$ince
t h e

they
have
have to work as
struts, to take slope upwards from the simply housed
RATTENED, LEDGED AND FRAMED DoORS compression. handing side
This nor
door is also an improved
form of
frame work for the shutter
battened and ledged is simple
which fir
provided in the
form of two verticals,door, in
total generally_100
are
les Styles mm wide
thickness of style is and 40
mm thick. Three ledges are known
a sU s u a l .

adjusted equal to the thickness

o f battens provided
the
thickness
of ledges plus
Wall-
Lintel-
Head
T I T I T-Top
Frame-
ledge-

Style.

Middle Frame
ledge

rame
Style Ledge
Bottom
ledge
T
B
(a) Elevation
(c) Section B-B Batten Ouside
(b)Enlarged part plan (A-A)
FIG. 17.8. BATTENED, LEDGED AND FRAMED DOOR.
4. BATTENED, LEDGED, BRACED AND FRAMED
DOORs
This door is the
modification over type 3 door described
provided diagonally between the ledges, above,
ofadditional braces, with the provision
durability, and appearance. This to increase its strength,
door, thus, consists of
STyles), three ledges, and two braces. The battens are battens, two vertical members
0inted. The braces are housed into the generally tongued, grooved and
.
FRAMED AND PANELLED ledges, at about 40 mm from the styles-
DOORS
are nese types of doors are widely used in almost all
WOrkstrong go and give better appearance than batten types of building since they
vertical members (called styles) and horizontaldoors. This door consists of a frame
are made along the inner edges of the frame, to receive members, called rails which
the
forms of rOm timber, plywood, block board, A.C. sheets or even panels.
ormns The panel1E
of glasses. Variou
twopanelted
Panelael,, thanened doors are
par doors ar shown in Fig. I7.10, in which the door can have on
Panelpanels, three panels or multiple panels. For further vertical sub-divisio-
lcal
pieces, known as mullions can be provided. Panelled doors may contai
 386
BUILDING CONSTRUCTIO
RUCTION
LHead
Frame-
Top ledge
Slyle-
Brace
Frame

Middle
ledge
Style Ledge Brace
Brace-

Bottom
ledge
IES
Outsice
Batten
(b) Enlarged part plan (A-A)
(c) Section B-B
(a) Elevation

FIG. 17.9. BATTENED, LEDGED, BRACED AND FRAMED DOOR.

single leaf (such as those shown in Fig. 17.10) for small openings or may contain
two leafs (as shown in Fig. 17.11) for wider openings. In dóuble leafed
door, each
leaf has separate frames, each hinged to the coresponding jamb-post of the
dor.
op railI
=
Top rail Top rail

Panel P P

Panel

Lock rail Lock rail

Panel P

Bottom rail_ Bottom rail Bottom rail

(a) One panel (b) Two panel () Three panel

P P P

(d) Four panel (e) Five panel () Six panel

.0. VARIOUS FORMS OF SINGLE-LEAF PANELLED DOORS.

 392 BUILDING ONSTRUCTmo

10. REvOLVING DOORS

Such doors are provided Rubber

piece
only in public buildings, such
etc.
as libraries museunms, banks Style
where there are constant visi-
tors. Such a door provide en-
Pivot
trance to one and exit to the
other person simultaneously,
and closes automatically when Glass
Outezuu
case
not in use. This door is also pane
suitable for air-conditioned
wwws Outside wwww.
buildingsor for buildings situ-
ated at a place where strong FIG. 17.19. REVOLVING D0OR.
breezeblow throughouttheyear,
since the door is so assembted that it excludes the wind drought. The door consist
of a centrally placed mullion to which four radiating shutters are attached, as shown
in Fig. 17.19. The mullion or vertical member is supported on ball bearings at the
bottom, and has bush bear-
ing at the top, so that its
rotation is without any jerk, Type (A)
friction and noise. the shut-
ters may be fully glazed,
fully panelled or
partly
glazed and partly panelled. Type (B)
A
The shutters and the mul-
lion are enclosed in a ves-
tibule. Vertical rubber
Type (C)
pieces are provided at the
(a) Sliding arrangements Wall
rubbing ends of shutters to
prevent drought of air. The
radiating shutters can be
folded where traffic is more.
racke
Door opening Lintel
The opening can also be -BracketsS
closed.
11. SLIDING DOORS.
-Frame Track|
In such a door, the
shutter slides on the sides
with the help of runners and
guide rails. The door may Frame Shutter
Shutter
have one sliding shutter, twoo
shutters or eventhree shut
ters, depending upon the
size of the
opening and the
space available on sides for Enlarged
sliding. Fig. 17.20 (a) shows
Channel track
various types of (b) Elevation
(c) Vertical section
sliding ar FIG. 17.20. SLIDING DOOR.
 394 BUILDING cONSTR
Rollers

LLLLL
Top of
opening

(b) Details of top

Door
opening
Floor
level
Rollers
(a) Elevation

FIG. 17.22. COLLAPsIBLE STEEL DOOR..

14. ROLLING STEEL SHUTTER DOOR

These doors are commonly used for garrages, godowns, shops fronts show
windowa
teSince they are quite strong and offer proper safety to the property. The do
consists of a frame, a drum and
Drum
a shutter of thin steel plates
(known as laths or slates), about
1 to 1.25 mm thick and inter
locked together. The frame has
Stopper-
steel guides on the sides in which
the shutter moves, and then coils
in the drum. The diameter
of.
the drum varies from 200 to Guide channel
300 mm
A horizontalshaft and
springs are provided in the
Shutter
drum, due to which the shutter
is opened or closed
by small
push or pull. Rolling shutters
are of two
types : (i) pull-push EtHandles-
type shutters, and (iü)
cal gear
type shutters.
mechani Locking arrangement
mer
The for- (a) Elevation
type is provided when the
area of
exceed 10door-opening
Sq. m. The
does not Shutter
when the arealatter
is used type
is of
large.
They are opening Guide channel
Worm gears, operated by
connecting rod and
(b) Plan
FIG. 17.23. ROLLING
STEEL SHUTTERS.
 R SA N D WINDOWS

DOORS 397
ED WINDOws

These windows
are pro
Window
for The sole purposeof frame
lightand/or provid-
Vided

dtting
vision
in the room. The
ing
consists ofwindow
a
wTndow

ame to
which shutters are
rebates are provided Style
fixed. No The shutters
to the frame.
are fully glazed.
Fixed shutter

PIVOTED WINDOws Hold fast

In these windows, the

to
shuttersareallowed swing
win-
round pivots fixed the
to
window frame
dowframe. The
rebates. The frame
has no (a) Elevation
shutter is simi.
of the window Window frame
an encasement
Jar to that of - Glass pane
window. The shutter can
r S t y l e

or rotate either hori-

swing
zontally, or vertically (Fig.
(b) Plan
17.25).
FIG. 17.24. FIXED WINDOWS.

Pivot

Frame- Pivot

Pivot

Shutter Shutter

Pivot
Frame
Shutter
Shutter Pivot

Pivot Frame

(b) Horizontal pivoted

(a) Vertical plvoted
WINDOWS.
FIG. 17.25. PIVOTED
 404
BUI
UTLDING CONSTR
and other to the bottom
of two cords, attached to the top rail rail of
the roomn ahut
the
he
one
way that upper part opens inside th
swings in such
a
The shutter
water. Such a window increases
outside, to exclude rain
lower part opens
a rain-shed or the appeAta
chhajah ovea
of the building. It is essential to provided ver thew
11. CORNER WINDOWS
is provided in the cor
This is a special type of window which
to this
This window has two faces in two perpendicular directions._Due
two directionß. Such a window very
much improves the
the elevatim
Is admitted from to be cast over the window-openin
the building. However, special lintel has
shown
ing. 'The n
post of the window, at the corner, is made
of heavy section, as
hown in Fig. n
12. DORMER WINDOwS Main
A dormer window is a sloping
roof
Dormer
vertical window provided on the window
sloping roof, as shown in Fig
17.35. Such a window provides
ventilation and lighting to the
enclosed space below the roof
and at the same time, very
much improve the appearance
Gable end
Gable
of the building. window

13. GABLE WINDOWS

It is a vertical window Gable end
provided in the gable end of
a pitched roof, as shown in Fig.
W
17.35.
FIG. 17.35. DORMER WINDOW AND GABLE WINDO
14. LANTERN WINDOWS
Such windows are provided over the flat roofs, to provide more light and a
to the inner apartments/rooms of a building. The windows project above the roof lev
They may be of several shapes in plan. They admit light either through vertical fas
or inclined faces, as shown in Fig. 17.36. The roof slab has an appropriate opeing
below the window.
-Ridge plate
Cover with
sloping Cover
Glass
X.LK
faces

Glazing-

Flat roof
Curb

(a)
(6)
FIG. 17.36. LANTERN WINDOWS.
 BUILDING CONSTRU
wn in Fig. 14.2 (a). A RUCTION
nose step, generally pro-
ed at the bottom of the
t, projects in front of Flier
newel post. Its end near
newel forms the quad-
of a circle (Fig. 14.2a).
und ended step is simi- Bullnose step -
Round ended step
o a bull nose step except (a) (b) Splayed step
it has a semi-circular (c)
which projects out from
stringer. A splayed step
so provided at the be-
ing of the flight, with
nd, near the newel post,
NIE - Dancingg

steps Winders
yed as shown in Fig.
(c). A commode step, Commode step
n in Fig. 14.2 (d) has (d) (e) ()
red tread and riser.
cing or balancing steps FIG. 14.2 VARIOUS TYPES OF STEPS.
the winders which do
radiate from a common centre. Winders are
tapering steps, such as those which
ate from a point usually situated at the centre of a newel (Fig. 14.2 f.
CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS
Stairs can be classified in two broad heads
1. Straight stairs
2. Turning stairs
() Quarter turn stairs (ii) Half turn stairs (dog-legged and ópen well stairs)
(iüi) Three-quarter turn stairs (iv) Bifurcated stairs.
Each of the turning stairs are of three
types
(a) newel stairs (6) well or open-newel stairs, and
c) geometrical stairs
Anewel stair is the one which has a newel at
the foot and head of each 1mg ight
the stair, and in which newels are conspicuous features. In well or stairs
eral space is left between the turning. flights. Open newel stair open newe s best
present
earance and are strong. Geometrical stairs have the strings and hand rails tne a u o u s

are set out in

accordance with conu
elico geometrical
principles. They may
s p i r a

be
even
elliptical. A newel may be introduced at the bottom and
o f such circulae
ar, though it is not an top *
essential part of the construction. Gteometrical rs require

open gOod
newel
deal of skill in
their construction. They are not so imposigsa as
the

1. type, and
are
STRAIGHT STAIRS comparatively wea.

es
Bingle where there
Single ight
Small

light e
or
r e are
are restrictiomStraight between the two floors.
restrictions in available
more than
It is used for o n e

flight (usualY width. The star uay

one consist of either 143
fin
 315
S T A I R S

Landing

Landing
Landing

(a)

ZZLLLZZZIIINZZ ZZLILZLLIIILZZLLLLALIML
Landing
Landing Landing

ZZZZz}}TITIIIZZTLTIIIZZ
ZLLLLILLLZILLA
(b) Two flights
(a) Single fight
FIG. 14.3. STRAIGHT STAIRS.

2. QUARTER TURN STAIRS

Newsls

Section B B.
Section A A.

Newels

Up- TQuarter
space- A
landing
Plan Plan
(b) With winders
(a) With quarter-space landing
FIG. 14.4. NEWEL QUARTER TURN STAIRS
 ONSI
316
its direction either +
STRUCTION
the one which changes
A quarter turn stair
is introducing a quarter spaco

or to the right,
the turn being
providing
by
affected either by
winders (Fig.
14.4 6). landing
Fig. 14.4 a) or

stairs are of two types:

Quarter turn
turn stairs
(a) Newel quarter
stairs.
(6) Geometrical quarter turn
turn stairs
(a) Newel quarter at the beginning and end of
newel posts
These stairs have
the conspicuous space landing or there
either be quarter
flight. At the quarter
turn, there may
in Fig. 14.4.
may
are shown
Two forms of this type
be winders.
Geometrical
turn stairs
quarter
6) the hand rail 18 continuou
In geometrical stairs,
the stringer as well as
in Fig. 14.5.
with
Two forms are shown
no newel post at the landing.

LILL

Section C. C. Elevation

Commode step

Up Landing

Plan Plan
(a) With landing (b) ContinuOus

FIG. 14.5. GEOMETRICAL QUARTER TURN STAIRS.

3. HALF TURN STAIRS
Half turn stair is the one which has its direction reversed, or change
80. Such stairs are quite common. These may be of three types
AIRS
317
(a) Dog-legged or
newel half turn
stairs
(h) Open newel half turn
stairs
(c) Geometrical half turn stairs.
Dog-legged stairs
This name is given be-
se of its appearance in
ional elevation. It oomes
er the category of newel
solid newel) stairs in
h newel posts are pro-
d at the beginning and
of each flight. These may
forms: with
(7)
f two
space landing, and (iü)
quarter space landing
winders. Generally, the
er type (i.e. without win-
is more common, as
n in Fig. 14.6. There is h
ace between the outer Secton D.D

s of the two flights WLLLZLZLLIILIITZ

Open newel half turn
:Open well or open 11 12 13 14|15|16 1718/19/2021 Upper
half turn stair has a Half landidng
space
or well between the Newel
landing
strings. This is the only
UP
tin which it differs from 1110 98
stair. The ad
g-legged
al width is requiredbe- VTITIITTTTTTZIZIIA
the two flights ; the Plan
DOG-LEGGED STAIR.
between the two strings FIG. 14.6.

ary from15 cm (min) left is more, a small flight

containing two to four steps
cm. When the space as shown in
between the two quarter space landing,
turn,
e introduced at the small width well, a half space landing may be provided
for
4.7 (6). Otherwise,
own in Fig. 14.7 (a).
stairs
eometrical half turn and the hand rails
stairs are that the stringers
The essential features
of such either with half-space
These may be
intervening newel post.
ntinuous, without any 14.8 b).
without landing (Fig.
(Fig. 14.8 a) or
g STAIRS
REE QUARTER TURN three times with its upper
turn stairs has its direction_changed newel type. Such
A three quarter either be newel type or open
bottom one. It may when the vertical
crossing the the stair room is limited and
used when the length of
f stair is
318
BUILDING cONSTRUCTiON

Handrail

Newel

Section F.F.
Section E.E.

Quarte
9pace
-Up anding
Half Up
well- space
landing
Up Up-
Plan Plan
(a) With half space landing (b) With quarter-space landing
and intervening flight
FIG. 14.7. OPEN NEWEL HALF TURN STAIRS.

Section G.a. Section H.H.

-Up

Up- Half
spac a
lancdlinga
H III
UPEILL
.
(a) With landing (b) Continuous

FIG. 14.8. GEOMETRICAL HALF TURN STAITS.

 319

e t h e two floors is quite large.

Detween
BFURCATEDST
STAIRS
This t y p e o f stair is commonly used in public buildin at their entrance hall
N stair
bas,
yPider flight at the bottom, which bifurcates into two narrower flights,
turing to
the left and the other to the right, at the landing.
the
It may be ethe
n e n e l v

with a newel post as shown in Fig. 14.9 (left side) or of geometrical

p e w i t

in the right portion of Fig.

hown in 14.9 with continuous stringer and hand
aS sho

w w-

Elevatonn

-Up Up

Geometrical
Newel

Up
BIFURCATED
STAIR
FIG. 14.9.
intermediate
CONTINUOUS STAIRS any landing norany be of
do neither have stairs may
those which
Continuous

uous stairs are in shape.

Din therefore,
geometrical
They are,
ea
e following types
shown
) Circular stairs, (ii) Helical stairs stair is
and 14.8
(6). Spiral employed
Spiral stairs, and 14.5 (6) and is
metal,
in Fig. R.C.C. o r emergency
Circular tairs
stairs a r e shown either of used a s
made also
4aFig 14.10.
winders.
1 Such aa stair
5 is usually These are
steps
are

All the
limitations.

oucn
alocation nere
lcatio there are space
back side
of a
building.

and is,aretherefore,
prov at the
he stait rovided
not comfortable.
 1. Lean-to-roof
This is the simplest type of sloping roof, in which rafters slope to to one
1s to
one Side
also known as Pent Aisle roof. The wall side
roof or one of the
the roomonlyo
verandah) is taken higher than the String
wall (or pillars) to the other side. course

A wooden wall plate is supported

Roof covering
either on a steel corbel or a stone Battens
corbel, which are provided at 1 m
centre to centre. The wall plate (or Guter
post plate) is embedded on the other Wall
plate Knee
side, to the wall or pillars. The dif- Rafters strap
Corbel
ference in elevation between the two Wall plate
wall plates is so kept that the desired Wall or Eaves boar
post plate
slope is obtained. Usual slope is 30 Wall
The common rafters are nailed to or

pier
wooden wall plate at their upper end,
and notched and nailed to the wooden FIG. 15.4. LEAN-TO-ROOOF.

post plate at their lower end. Some-

to' connect the rafters to the post plat
times, iron knee straps and bolts are used
are provided as shown in Fig. 15.4. This
Eaves boards, battens and roof coverings
These are provided for sheds
type of roof is suitable for maximum span of 2.5 m. etc.
out-houses attached to main building, verandahs,
2. Couple roof
This type of roof is Ridge cover
formed by couple or pair
Roof covering
of rafters which slope to
both the sides of the ridge
of the roof. The upper ends Gutter
of each pair of rafter js
nailed to a common ridge Battens Ridge
piece
lower ends
piece and their LCommon Eaves
are notched and nailed to Wall
plate rafters Board
the wooden wall plates em-
- Wall
bedded in the masonry on
the topof the outer walls. (a) Elevation
Such a roof is not very
much favoured because it
has the tendency to spread Wal plate E
LCommon rafters
out at the feet (Wall plate
level) and thrust out thhe
walls supporting the wall
plates. Due to this, the cou
ple roof is used when the Eaves Ridge piece
Wall Wall plate
span is limited to 3.6 me- board
tres. e (b) Plan

FIG. 15.5. COUPLE ROOF.

 ROO AND RO ROOF RING 335

close roof
C o u p l e

close roof is Rafter

3.
A couple
the
nilar to the couple roof,
the ends of the Ridge
pt that
common raftters is Rafter piece
coupieof
nnected ted by horizontal
Wall plate Tie beamm
beam, to
tie
mber,called
vent
he rafters from
thrusting out
and
s p r e a d i n

The tie beam (a) Without king rod L

off the wall.
o
Ridge piece
may
be a vooden member
The connec- Rafter
s t e e l rod. Rafter
or a
between
wooden tie and
tion
rafters is obtained King rod
feet of
tail halved joint.
by dove
work, the ties
For inferior Wall plate Tie beam
be spiked to the
may just
is one tie
rafters. There
of rafters.
beam for each pair (b) With king rod
beams c a n also
These tie
be used as ceiling joists FIG. 15.6. CLOSE COUPLE ROOF.
when required. A couple- or for
for spans upto 4.20 m. For increased span
close roof is economically suitable This can be checked
loads, the ratters may have tendency to sag in the middle.
greater which connects the
central vertical rod, called king rod or king bolt
by providing a
as shown in Fig. 15.6 (b).
ridge piece and the tie beam
4. Collar beam roof Ridge piece
When the span 1n Rafter Rafter
creases, or when the load is
Eaves
more, the rafters õT the couple board
close roof have the tendency
to bend. This is avoided by LCollar beam
Wall plate
raising the tie beam and fix-
ing it at one-third to one-half
of the vertical height from Wall
wall plate to the ridge. This
raised beam is known as the
collar beam (or collar tie). FIG. 15.7. COLLAR BEAM ROOF.
Thus, a colar beam roof is
to close roof, except that in the latter case a tie beam is provide
ar a couple at the raise
while in this case a collar beam is provided
e level of wall plates collar positi«
15.7). This roof is suitable for spans upto 5 metres. A lower
ig. of the room.
es stronger roof. A collar beam provides Toof greater height
5. Collar and scissors roof
crossing each ot
t 1s similar to the collar roof, except that two collar beams,
to have rovided as shown in Fig. 15.8.
 336 BUILDING CONSTR
Ridge
piece

Rafters

Wall plate

FIG. 15.8. COLLAR AND SCISSORS ROOF.

15.6. DOUBLE OR PURLIN ROOFS

These roofs have two basic Ridge
elements: (i) rafters, and (ii) Rafter Kbeam
Rafter
purlins. The purlins
give inter Purlin
mediate support to the rafters,
apd are supported on end walls.
The intermediate supports so pro- -Wall plate Collar beam
vided in the form of
purlins, re
duce the size of the rafters to
the economical range. Such a roof
is also known as rafter and purlin a) Lw
roof. The rafters are provided Ridge beam
fairly close (40 to 60 cm dc). Rafter Rafter
Each rafter is thus supported at
three points : (0) at the bottom; -Hanger
on the wall through wall plate, Binder l Purlin
ü) at the top, by the ridge bam,
Wall plate Tie beam
and (ii) at the centre by a purlin.
By supporting the rafter at its
nid-point in this manner with
purlin, the span is halved, thus
enabling the rafter to be made (b)
FIG. 15.9. RAFTER AND PURLIN ROOF.
considerably lighter than it would
need to be if it spanned the whole distance from eaves to the ridge. For larger r
roos

WO or more purlins may be provided to support each rafter. Fig. 15.9 shows two

forms of, this roof.

15, TRUSSED ROOFS
When the span of the wals
roof exceeds_5_ m and where there are no
0support
inside

the purlins, framed ble

along the length of thestructures, known as trusses
su
interval are provided at
"
wooden trusses. In room.
Spacing generally
is limited. metres
3
generally 1mieu to rafters
metres

Support the roofing this system, the roof consists of three elements:
rafters

afters, and (ii) material (i.e.. tiles etc.), (ii) purlins to provide interme tiate suppa
support to the ends providen
in the trusses to provide
russes
trusses spa
same
direction in which the couple of rafters
of purlins. The
f also s u p
Tho
 342
BUILDING CONSTRI

4 to 6m 4 to 6 m-
4 to 6
(a) King post truss Raised ohord trues m
(b) (c) Scissors truss

6 to 9m -
6 to 9 m
6 to 9 m
(d) King post truss (e) Raised chord truss
() Simple fink truss

9 to 12 m -
9 to 12m
(g) Howe truss (h) Fan- fink truss

FIG. 15.19. STEEL TRUSSES.

The various shapes of these, along with their suitability for different span
range
nges,
re shown in Figs. 15.19, 15.20, and 15.21.

-12 to 15 m- -12 to 15 m-
(a) Compound fink trus8 (b) Compound howe truss

-12 to 16 m-
V V
-12 to 15 m-
(o) Compound howe truss with ralsed chord (d) Compound fan - fink truss

--Camber
-12 to 15 m
(e) Cambered fink or french truss
FIG. 15.20. STEEL
TRUSSEs.