Resources and Development

Resource – Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our
needs, provided, it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally
acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’.

How are resources transformed - The

process of transformation of things available in
our environment involves an interactive
relationship between nature, technology and
institutions. Human beings interact with
nature through technology and create
institutions to accelerate their economic
development.

Role of humans in transforming

resources - Resources are a function of human activities. Human beings themselves are
essential components of resources. They transform material available in our environment
into resources and use them.
While nature provides raw materials, the process of turning these materials into useful
resources involves human effort, technology, and knowledge.
For example, trees in a forest are a natural resource, but it requires human intervention to
harvest and process the wood for construction or paper production. Similarly, minerals in
the earth are raw materials that become valuable resources through extraction and
refinement processes carried out by humans.

Classification of Resources – On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic

On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
On the basis of status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves.
Gg
Exploitation of Resources – Resources are vital for human survival as well as for
maintaining the quality of life. It was believed that resources are free gifts of nature. As a
result, human beings used them indiscriminately and this has led to the following major
problems.
 Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals.
 Accumulation of resources in few hands, which, in turn, divided the society into two
segments
 Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as,
global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land
degradation.

Resource planning – An equal distribution of resources has become essential for a

sustained quality of life and global peace. If the present trend of resource depletion by a
few individuals and countries continues, the future of our planet is in danger. Therefore,
resource planning is essential for sustainable existence of all forms of life. Sustainable
existence is a component of sustainable development.

 Resource planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. It
has importance in a country like India, which has enormous diversity in the
availability of resources. There are regions which are rich in certain types of
resources but are deficient in some other.
 For example, the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in
minerals and coal deposits.
 Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water resources but lacks in infrastructural
development.
 The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in
water resources.
 The cold desert of Ladakh is relatively isolated from the rest of the country. It has
very rich cultural heritage but it is deficient in water, infrastructure and some vital
minerals.
 This calls for balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and local
levels.

Resource planning - Resource planning is a complex process which involves:

identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves
surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the
resources.
 Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and
institutional set up for implementing resource development plans.
 Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans
How did the colonial powers loot India? - The history of colonization reveals that rich
resources in colonies were the main attractions for the foreign invaders. It was primarily the
higher level of technological development of the colonizing countries that helped them to
exploit resources of other regions and establish their supremacy over the colonies.
Therefore, resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by
appropriate technological development and institutional changes.
 India has experienced all this in different phases of colonization. Therefore, in India,
development, in general, and resource development in particular does not only
involve the availability of resources, but also the technology, quality of human
resources and the historical experiences of the people.

Land Resources - Land is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural

vegetation, wild life, human life, economic activities, transport and communication
systems. However, land is an asset of a finite magnitude, therefore, it is important to use
the available land for various purposes with careful planning.
 India has land under a variety of relief
features, namely; mountains, plateaus,
plains and islands.
 About 43 per cent of the land area is
plain, which provides facilities for
agriculture and industry.
 Mountains account for 30 per cent of the
total surface area of the country and
ensure perennial flow of some rivers,
provide facilities for tourism and ecological aspects.
 About 27 per cent of the area of the country is the plateau region. It possesses rich
reserves of minerals, fossil fuels and forests.
Land Utilization –
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation
(a) Barren and waste land
(b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. buildings, roads, factories, etc.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area),
(c) Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
4. Fallow lands
(a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year),
(b) Other than current fallow-(left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years).
5. Net sown area the physical extent of land on which crops are sown harvested is known
as net sown area. Area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown area is
known as gross cropped area

Other than current fallow - Most of the other than the current fallow lands are either
of poor quality or the cost of cultivation of such land is very high.
 Hence, these lands are cultivated once or twice in about two to three years and if
these are included in the net sown area then the percentage of NSA in India comes
to about 54 per cent of the total reporting area.
NSA pattern - The pattern of net sown area varies greatly from one state to
another. It is over 80 per cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and less than
10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman Nicobar
Islands.

Forest area- in the country is far lower than the desired 33 per cent of geographical area,
as it was outlined in the National Forest Policy (1952). It was considered essential for
maintenance of the ecological balance. The livelihood of millions of people who live on the
fringes of these forests depends upon it.

Soil as a resource - Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the
medium of plant growth and supports different types of living organisms on the earth. The
soil is a living system. It takes millions of years to form soil upto a few cm in depth.
Relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time are
important factors in the formation of soil.
Various forces of nature such as change in temperature,
actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of
decomposers etc. contribute to the formation of soil.
Chemical and organic changes which take place in the
soil are equally important. Soil also consists of organic
(humus) and inorganic materials.

Sustainable development - Sustainable economic

development means development should take place
without damaging the environment, and development
in the present should not compromise with the needs
of the future generations.

Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992 - In June 1992,

more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in
Brazil, for the first International Earth Summit.
 The Summit was convened for addressing urgent
problems of environmental protection and
socioeconomic development at the global level.
 The assembled leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and
Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and
adopted Agenda 21 for achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century.

Agenda 21 - It is the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), which took place at Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. It aims at achieving global sustainable development.
 It is an agenda to combat environmental damage, poverty, disease through global
co-operation on common interests, mutual needs and shared responsibilities. One
major objective of the Agenda 21 is that every local government should draw its
own local Agenda 21.

 Club of Rome (1968) - Advocated resource conservation at the international level for
the first time in a systematic way.
 Schumacher's "Small is Beautiful" (1974) - Reintroduced Gandhian philosophy,
emphasizing the importance of small-scale, sustainable development.
 Brundtland Commission Report (1987)- Seminal contribution to global resource
conservation.
 Introduced the concept of 'Sustainable Development.'
 Advocated sustainable development as a means to conserve resources.
 Published as "Our Common Future."
  Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro (1992) - Significant contributions made during the
summit.
 Addressed global environmental concerns. Marked a commitment to sustainable
development practices.

Reasons for land degradation - Some human activities such as deforestation, over
grazing, mining and quarrying too have contributed significantly in land degradation.
 Mining sites are abandoned after excavation work is complete leaving deep scars
and traces of over-burdening.
 In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha deforestation
due to mining have caused severe land degradation.
 In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra overgrazing is
one of the main reasons for land degradation.
 In the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is
responsible for land degradation due to water logging leading to increase in salinity
and alkalinity in the soil.
 The mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement industry and calcite
and soapstone for ceramic industry generate huge quantity of dust in the
atmosphere. It retards the process of infiltration of water into the soil after it settles
down on the land. In recent years, industrial effluents as waste have become a major
source of land and water pollution in many parts of the country.

Ways to counter soil pollution - Afforestation and proper management of grazing can
help to some extent.
 Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on over grazing, stabilization of sand
dunes by growing thorny bushes are some of the methods to check land degradation
in arid areas.
 Proper management of waste lands, control of mining activities, proper discharge
and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment can reduce land and
water degradation in industrial and suburban areas.

Alluvial Soil – Found in - entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil.
 These have been deposited by three important Himalayan River systems – the
Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
 These soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow corridor.
 Alluvial soil is also found in the eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas of the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
Characteristics - The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we
move inlands towards the river valleys, soil particles appear some what bigger in size.
  In the upper reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place of the break of slope, the
soils are coarse. Such soils are more common in piedmont plains such as Duars, Chos
and Terai.
Age- Apart from the size of their grains or components, soils are also described on the
basis of their age.
 According to their age alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial (Bangar) and new
alluvial (Khadar).
 The bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker nodules than the Khadar. It has
more fine particles and is more fertile than the bangar.
Nutrients - Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile. Mostly these soils contain adequate
proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for the growth of
sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
 Due to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are intensively cultivated and
densely populated.
 Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and can be productive after proper
treatment and irrigation.

Black Soil - These soils are black in colour and are also known as regur soils.
 Black soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil.
Formation and places it is found in - It is believed that climatic condition along with the
parent rock material are the important factors for the formation of black soil.
 This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest
Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows.
 They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east direction along the Godavari and the
Krishna valleys.
Characteristics - The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material.
 They are well-known for their capacity to hold moisture.
 they are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and
lime.
 These soils are generally poor in phosphoric contents.
 They develop deep cracks during hot weather, which helps in the proper aeration of
the soil. These soils are sticky when wet and difficult to work on unless tilled
immediately after the first shower or during the pre-monsoon period.

Red and Yellow Soils – Formation and found in - Red soil develops on crystalline igneous
rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan plateau.
 Yelllow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts
of the Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone (foothills) of the Western Ghats.
  These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and
metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.

Laterite Soil – Features - Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which
means brick.
 The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climate with alternate wet
and dry season.
 This soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain. Lateritic soils are mostly
deep to very deep, acidic (pH<6.0), generally deficient in plant nutrients
 Where these soils support deciduous and evergreen forests, it is humus rich, but
under sparse vegetation and in semi-arid environment, it is generally humus poor.
Occurs - southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of
West Bengal and North-east regions.
 They are prone to erosion and degradation.
 After adopting appropriate soil conservation techniques particularly in the hilly
areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea
and coffee.
 Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for
crops like cashew nut.

Arid soils – Features - range from red to brown in colour.

 They are generally sandy in texture and saline in nature.
 In some areas the salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by
evaporating the water.
 Due to the dry climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster and the soil lacks
humus and moisture.
 The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing
calcium content downwards.
 After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable as has been in the case of
western Rajasthan.

Forest Soils - These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient
rain forests are available.
 The soils texture varies according to the mountain environment where they are
formed. They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper
slopes.
 In the snow-covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are
acidic with low humus content.
 The soils found in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the river terraces and
alluvial fans are fertile.
Soil Erosion - The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is
described as soil erosion.

Gullies - The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels as
gullies

Bad Lands - The land becomes unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land. In the
Chambal basin such lands are called ravines.

Sheet erosion - Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope. In such
cases the top soil is washed away. This is known as sheet erosion.

Wind Erosion - Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land known as wind erosion.
Prevention of Erosion - Ploughing along the contour lines can decelerate the flow of
water down the slopes. This is called contour ploughing.
 Steps can be cut out on the slopes making terraces. Terrace cultivation restricts
erosion. Western and central Himalayas have well developed terrace farming.
 Large fields can be divided into strips. Strips of grass are left to grow between the
crops. This breaks up the force of the wind. This method is known as strip cropping.
 Planting lines of trees to create shelter also works in a similar way. Rows of such
trees are called shelter belts. These shelter belts have contributed significantly to the
stabilisation of sand dunes and in stabilising the desert in western India.
 Forests and Wildlife Resources
Wildlife Protection Act - Act was implemented in 1972, with various provisions for
protecting habitats.
An all-India list of protected species was also published. The thrust of the programme was
towards protecting the remaining population of certain endangered species by banning
hunting, giving legal protection to their habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife.
Subsequently, central and many state governments established national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries. The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific
animals, which were gravely threatened, including the tiger, the one horned rhinoceros, the
Kashmir stag or hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh water crocodile, saltwater
crocodile and the Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others. Most recently, the Indian elephant,
black buck (chinkara), the great Indian bustard (godawan) and the snow leopard, etc. have
been given full or partial legal protection against hunting and trade throughout India.

Project Tiger - Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in the faunal web. In 1973, the
authorities realized that the tiger population had dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated
55,000 at the turn of the century. The major threats to tiger population are numerous, such
as poaching for trade, shrinking habitat, depletion of prey base species, growing human
population, etc. The trade of tiger skins and the use of their bones in traditional medicines,
especially in the Asian countries left the tiger population on the verge of extinction.
“Project Tiger”, one of the well publicised wildlife campaigns in the world, was launched in
1973. Tiger conservation has been viewed not only as an effort to save an endangered
species, but with equal importance as a means of preserving biotypes of sizeable magnitude.
Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand, Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal,
Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan,
Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger
reserves of India.

Types of Forest
Reserved Forests: More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved
forests. Reserved forests are regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of
forest and wildlife resources are concerned.
Reserved and protected forests are also referred to as permanent forest estates maintained
for the purpose of producing timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons.
Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests, constituting 75 per cent of
its total forest area. Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, and Maharashtra have large percentages of reserved forests of its
total forest area

Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected forest, as
declared by the Forest Department. This forest land are protected from any further
depletion.
Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under
protected forests.

Unclassed Forests: These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both
government and private individuals and communities.
All North eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage of their forests as
unclassed forests managed by local communities.

Sacred Groves - Nature worship is an age-old tribal belief based on the premise that all
creations of nature have to be protected. Such beliefs have preserved several virgin forests
in pristine form called Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses). These patches of
forest or parts of large forests have been left untouched by the local people and any
interference with them is banned.
Certain societies revere a particular tree which they have preserved from time immemorial.
The Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and
kadamba (Anthocaphalus cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Odisha and Bihar worship the
tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees during weddings. To
many of us, peepal and banyan trees are considered sacred.
Sacred qualities are often ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants and animals which
are closely protected. You will find troops of macaques and langurs around many temples.
They are fed daily and treated as a part of temple devotees.
In and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and
peacocks can be seen as an integral part of the community and nobody harms them.

Peoples role in Conserving - In some areas of India, local communities are struggling to
conserve these habitats along with government officials, recognising that only this will
secure their own long-term livelihood.
 In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by citing the
Wildlife Protection Act. In many areas, villagers themselves are protecting habitats
and explicitly rejecting government involvement.
 The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared
1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own set
of rules and regulations which do not allow hunting, and are protecting the wildlife
against any outside encroachments.
  The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
deforestation in several areas but has also shown that community afforestation with
indigenous species can be enormously successful.
 Attempts to revive the traditional conservation methods or developing new
methods of ecological farming are now widespread.
 Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya
have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of
synthetic chemicals are possible and economically viable.

Joint forest management - In India joint forest management (JFM) programme furnishes
a good example for involving local communities in the management and restoration of
degraded forests.
 The programme has been in formal existence since 1988 when the state of Odisha
passed the first resolution for joint forest management.
 JFM depends on the formation of local (village) institutions that undertake
protection activities mostly on degraded forest land managed by the forest
department.
 In return, the members of these communities are entitled to intermediary benefits
like non-timber forest produces and share in the timber harvested by ‘successful
protection’.
 Water Resources

Water a renewable resource - three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water,
but only a small proportion of it accounts for freshwater that can be put to use.
This freshwater is mainly obtained from surface run off and ground water that is continually
being renewed and recharged through the hydrological cycle.
All water moves within the hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a renewable resource.

Water shortage reasons - water scarcity may be an outcome of large and growing
population and consequent greater demands for water, and unequal access to it.
 A large population requires more water not only for domestic use but also to
produce more food. Hence, to facilitate higher food-grain production, water
resources are being over-exploited to expand irrigated areas for dry-season
agriculture. Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer of water.
 Now it is needed to revolutionise the agriculture through developing drough
resistant crops and dry farming techniques.
 Post-independent India witnessed intensive industrialisation and urbanisation,
creating vast opportunities. The ever-increasing number of industries has made
matters worse by exerting pressure on existing freshwater resources. Industries,
apart from being heavy users of water, also require power to run them. Much of this
energy comes from hydroelectric power.
 Multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban lifestyles
have not only added to water and energy requirements but have further aggravated
the problem.

How is water polluted –Sometimes scarcity of water is due to bad quality of water.
 There has been a growing concern that even if there is ample water to meet the
needs of the people, much of it may be polluted by domestic and industrial wastes,
chemicals, pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture, thus, making it hazardous
for human use.

JJM - Government of India has given high priority to improve the quality of life and
enhance ease of living of people especially those living in rual areas by announcing the Jal
Jeevan Mission (JJM).
  The Goal of JJM is to enable every rural household get assured supply of potable
piped water at a service level of 55 litres per capita per day regularly on long-term
basis by ensuring functionality of the tap water connections.

Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India

 In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura near Allahabad had sophisticated water
harvesting system channelling the flood water of the river Ganga.
 During the time of Chandragupta Maurya, dams, lakes and irrigation systems were
extensively built.

 Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works have also been found in Kalinga, (Odisha),
Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur (Maharashtra),
etc.
 In the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes of its time was
built.
 In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for
supplying water to Siri Fort area.

Why are dams called multi-purpose projects– Dams were traditionally built to
accumulate rivers and rainwater that could be used later to irrigate agricultural fields.
 Today, dams are built not just for irrigation but for electricity generation, water
supply for domestic and industrial uses, flood control, recreation, inland navigation
and fish breeding.
 Hence, dams are now referred to as multi-purpose projects where the many uses of
the impounded water are integrated with one another.
 For example, in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra – Nangal project water is
being used both for hydel power production and irrigation.
 Similarly, the Hirakud project in the Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of
water with flood control.

Importance of Dams after Independence – Development and Progress: Dams were

considered a crucial tool for leading the nation towards development and progress after
gaining Independence.
 Overcoming Colonial Handicap: Dams were seen as a means to overcome the
challenges and limitations imposed by India's colonial past. They were seen as a
solution to boost the nation's growth and development independently.
 Jawaharlal Nehru's Vision: Jawaharlal Nehru, proclaimed dams as the 'temples of
modern India.'
 Integration of Sectors: Dams were expected to integrate the development of
agriculture and the village economy with the rapid industrialization and growth of
the urban economy.
  Economic Growth: Dams were perceived as instrumental in fostering economic
growth, both in rural and urban areas. The idea was that the controlled water
resources provided by dams would support various economic activities, including
agriculture and industry.
Dam - A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow,
often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment.
 “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the structure. Most dams have a section
called a spillway or weir over which or through which it is intended that water will
flow either intermittently or continuously.
 Dams are classified according to structure, intender purpose or height.
 Based on structure and the materials used, dams are classified as timber dams,
embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes.
 According to the height, dams can be categorised as large dams and major dams or
alternatively as low dams, medium height dams and high dams.

Negative effects of dams- In recent years, multi-purpose projects and large dams have
come under great opposition for a variety of reasons.
 Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow causing poor sediment
flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir, resulting in rockier
stream beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic life.
 Dams also fragment rivers making it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially
for spawning.
 The reservoirs that are created on the floodplains also submerge the existing
vegetation and soil leading to its decomposition over a period of time.
 Multi-purpose projects and large dams have also been the cause of many new
environmental movements like the ‘Narmada Bachao Andolan’ and the ‘Tehri Dam
Andolan’ etc.
 Resistance to these projects has primarily been due to the large-scale displacement
of local communities. Local people often had to give up their land, livelihood and
their meagre access and control over resources for the greater good of the nation.

After effects of dam failure in some subjects - Most of the objections to the projects
arose due to their failure to achieve the purposes for which they were built.
 Sometimes, the dams that were constructed to control floods have triggered floods
due to sedimentation in the reservoir. Moreover, the big dams have mostly been
unsuccessful in controlling floods at the time of excessive rainfall.
 The release of water from dams during heavy rains aggravated the flood situation in
Maharashtra and Gujarat in 2006. The floods have not only devastated life and
property but also caused extensive soil erosion.
 Sedimentation also meant that the flood plains were deprived of silt, a natural
fertiliser, further adding on to the problem of land degradation.
  It was also observed that the multi-purpose projects induced earthquakes, caused
water-borne diseases and pests and pollution resulting from excessive use of water.

Narmada Bachao Andolan - or Save Narmada Movement is a Non-Governmental

Organisation (NGO) that mobilised tribal people, farmers, environmentalists and human
rights activists against the Sardar Sarovar Dam being built across the Narmada river in
Gujarat.
 It originally focused on the environmental issues related to trees that would be
submerged under the dam water. Recently it has re-focused the aim to enable poor
citizens, especially the oustees (displaced people) to get full rehabilitation facilities
from the government.

Negative aspects of Irrigation - Irrigation has also changed the cropping pattern of
many regions with farmers shifting to water intensive and commercial crops. This has great
ecological consequences like salinisation of the soil. At the same time, It has transformed
the social landscape i.e. increasing the social gap between the richer landowners and the
landless poor

Inter State water disputes – Inter-state water disputes are also becoming common with
regard to sharing the costs and benefits of the multi-purpose project.

 I.e.- Krishna-Godavari dispute is due to the objections raised by Karnataka and

Andhra Pradesh governments.
 It is regarding the diversion of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra government
for a multipurpose project. This would reduce downstream flow in their states with
adverse consequences for agriculture and industry.

Rain water Harvesting in India - In ancient India, along with the sophisticated
hydraulic structures, there existed an extraordinary tradition of water-harvesting
system.
 People had in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimes and soil types and developed
wide ranging techniques to harvest rainwater, groundwater, river water and
flood water.
 In hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion channels like the ‘guls’ or
‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture.
 ‘Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ was commonly practiced to store drinking water,
particularly in Rajasthan.
 In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate
their fields.
 In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain fed
storage structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the
 ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.

 In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi

and Barmer, almost all the houses traditionally had underground tanks or tankas
for storing drinking water.

Strategies used for rain water harvesting -

 The tankas were part of the well-
developed rooftop rainwater
harvesting system and were built
inside the main house or the
courtyard.
 They were connected to the sloping roofs
of the houses through a pipe. Rain falling
on the rooftops would travel down the pipe
and was stored in these underground
‘tankas’.
 The first spell of rain was usually not
collected as this would clean the roofs and
the pipes. The rainwater from the
subsequent showers was the collected.
 The rainwater can be stored in the tankas
till the next rainfall making it an extremely
reliable source of drinking water when all
other sources are dried up.
 Rainwater, or palar pani, as commonly
referred to in these parts, is considered the
purest form of natural water.
 Many houses constructed underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’ to beat
the summer heat as it would keep the room cool.
 Agriculture
 In India, 2/3rds of the population is engaged in agricultural activities.
 Agriculture is the primary activity and produces most of the food that we consume.

Types of farming-
 Over the years, cultivation methods have significantly changed due to physical
environment, technological, and socio-cultural practices.

Primitive Subsistence farming

 Primitive subsistence agriculture is practiced on small patches of land with the
help of primitive tools like hoe and digging sticks.
 This type of farming depends upon – Monsoon, Natural fertility of the soil and
suitability of other environmental conditions.
 It is a Slash and Burn agriculture where farmers clear a patch of land and produce
cereals and other food crops to sustain their family.
 When soil fertility decreases, the farmer shift and clear a fresh patch of land for
cultivation, this type of shifting allows the soil to naturally replenish its fertility.
 Land productivity in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer does not use
fertilizers and other modern inputs.

Names
 Milpa – Mexico and Central America
 Conuco – Venezuela
 Roca – Brazil
 Masole – Central Africa
 Ladang – Indonesia
 Ray – Vietnam
Primitive form of agriculture is called
 Bewar or Dahiya – Madhya Pradesh
 Podu or Penda – Andhra Pradesh
 Pama dami or Koman or Bringa – Odisha
 Kumari – Western ghats
 Valre or Waltre – in South Eastern Rajesthan
 Khil – in Himalayan belt
 Kuruwa – Jharkhand
 Jhumming – Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland
 Pamlou – Manipur
 Dipa – Bastar district of Chhattisgarh and Andaman Nicobar Islands

Intensive Subsistence framing –

 This type of farming is practiced in areas of high population pressure in land.
 It is labor intensive farming where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation
are used for obtaining higher production.

Right of Inheritance -
 Right of Inheritance leads to the division of land among successive generations.
 It has rendered land holding size uneconomically.
 Farmers continue to take maximum output from the limited land in the absence of
alternative source of livelihood.
 This creates enormous pressure on the agricultural land.

Commercial Framing –
 The main characteristic of this type of farming is the use of high doses of modern
inputs. Eg- HYV seeds, Chemical fertilizers, Insecticides and Pesticides in order to
obtain higher productivity.
 The degree of commercialization of agriculture varies from one region to another. Eg
– Rice is the commercial crop in Punjab and Haryana but in Odisha it’s a subsistence
crop.

Plantation –
 Plantation is also a type of commercial farming.
  In this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a large area. The plantation has an
interface of agriculture and industry.
 Plantations cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of
migrant labourers. All the produce is used as raw material in respective industries.
 In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etc., are important plantation crops.
Tea in Assam and North Bengal coffee in Karnataka are some of the important
plantation crops grown in these states.
 Since the production is mainly for market, a well-developed network of transport
and communication connecting the plantation areas, processing industries and
markets plays an important role in the development of plantations.

Cropping Patterns – rabi kharif zaid.

Rabi crops - sown - winter from October to December
 harvested - summer from April to June.
 Some of the important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.
 Though, these crops are grown in large parts of India, states from the north and
north-western parts such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh are important for the production of wheat
and other rabi crops.
 Availability of precipitation during winter months due to the western temperate
cyclones helps in the success of these crops.
 However, the success of the green revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has also been an important factor in the growth of
rabi crops.

Kharif crops - grown - onset of monsoon in different parts of the country

 harvested - September-October
 Important crops grown during this season are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar),
moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean.
 Some of the most important rice growing regions are Assam, West Bengal, coastal
regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan coast) along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
 Recently, paddy has also become an important crop of Punjab and Haryana.
 In states like Assam, West Bengal and Odisha, three crops of paddy are grown in a
year. These are Aus, Aman and Boro.

Zaid - In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season during the
summer months known as the Zaid season.
 Some of the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber,
vegetables and fodder crops.
Rice - It is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India.
 India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China.
 It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity
with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In the areas of less rainfall, it grows with the help
of irrigation.
 Rice is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the
deltaic regions.
 Development of dense network of canal irrigation and tubewells have made it
possible to grow rice in areas of less rainfall such as Punjab, Haryana and western
Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.

Wheat - This is the second most important cereal crop.

 It is the main food crop, in north and north-western part of the country.
 This rabi crop requires a cool growing season and a bright sunshine at the time of
ripening. It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the
growing season.
 There are two important wheat-growing zones in the country – the Ganga-Satluj
plains in the north-west and black soil region of the Deccan.
 The major wheat-producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.

Millets - Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India.
 Though, these are known as coarse grains, they have very high nutritional value. For
example, ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage.
Jowar is the third most important food crop with respect to area and production.
 It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs irrigation.
Major Jowar producing States are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh.
Bajra - grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil.
 Major Bajra producing States are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat
and Haryana.
Ragi - a crop of dry regions and grows on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils.
 Major ragi producing states are: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh.

Maize - It is a crop which is used both as food and fodder.

 It is a kharif crop which requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well
in old alluvial soil.
 In some states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season also.
  Use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have contributed
to the increasing production of maize.
 Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

Pulses - India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world.
 These are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
 Major pulses that are grown in India are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and
gram.
 Pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions.
 Being leguminous crops, all these crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by
fixing nitrogen from the air.
 Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation with other crops.
 Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.

Sugarcane - It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.

 It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an
annual rainfall between 75cm and 100cm.
 Irrigation is required in the regions of low rainfall.
 It can be grown on a variety of soils and needs manual labour from sowing to
harvesting.
 India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil.
 It is the main source of sugar, gur (jaggary), khandsari and molasses.
 The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.

Oil Seeds - India was the second largest producer of groundnut in the world after China.
 In rapeseed production India was third largest producer in the world after Canada
and China in 2018.
 Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12 per cent of the total
cropped area of the country.
 Main oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til),
soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed an sunflower.
 Most of these are edible and used as cooking mediums. However, some of these are
also used as raw material in the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.
 Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds
produced in the country. Gujarat was the largest producer of groundnut followed by
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu in 2019–20.
 Linseed and mustard are rabi crops.
  Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in south India.
 Castor seed is grown both as rabi and kharif crop.

Tea - Tea cultivation is an example of plantation agriculture.

 It is also an important beverage crop introduced in India by the British.
 The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep
and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter.
 Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year. Frequent
showers evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender
leaves.
 Tea is a labour-intensive industry. It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour.
 Major tea producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts,
West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Apart from these, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh and Tripura are also tea-producing states
in the country.
 In 2018 India was the second largest producer of tea after China.

Coffee - Indian coffee is known in the world for its good quality.
 The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country. This
variety is in great demand all over the world.
 Initially its cultivation was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even today its
cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Horticulture Crops - In 2018, India was the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables
in the world after China.
 India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
 India is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal
and potato.

Mangoes - Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal,
Oranges - Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya),
Bananas - Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu,
lichi and guava - Uttar Pradesh and Bihar,
Pineapples - Meghalaya,
Grapes - Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra,
Apples, pears, apricots and walnuts - Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh

Rubber - It is an equatorial crop and is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas.
 It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm and
temperature above 25°C.
 Rubber is an important industrial raw material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.

Fibre Crops - Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in
India.

Silk - is obtained from cocoons of the silkworms fed on green leaves specially mulberry.
Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.

Cotton - India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant.

 Cotton is one of the main raw materials for cotton textile industry.
 In 2017, India was second largest producer of cotton after China.
 Cotton grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Decca plateau.
 It requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and
bright sun-shine for its growth.
 It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.
 Major cotton-producing states are– Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar
Pradesh.

Jute - It is known as the golden fibre.

 Jute grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are
renewed every year.
 High temperature is required during the time of growth.
 West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya are the major jute producing
states.
 It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts. Due
to its high cost, it is losing market to synthetic fibres and packing materials,
particularly the nylon.

Agricultural Reforms - Agriculture which provides livelihood for more than 60 per cent of
population, needed some serious technical and institutional reforms.
  Collectivisation, consolidation of holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari,
etc. were given priority to bring about institutional reforms in the country after
Independence.
 ‘Land reform’ was the main focus of the First Five Year Plan.
 The right of inheritance had lead to fragmentation of land holdings necessitating
consolidation of holdings.
 The Green Revolution based on the use of package technology and the White
Revolution (Operation Flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve the lot
of Indian agriculture.
 This led to the concentration of development in few selected areas.
 Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease,
establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing
loan facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest were some important steps
in this direction.
 Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some
other schemes introduced by the Government of India for the benefit of the farmers.
 Moreover, special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers were
introduced on the radio and television.
 The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and
procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by
speculators and middlemen.

Initiation of Bhoodan-Gramdan Movement- During a lecture in Pochampalli, Andhra

Pradesh, poor landless villagers demanded land for economic well-being.
 Vinoba Bhave couldn't promise immediate land but assured to discuss the matter
with the Government of India.
 Shri Ram Chandra Reddy spontaneously offered 80 acres of land for 80 landless
villagers, known as 'Bhoodan.'
 This act led to the initiation of the Bhoodan-Gramdan movement.
 Some zamindars (landowners) offered to distribute villages among the landless,
known as Gramdan.
 The movement aimed at providing land to the poor farmers, partly driven by the fear
of the land ceiling act.
 The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is referred to as the
Blood-less Revolution.
 It symbolized a non-violent approach to address land distribution and economic
well-being of the underprivileged.