1

PHYSICS (XII) IN A NUT SHELL IS PREPARED MAINLY TO BOOST THE

STUDENTS CONFIDENCE LEVEL & ENABLE THEM TO SCORE MINMUM 40
MARKS OUT OF 70.

ELECTROSTATICS
Electric charge is a basic property of all matter.
Unlike charges attract, like charges repel.
Conductor allows flow of electric charges through them while insulators don't.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 2

Electric charges have three basic properties

(a) Additivity (b) Quantisation (c) Conservation
Coulomb's law: the Electrostatic force of interaction between two point electric charges is
directly proportional to the product of the charges, inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them and act along the straight line joining the two charges.
Superposition Principle: The electric intensity at a point due to several charges is the
vector sum ofelectric intensities produced by each charge individually in the absence of
other charges.
CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION-
Linear Charge Density
let a charge q be uniformly distributed along a length l, then the linear
SI unit of linear charge is C/m.
Surface Charge Density
Suppose a charge q is uniformly distributed over a surface of area A.Then

the surface density s defined as the charge per unit area.

SI unit of s is C/m2.
Electric field is the region of space around a charge or a system of charges within which
other charged particles experiences an electrostatic force.
The electric field or electric field strength is the electrostatic force acting on a small positive
test charge placed at that point. If is the electrostatic force experienced by a test charge q
at a point, then the electric field intensity at that point is given by

S.I unit of electric field intensity is newton/coulomb (NC-1).It is a vector quantity.

If the test charge is not small, then the electric field may be affected by the test charge and
hence we modify the above equation as follows:
Electric Field Due To a Point Charge

We have to find electric field at point P due to point charge +q placed at the origin such
that
To find the same, place a vanishingly small positive test charge q0 at point P.
According to Coulomb’s law, force on the test charge q0 due to charge q is

If is the electric field at point P, then

The magnitude of the electric field at point P is given by,

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 3

ELECTRI FIELD LINES

1) ISOLATED POSITIVE CHARGE ISOLATED NEGATIVE CHARGE TWO

EQUAL AND SIMILAR CHARGES

TWO EQUAL AND OPPOSITE CHARGES

General Properties of Electric Lines of Force or Field Lines
The lines of force or field lines1) start from positive charges and end at negative charges. In the
case of a single charge, they may start or end at infinity.2) two field lines can never intersect each
other.3) contract longitudinally.4) exert lateral pressure on one another.5) are perpendicular to the
surface of a charged conductor.6) do not pass though the conductor.

Electric Dipole − System of two equal and opposite charges separated by a certain small distance.

Electric Dipole Moment − It is a vector quantity, with magnitude equal to the product of either of
the charges and the length of the electric dipole

Its direction is from the negative charge to the positive charge.

Its S.I unit is Cm
(a) For points on axial line
The axial line of a dipole is the line passing through the positive and negative charges of the electric
dipole.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 4

Consider a system of charges (-q and +q) separated by a distance 2a. Let 'P' be any point on an axis
where the field intensity is to be determined.
Electric field at P (EB) due to +q Electric field at P due to -q (EA)

Net field at P is given by

Simplifying, we get

As a special case :

(b) For points on the equatorial line

An equatorial line of a dipole is the line perpendicular to the axial line and passing through a point
mid way between the charges.
Electric Field Intensity due to a Dipole at a Point lying on the Perpendicular Bisector of a
Dipole

Consider a dipole consisting of -q and +q separated by a distance 2a. Let P be a point Consider a
point P on the equatorial line.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 5

The resultant intensity is the vector sum of the intensities along PA and PB. EA and EBcan be
resolved into vertical and horizontal components. The vertical compents of EAand EB cancel each
other as they are equal and oppositely directed. It is the horizontal components which add up to
give the resultant field.

E = 2EA cos q

As 2qa = p
As a special case,

We find that at very far off points i.e., 2a < r.< r.

Electricity intensity at an axial point is twice the electric intensity on the equatorial line.
Torque on a dipole in uniform Electric field

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q and +q and of length 2a placed in a uniform
electric field making an angle θ with electric field.
Force on charge −q at (opposite to )
Force on charge +q at (along )
Electric dipole is under the action of two equal and unlike parallel forces, which give rise to a
torque on the dipole.
τ = Force × Perpendicular distance between the two forces
τ = qE (AN) = qE (2a sin θ)
τ = q(2a) E sinθ
τ = pE sinθ

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 6

Electric flux
The electric flux, through a surface, held inside an electric field represents the total number of
electric lines of force crossing the surface in a direction normal to the surface.
Electric flux is a scalar quantity and is denoted by Φ.

S.I unit of electric flux is Nm2/c2

The electric flux per unit area is defined as the electric flux density.
Gauss' theorem It states that the total electric flux through a closed surface enclosing a

charge is equal to times the magnitude of the charge enclosed.

However, ∴Gauss theorem may be expressed as

Proof

Consider that a point electric charge q is situated at the centre of a sphere of radius ‘a’.
According to Coulomb’s law,

Where, is unit vector along the line OP

The electric flux through area element is given by,

Therefore, electric flux through the closed surface of the sphere,

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 7

It proves the Gauss theorem in electrostatics.

Electric Field Due To A Line Charge

Consider a thin infinitely long straight line charge of linear charge density λ.
Let P be the point at a distance ‘a’ from the line. To find electric field at point P, draw a cylindrical
surface of radius ‘a’ and length l.
If E is the magnitude of electric field at point P, then electric flux through the Gaussian surface is
given by,
Φ = E × Area of the curved Because electric lines of force are parallel to end
surface of a cylinder of faces (circular caps) of the cylinder, there is no
radius rand length l component of field along the normal to the end faces.
Φ = E × 2πal … (i)
According to Gauss theorem, we have

From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain

Electric Field Due To An Infinite Plane Sheet Of Charge

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 8

Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive charge having a uniform surface charge density σon
both sides of the sheet. Let P be the point at a distance ‘a’ from the sheet at which electric field is
required. Draw a Gaussian cylinder of area of cross-section A through point P.
The electric flux crossing through the Gaussian surface is given by,
Since electric lines of force are parallel to the curved surface
Φ = E × Area of the
of the cylinder, the flux due to electric field of the plane sheet
circular caps of the
of charge passes only through the two circular caps of the
cylinder
cylinder.

Since electric lines of force are parallel to the curved surface

Φ = E × Area of the
of the cylinder, the flux due to electric field of the plane sheet
circular caps of the
of charge passes only through the two circular caps of the
cylinder
cylinder.
Φ = E × 2A … (i)
According to Gauss theorem, we have

Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,

q = σA

From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
9

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 10

The electrostatic potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the work done in bringing
a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the electric force of the field.
V = W/q where V is the potential
W is work done q the charge
S.I. unit is Joule/Coulomb = 1 Volt

Potential due to a point charge

Consider two points 'a' and 'b' in an electrostatic field of a single isolated point charge +q.

If a unit positive charge 'q' moves from 'a' to 'b' without acceleration, then the potential difference
between 'a' and 'b' is given as

= - Edl
But dl = - dr
[This is because when we move a distance 'dl' towards the source, we move in the direction of
decreasing of 'r']

From equation (1), we have

If the point 'a' is at infinity, then

From the above, it is evident that for a given charge 'q', potential depends only on 'r'. Therefore, if
the charge is positive, potential is positive and if the charge is negative, potential is negative.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 11

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 12

Electrostatic Potential Energy:

The work done in moving a charge q from infinity to a point in the field against the electric force is
called electrostatic potential energy. W = q V

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 13

Potential Energy of a Single Charge

It is the work done in bringing a charge q from infinity to a point P whose position vector
is r→and V(r→) is potential due to external field there.
The magnitude of work done
Potential Energy of a System of Two Charges in an External Field
The work done in bringing a charge q1 from infinity to position is
W1 =
Now, the work done in bringing a charge q2 from infinity to position , against an external field is

Let,

= Two point charges at position vectors and respectively

= Intensity of the external electric field
= Potential at due to the external field
= Potential at due to the external field
For bringing q2 from infinity to position , work has to be done against the field due to q1.

Where, = Distance between q1 and q2

Total work done in assembling the charge configuration = Potential energy of the system

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 14

Potential energy of a dipole in an external field

Suppose an electric dipole of dipole moment p is placed along a direction, making an angle θ with
the direction of an external uniform electric field E. Then, the torque acting on the dipole is given
by

If the dipole is rotated through an infinitesimally small angle dθ, against the torque acting on it,
then the small work done is given by

If the dipole is oriented, making an angle θ1 to θ2 with the electric filed, then the total work done is
given by

W = pE (cos θ1 − cos θ2)

∴U = pE (cos 90° − cos θ)

This work done is stored in the dipole in the form of its potential energy.

U = − pE cos θ
U=− θ=00 STABLE EQUILIBRIUM, θ=1800 UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM

Some of the important results of Conductors in a Electrostatic situation

1. Inside a conductor, electro static field is zero.
2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at every
point.
3. The interiors of a conductor can have no excess charge in static situation
4. Electrostatic Potential is a constant throughout the volume of a conductor and has the same value
inside and on its
surface.

Electrostatic Shielding
This technique is used by many electrical instruments from outside electrical influence.
Consider a conductor with a cavity and no charges in the cavity. Then, the remarkable result is that
whatever the
shape, size of the cavity and whatever be the charge on the conductor, whatever the external electric
field it may be placed, the electric field inside the cavity remains zero. In our earlier topics, we have

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 15

already seen that field inside a charged spherical shell is zero. The vanishing of electric field in the
charge free cavity of a conductor is a general result. We also know that charges reside on the
surface of the conductor. Whatever be the cavity and field configuration outside, cavity remains
shielded from the electric field and this is referred to as electrostatic shielding.

Dielectrics and polarization

Non-polar dielectrics − The centre of positive charge coincides with centre of negative charge in
the molecule.-H2
Polar dielectrics − The centres of positive and negative charges do not coincide because of the
asymmetric shape of the molecules.- H20

Non-Polar Dielectrics
When a non-polar dielectric is held in an external electric field , the centre of positive charge in
each molecule is pulled in the direction of and the negative charge centre is pulled in a direction
opposite to .
The two centres of positive and negative charges in the molecule are separated. The molecules get
distorted. The non-polar molecule gets polarised or a tiny dipole moment is imparted to each
molecule

Polar Dielectrics
When no external field is applied, the different permanent dipoles of such a dielectric are oriented
randomly. Therefore, the total dipole moment is zero.
When an external electric field is applied, the individual dipole moments tend to align with the
field.
A net dipole moment in the direction of the external field is developed i.e., the dielectric is
polarised.
Thus, each molecule becomes a tiny electric dipole, with a dipole moment parallel to the external
field and proportional to it. Induced dipole moment P acquired by the molecule may be written as
P = αε0E0
Where, α is a constant of proportionality and is called atomic/molecular polarisibility

Consider any small volume element in the interior of the slab, shown in dotted in the above figure.
Inside the dotted portion, there is no net charge density. The negative ends of the dipoles remain
unneutralised at the surface AB and positive ends of the dipole remain unneutralised at the surface
CD.
They set up an electric field opposite to .

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 16

∴ Effective electric field in a polarised dielectric = E = E0 − EP

Here, E is called the reduced value of the electric field.

Capacitor

C=
The constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor.
Capacitance C depends on shape, size, and separation of the system of two conductors.
The SI unit of capacitance is
1 = 1 Coulomb volt−1
Parallel Plate Capacitor
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting plates separated by a
smalldistance.

Let A be the area of each plate and d the separation between them. The two plates have
charges Qand −Q.
Plate 1 has surface charge density σ = Q/A, and plate 2 has a surface charge density σ.
Electric field in different regions:
Outer region I,

E=
Outer region II,

E=
In the inner region between the plates 1 and 2, the electric fields due to the two charged plates add
up, giving

E=
The direction of electric field is from positive to the negative plate.
For uniform electric field, potential difference is simply the electric field times the distance
between the plates i.e.,

V=Ed=
Capacitance C of the parallel plate capacitor is then

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 17

Capacitors in Series

If +Q units of charge are given to left plates of C1, then by induction

-Q charge appears on the right plate. +Q appears on the left plate of capacitor C 2 and so on. Thus,
same charge appears on each capacitor.
The potential difference across each capacitor however is different. Therefore,
V = V1 + V 2 + V 3

On substituting,

OR

where CS is the effective capacitance, when capacitors are connected in series.

This implies that when the capacitors are connected in series, the reciprocal of the equivalent
capacitance equals to the reciprocals of the individual capacitance.
Capacitors in Parallel

Here, the potential difference across each capacitor is the same but charges are different. Therefore,
Q = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
CPV = C1 V + C2V + C3V
C P = C1 + C2 + C3
where Cp is the effective capacitance, when capacitors are connected in parallel.
This implies that when the capacitors are connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance equals
the sum of the individual capacitance

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

While charging a capacitor, a battery transfers positive charge from negative to the positive plate.
So some work is done in transferring this charge, which is stored in the capacitor in the form of
electrostatic energy.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 18

Suppose the capacitor is charged gradually, then, the work done in giving an additional charge dq is

Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance

Consider two large plates, each of area A, separated by a distance d.
The charge on the plates is ± Q, corresponding to linear charge density ±σ. When there is vacuum
between the plates,

And the potential difference V0 is

V0 = E0d
Capacitance C0 in this case is

C0 = Q/ V0 =
Consider a dielectric inserted between the plates fully occupying the intervening region. The
electric field in the dielectric then corresponds to the case when the net surface charge density on
the plates is± (σ−σp ). That is,

Therefore, the potential difference across the plates is

For linear dielectrics, we expect σp to be proportional to E0 i.e., to σ. Thus, (σ−σp ) is proportional

to σand we can write

σ − σp =
Where, K is a constant characteristic of the dielectric
Clearly, K > 1
Then,

Capacitance C, with dielectric between the plates, is then

C=
The product ε0K is called the permittivity of the medium and denoted by ε.
ε = ε0K

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 19

When the dielectric slab is introduced

If d and A remains same (C= )

battery remains battery is

connected after disconnected
the capacitor is after the capacitor
charged is charged
Charge increases Remains same

Capacitan increases Increases

ce
Potential constant Decreases
difference
Electric Constant Decreases
field
Energy increases Decreases
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric Current
The amount of charge flowing through a given cross-section of a conductor per unit time
constitutes electric current.

where, I is the current, and q is the charge that flows across that area in time t.
The S.I. unit of current is Ampere (A).

One ampere of current is said to flow through a wire if at any cross

section, one coulomb of charge flows in one second.
In solid conductors, the current carriers are the free electrons; in electrolytes, the anions and
cations; and in gases, the electrons and anions.
Resistance and Resistivity
It is found experimentally that the current I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference V across its ends, provided the physical conditions (temperature,
mechanical strain, etc.,) remain constant. That is

or V = IR
where, R is the resistance of the conductor.
This equation is called Ohm's law,
The resistance of a resistor depends on the nature of the material, its geometrical features (length
and cross-sectional area) and on the temperature and pressure.

Where ρ, the constant of proportionality, is called resistivity. It depends only on the

nature of the material and its physical conditions. The unit of ρ is ohm m (Ωm).
The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its conductance (G). Therefore, G = 1/R. The
S.I. unit of conductance is mho or siemen (S).
The inverse of resistivity of a conductor is called its conductivity (s);

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 20

The S.I. unit of conductivity is siemen metre-1 (sm-1) or mho m-1 or (Ωm)-1.
Relation between current and drift velocity
Free electrons are in continuous random motion. They undergo change in direction at each collision
and the thermal velocities are randomly distributed in all directions.

∴ Average thermal velocity, is zero … (1)

The electric field E exerts an electrostatic force ‘−Ee’.

Acceleration of each electron is,

Where,
m → Mass of an electron
e → Charge on an electron
● Drift velocity − It is the average velocity with which free electrons get drifted towards the
positive terminal

∴ vd = a τ
under the effect of the applied electric field.

where , is the average time elapsed

Substituting for a from equation (2),

Electron drift to a small distance in a time Δt = Vd Δt

Amount of charge passing through the area A in time Δt, q = IΔt
IΔt = neAvdΔt
Where,
n→ Number of free electrons per unit volume
From equation (4),

Current density (J)

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 21

We know,
J=σE

● resistivity ρ =m/ne2 τ
The resistivity of a metallic conductor increases with increase in temperature.
The resistivity of an alloy has a weak dependence on temperature.
The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases rapidly with increasing temperature.
Mobility (μ)
It is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field.

Unit of mobility is m2/Vs.

●
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
There are several materials and devices for which the proportionality of V and I are as follows:
V ceases to be proportional to I.
V versus current I for a good conductor

The dashed line represents the linear Ohm’slaw.

The solid line is the voltage

Characteristic curve of a diode:

There is more than one value of V for the same current.

Variation of current versus voltage for GaAs

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 22

Ohm's law is not a fundamental law of nature. There are a number of commonly used circuit
elements which do not obey this law. They have one or more of the following properties:
1. V depends on I non-linearly.
2. The relationship between V and I depends on the sign of V for the same absolute value of V.
3. The relation between V and I is non-unique, that is, for the same current I, there is more than one
value of voltage V.

Over a small temperature range, the resistivity of a metal can be represented by a linear relation

Resistivity of material as a function of temperature T

Power:

Internal Resistance, Potential Difference and E.M.F. of a cell:

Resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell when the electric current flows through it.
The internal resistance of a cell depends on the distance between the plates, the nature of the
electrolytes, the concentration of electrolytes, the nature of the electrodes and the area of the
plates.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 23

Let e, r be the emf and internal resistance of a cell and R - the external resistance. A high resistance
voltmeter V is connected.
Emf- When K is opened (i.e., open circuit) emf, the voltmeter reads the emf (e) of the cell as no
current flows through the circuit.
Potential difference-When K is closed (i.e., closed circuit), a current 'I' flows in the circuit. Hence,
we have

'Ir' is the potential difference across the internal resistance r.

But, V = IR

Therefore, the external voltage V is less than the emf of the cell, e. It is as though an internal
resistance r is in series with the external resistance R, and this determines the current in the circuit
for a given source of emf.

Also,

Cells in Series

E1 E2 − emf of two cells

r1, r2 − Internal resistance of two cells
I − Current in the circuit
Terminal potential difference across the first cell, V1 = E1 − Ir1
Terminal potential difference across the second cell, V2 = E2 − Ir2
Potential difference between the points A and B,
V = V1 + V2 = (E1 − Ir1) + (E2 − Ir2)
= (E1 + E2) − I (r1 + r2)
Let

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 24

E − Effective emf
r − Effective internal resistance

∴ E = E1 + E2
V = E − Ir

r = r1 + r2
Current in the circuit,

If the two cells are connected in opposite direction, then

E = E1 − E2

Cell in Parallel

E1, E2 − emf of two cells

r1, r2 − Internal resistances of cell
I1, I2 − Current due to the two cells
Terminal potential difference across the first cell,
V = E1 − I1r1

For the second cell,

Let E be effective emf and r is effective internal resistance.

V = E − Ir

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 25

And,

Mixed Grouping of Cells

Suppose ‘n’ cells of emf ‘E’ and internal resistance ‘r’ are connected in series in each branch; and
there are ‘m’ such branches. ‘R’ is the external resistance connected to the circuit.

In each branch, the net emf is nE and the net internal resistance is nr. The equivalent resistance of
all the internal resistances in parallel is,

We finally have a circuit with a cell of emf nE, internal resistance connected to a resistance R.
The current through the circuit is,

Kirchhoff's Junction Rule:

The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction in a closed circuit is zero.

Therefore, I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
Hence, I1 + I4 - I2 - I3 - I5 = 0
or SI = 0
(Sum of currents entering a junction = Sum of currents leaving the junction)
This rule is based on the fact that charge cannot be accumulated at any point in a conductor in a
steady situation.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 26

Kirchhoff's Loop Rule:

The algebraic sum of all the potential drops and emfs along any closed path in a network is
zero.

This rule is based on energy conservation, i.e., the net change in the energy of a charge after
completing the closed path is zero. Otherwise, one can continuously gain energy by circulating
charge in a particular direction.
Wheatstone Bridge:
This is used to measure an unknown resistance accurately. It consists of 4 resistors (2 fixed known
resistances P and Q, a known variable resistance R and the unknown resistance X) connected as
shown in the figure.

Using Kirchoff's rules.

Applying the Kirchhoff's law to loop 1, we have
-I1P - IgRg + (I - I1)R = 0 ...(1)

Similarly for loop 2, we have

- (I1-Ig)Q +(I - I1+ Ig)X +IgRg = 0 ...(2)
(where Rg is the resistance of the galvanometer)
In the balanced condition, putting Ig = 0, we have
-I1P + (I - I1)R = 0 …(1)
and -(I1)Q + (I - I1)X = 0 …(2)
Simplifying the two equations, we get
I1P = (I-I1)R …(1)
I1Q = (I-I1)X …(2)
Dividing the above two equations, we get

Resistor Q is called the standard arm of the bridge, and resistor P and R are called the ratio arms.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 27

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

Lorentz Force
The force experienced by a charged particle moving in space where both electric and magnetic field exist is c
force. The Lorentz force is therefore the vector sum of force due to electric field and the force due to mag
Mathematically

or

Definition of 1 Tesla
The magnetic field induction at a point is said to be one tesla if a charge of 1 coulomb while moving
at right angles to a magnetic field with a velocity of 1m/sec experiences a force of 1N at that point.

Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge

,
2) When the charges move parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field ϴ = 0 o or 180 o Fm is zero.
3) The force always acts perpendicular to velocity and magnetic field.

Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in an Uniform Magnetic Field

A straight rod carrying current is considered.
Let,
A − Cross-sectional area of the rod
l − Length of the rod
n − Number density of mobile charge carriers
I − Current in the rod
vd − Average drift velocity of mobile charge carrier
B − External magnetic field
Force on the carriers,
F = (nAl) qvd × B

∴ F = [(nqvd) Al] × B
Since current density, j = nqvd

F = [jAl] × B
F = Il × B
Where,
l is the vector magnitude of length of the rod.
For a wire of arbitrary shape,

The total force on conductor due to free electrons

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 28

The direction of the force can be given by right hand screw rule or Fleming's left hand rule.

Note:
1) If = 0o or 180o then F = 0 (minimum)
2) If = 90o then F = I x l x B (maximum)

BIOT-SAVART LAW
If AB represents a current element of a conductor PQ carrying current I and the position vector of P from

current element AB (i.e., of length ), then the law states that magnetic field (dB) at P due to current elem
depends on

Combining we get,

and is called permeability of free space.

In the vector form,

S.I. unit is 1 tesla or 1T.

Magnetic Field due to a Straight Conductor Carrying Current
The magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance R from a long, straight wire
carrying a current i is given by:

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 29

The field lines are circles concentric with the wire

Summation of dl over the loop is given by 2πr

When point P is at the centre, x=0

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 30

Ampere's Circuital Law

The line integral of the magnetic field B around any closed path is equal to μo times
the net current across the area bounded by the path."

Magnetic Field due to Solenoid

MAGNETIC FIELD due TO FINITE SOLENOID

Solenoid is long wire wound in form of helix such that the length of solenoid is large
compared to the radius of the closely spaced turns.
To find the magnetic field due to a solenoid consider the Amperian loop (imaginary
closed path) as shown in the diagram.
The field along cd is zero as it is outside the solenoid. Along da and bc the transverse
section the field is zero outside the solenoid (also, B is perpendicular to dl so =
0). Therefore the only contribution is from ab. Let the length ab be 'h'. If there are n
turns per unit length, then the enclosed current ie is

ie = i (nh), where i is the current in the solenoid.

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Force between Two Parallel Conductors Carrying Currents

Magnetic field induction at a point on conductor b due to current Ia passing through a is

●
Unit length of b will experience a force as

Magnetic field induction at a point on conductor a due to current Ib passing through b is

Conductor a also experiences the same amount of force, directed towards b Hence, a
and b attract each other.
Two linear parallel conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract each
other while in opposite direction repel each other.
One ampere is that much current which when flowing through each of the two
parallel conductors of length 1m and separated by 1m in vacuum experiences an
attractive or repulsive force of 2 x 10-7N per metre of their length.
The Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole
Torque on a Current Carrying Coil in a Magnetic Field
When an electric current flows in a closed loop of wire, placed in a uniform magnetic field,
the magnetic forces produce a torque which tends to rotate the loop so that area of the loop
is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

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Case I - The rectangular loop is placed such that the uniform magnetic field B is in the
plane of loop.
No force is exerted by the magnetic field on the arms AD and BC.

∴F1 = IbB
Magnetic field exerts a force F1 on arm AB.

∴F2 = IbB = F1
Magnetic field exerts a force F2 on arm CD.

Net force on the loop is zero.The torque on the loop rotates the loop in anti-clockwise
direction.

Torque, τ =

= I(ab)B
τ = IAB
If there are ‘n’ such turns the torque will be nIAB
Where, b → Breadth of the rectangular coil
a → Length of the rectangular coil
A = ab → Area of the coil
Case II - Plane of the loop is not along the magnetic field, but makes angle with it.

Angle between the field and the normal is θ.

Forces on BC and DA are equal and opposite and they cancel each other as they are
collinear.
Force on AB is F1 and force on CD is F2.
F1 = F2 = IbB
Magnitude of torque on the loop as in the figure

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PGT (PHY)
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∴τ=
= Iab Bsinθ
τ = IAB sinθ
If there are ‘n’ such turns the torque will be nIAB sinθ
Magnetic moment of the current, m = IA

Current carrying wire can be considered as a magnetic dipole. Circular Current Loop
as a Magnetic Dipole

∴ It has North polarity.

Its upper face has current flowing in anti-clockwise direction.

∴ It has South polarity.

Its lower face has current flowing in clockwise direction.

Magnetic dipole moment of current loop (M) is

∴M ∝ I
directly proportional to strength of current (I)

∴M ∝ A
directly proportional to the area of enclosed loop (A)

M = kIA
Where, k is constant of proportionality
For k = 1,M = AI For N such turns,

Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron

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 34

An electron of charge e revolves in a path of radius r having a uniform angular velocity ω.

Current,
Where, t is period of revolution of electron

∴ Area of the orbit, A = πr2

Let r be the radius of the orbit.

Magnetic moment of the atom, M = iA

According to Bohr’s theory, an electron in an atom can revolve only in a certain stationary

orbit.Therefore, the angular momentum of electron (mvr) is an integral multiple of .

From equation (1),

Where, μB is the least value of atomic dipole moment known as Bohr’s magneton.
Moving Coil Galvanometer
Moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used for detection and measurement of small
electric currents.
Principle
A current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque.

Radha Mukundan
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Radial Field (Top view of the Galvanometer)

Working
When a current is passed through the coil in the direction, then the coil experiences a torque

τ = nIBA sinα

Since the magnified field is radial the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field
such that α = 90o and hence
τ = NIBA.
The coil rotates and the phosphor bronze strip gets twisted. As a result a restoring torque
comes into play trying to restore the coil back to original position.
If Φ be the twist produced in the strip and C be the restoring torque per unit twist then the
restoring torque = C Φ
In equilibrium,

where G is the galvanometer constant.

This shows that galvanometer has a linear scale and detects the presence of current.

Current sensitivity of galvanometer is the deflection produced for a unit current flowing
through it. i.e.,

A sensitive galvanometer should have a long deflection for small current through it.
Voltage sensitivity is the deflection produced for a unit voltage applied across the two
terminals of the galvanometer

Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter

A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter (device measuring the current flowing

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PGT (PHY)
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through a conductor) by connecting a low resistance (called shunt resistance) in parallel to

the galvanometer as shown in the figure.

Rg =Galvanometer Resistance

The effective resistance of shunt and galvanometer is

It is to be noted that as the value of S is low, the parallel combination has a much lower
resistance. It is for this reason that ammeter have very low resistance.
'Ideal Ammeters have zero resistance'.
Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter
A Galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series
with a galvanometer as shown.

The total resistance of voltmeter

This works as a voltmeter of range 0 to V volt. Since the value of R is high, the effective
resistance also has a higher value. Thus voltmeters have high resistance.
'Ideal Voltmeter has infinite resistance'.

----------------- 1

---------- 2

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PGT (PHY)
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 37

Magnetic Dipole & Dipole Moment:

A pair of magnetic poles of equal and opposite strengths separated by a finite distance is
called a magnetic dipole.
The magnitude of dipole moment is the product of the pole strength m and the separation 2l
between the poles.

Magnetic Dipole Moment is M = m.2l. l

SI unit of pole strength is A.m

The direction of the dipole moment is from South pole to North Pole along the axis of the magnet.

Coulomb’s Law in Magnetism:

The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the prod
strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

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μ 0 m1 m2
F=
4π r2

(where k = μ0 / 4π is a constant and μ0 = 4π x 10-7 T m A-1)

NOTE: SIMILAR DERIVATION (ELECTRIC FIELD ON THE AXIAL LINE AND

EQUATORIAL LINE DUE TO DIPOLE,TORQUE,P.E IN FIRST CHAPTER) CAN BE
FOLLOWED FOR THE ABOVE DERIVATION
TORQUE ON A DIPOLE IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

Force on N-pole = mB, along

Force on S-pole = mB, opposite to
Where,
m → Strength of each pole
B → Strength of magnetic field
These equal and unlike forces form a couple, which tends to rotate the magnet clockwise so as to
align it along .
Torque acting on the bar magnet,
τ = Force × Perpendicular distance
= mB × NA

∴ NA = 2l sin θ
In ΔNAS,

Now,
τ = mB × 2l sin θ

Radha Mukundan
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 39

⇒ τ = B × (m2l) sin θ
τ = MB sin θ

Gauss's theorem in electrostatics indicates that isolated charges exist and that electric lines of
force do not form closed loops. The situation is different in magnetism. The Gauss's law in
magnetism therefore will be

i.e., the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero. This reflects that isolated magnetic
poles do not exist. The simplest unit in magnetism is dipole (or bar magnet

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
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 40

Intensity of Magnetisation: (I):

It is the degree to which a substance is magnetised when placed in a magnetic field.
It can also be defined as the magnetic dipole moment (M) acquired per unit volume of the substanc
It can also be defined as the pole strength (m) per unit cross-sectional area (A) of the substance.
I=M/V
I = m(2l) / A(2l) = m / A
SI unit of Intensity of Magnetisation is A m-1.

Magnetic Susceptibility (χm.):

It is the property of the substance which shows how easily a substance can be magnetised.
It can also be defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetisation (I) in a substance to the magnetic int
substance.
χm. = I / H Susceptibility has no unit.

Relation between Magnetic Permeability (μr) & Suscept

μr = 1 + χm.

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 41

Curie’s Law:
Magnetic susceptibility of a material varies inversely with the absolute temperature.
IαH/T or I/Hα1/T
χmα1/T
χm =C/T (where C is Curie constant)
Curie temperature for iron is 1000 K, for cobalt 1400 K and for nickel 600 K.
1. Core of electromagnets are made of ferromagnetic materials which have high
permeability and low retentivity. Soft iron is a suitable material for electromagnets.
2. Transformer cores-high resistivity to lower eddy current losses.
3. Permanent magnets-high retentivity, high coercivity, high permeability-steel

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

Magnetic Flux
The magnetic flux Φ through any surface held in a magnetic field is measured by the total
number of magnetic lines of force crossing the surface.

Where, θ is the smaller angle between and , which normal to the surface area makes with
SI unit of f is weber and magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction:

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Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

First law − Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an emf is induced
in the circuit. The induced emf lasts as long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
Second law − The magnitude of emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
According to Faraday’s second law, induced emf
For N turns,

Lenz’s Law-The direction of the induced emf or induced current is such that it opposes the change
that is producing it.
Lenz Law and Principle of Conservation of Energy

Lenz law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. In the above experiment, when
N-pole of magnet is moved towards the coil, the right face of the coil acquires North polarity. Thus,
work has to be done against the force of repulsion in bringing the magnet closer to the coil.
When N pole of magnet is moved away, South pole develops on the right face of the coil.
Therefore, work has to be done against the force of attraction in taking the magnet away from the
coil.
This mechanical work in moving the magnet with respect to the coil changes into electrical energy
producing induced current. Hence, energy transformation takes place.

Methods of producing Induced emf:

By changing Magnetic Field B:

Magnetic flux Φ can be changed by changing the magnetic field B and hence emf can be induce
Faraday’s Experiments).

2. By changing the area of the coil A available in Magn

Magnetic flux Φ can be changed by changing the area of the loop A which is acted upon by the
hence emf can be induced in the circuit.

Radha Mukundan
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KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 43

MOTIONAL ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

Consider that at any time t, the part of the coil is inside the magnetic field. Let l be
the length of the arm of the coil.
Area of the coil inside the magnetic field at time t,

∴Magnetic flux linked with the coil at any time t,

Φ =BΔS= Bly
The rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the coil is given by,

Where,
v→Velocity with the coil pulled out of the magnetic field
If e is the induced emf, then according to Faraday’s law,

From Fleming’s Right hand rule, the current due to induced emf will flow from the end R to Q i.e.,
along QPSR in the coil.
Power
Current I in the loop is,

Due to the presence of the magnetic field, there is a force on the arm PQ. This force is directed
outwards in the direction opposite to the velocity of the rod. The magnitude of this force is,

Alternatively, the arm PQ is being pushed with a constant speed v. The power required to do this is,

The agent that does this work is mechanical. This mechanical energy is dissipated as joule heat and
is given by,

This is identical to equation (ii).

Thus, mechanical energy, which was required to move the arm PQ, is converted into electrical
energy and then to thermal energy.

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 44

Energy in an Inductor:
Small work done dW in establishing a current I in
the coil in time dt is dW = - EI dt
dW = LI dI (since E = -L(dI / dt)
I0
W = ∫ L I dI = ½ LI02
0
Mutual Induction
The phenomenon according to which an opposing emf is produced in a coil as a result of change in
current, hence, the magnetic flux linked with a neighbouring coil is called mutual induction.

Φ∝I
Coefficient of mutual induction −

Φ = MI… (i)

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 45

Where, M is called coefficient of mutual induction

If ‘e’ is the induced emf produced in the S-coil, then

ALTERNATING CURRENT
An alternating current is that which changes continuously in magnitude and periodically in
direction. It can be
represented by a sine curve or a cosine curve i.e.,

Average or Mean Value of Alternating Current:

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 46

AC Circuit Containing Resistance only

All a.c. instruments measure virtual values of a.c. The behavior of an ohmic resistance R in a.c.
circuit
is the same as in d.c. circuit. Through alternating EMF and alternating current are in same phase.

AC Circuit Containing Pure Inductance only

Inductive reactance (XL) is the resistance offered by an inductor and is given by
XL = L = 2vL
Through a pure inductor, alternating current lags behind the alternating EMF by phase. angle
of 90o

Radha Mukundan
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 47

AC Circuit with Pure Capacitance only -Through a pure capacitor, alternating current leads
the alternating
EMF by a phase angle of 90o. XL and Xc both are measured in ohms.

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 48

POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: THE POWER FACTOR

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 49

TRANSFORMER
Principle − It works on the principle of MUTUAL induction. It converts low voltage high
current into high voltage low current or vice versa.

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Construction

Step-down transformer Step-up transformer

Working
Alternating emf is supplied to the primary coil PP’. The resulting current produces an induced
current in secondary.
Magnetic flux linked with primary is also linked with the secondary. The induced emf in each
turn of the secondary is
equal to that induced in each turn of the primary.
Let,
EP − Alternating emf applied to primary
nP − Number of turns in the primary

− Rate of change of flux through each turn of primary coil

Es− Alternating emf of secondary

ns − Number of turns in secondary

Dividing equation (2) by (1),

∴ Es > Ep
● For step-up transformer, K > 1

● For step-down transformer, K < 1

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∴ Es < Ep
● According to law of conservation of energy,
Input electrical power = Output electrical power
EpIp = EsIs

Transformers are used in telegraph, telephone, power stations, etc.

Losses in transformer:
Copper loss − Heat in copper wire is generated by working of a transformer. It can be
diminished using thick copper wires.
Iron loss − Loss is in the bulk of iron core due to the induced eddy currents. It is minimized
by using thin laminated core.
Hysteresis loss − Alternately magnetizing and demagnetizing, the iron core cause loss of
energy. It is minimized
using a special alloy of iron core with silicon.
Magnetic loss − It is due to the leakage of magnetic flux.

AC generator

Principle − Based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction

It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Construction
Main parts of an ac generator:
Armature − Rectangular coil ABCD
Field Magnets − Two pole pieces of a strong electromagnet
Slip Rings − The ends of coil ABCD are connected to two hollow metallic rings R 1 and R2.
Brushes − B1 and B2 are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods. They are fixed and are
kept in tight contact with R1
and R2 respectively.
Theory and Working − As the armature coil is rotated in the magnetic field, angle θ between
the field and normal to the
coil changes continuously. Therefore, magnetic flux linked with the coil changes. An emf is

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induced in the coil. According

to Fleming’s right hand rule, current induced in AB is from A to B and it is from C to D in CD.
In the external circuit,
current flows from B2 to B1.
To calculate the magnitude of emf induced:
Suppose
A → Area of each turn of the coil
N → Number of turns in the coil
→ Strength of magnetic field

∴ Magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position:

θ → Angle which normal to the coil makes with at any instant t

= NBA cosθ= NBA cosωt …(i)

Where, ‘ω’ is angular velocity of the coil

∴e = NAB ω sinωt

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

For a region where there are no charges and conduction current, Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws take
the symmetrical form:
dΦB
E . dl
=- dΦE
B . dl dt
lTime – varying
= - μ0ε0electric
field produces space – varying magnetic field and time – varying magnetic
l dt
field produces space – varying electric field
Electric and magnetic fields are sources to each other.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic wave is a wave in which electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each
other and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave.

Radha Mukundan
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; ;
P=MOMENTUM U=

2) Properties of Electromagnetic Waves:

1. Variations in both electric and magnetic fields occur simultaneously. Therefore, they attain
their maxima and minima at the same place and at the same time.
2. The direction of electric and magnetic fields are mutually perpendicular to each other and as
well as to the direction of propagation of wave.
3. The electric field vector E and magnetic field vector B are related by
4. c = E0 / B0 where E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of the respective fields and c is speed of
light.
5. The velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space, c = 1 / √μ0ε0
6. The velocity of electromagnetic waves in a material medium = 1 / √με where μ and ε are
absolute permeability and absolute permittivity of the material medium
7. Electromagnetic waves obey the principle of superposition.
8. Electromagnetic waves carry energy as they propagate through space. This energy is
divided equally
between electric and magnetic fields

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 55

9. Electromagnetic waves can transfer energy as well as momentum to objects placed on

their paths.
10. For discussion of optical effects of EM wave, more significance is given to Electric Field, E.
Therefore, electric field is called ‘light vector’.
11. Electromagnetic waves do not require material medium to travel.
12. An oscillating charge which has non-zero acceleration can produce electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic Spectrum:
S. EM Wave Range of λ Range of Source Use
N ν
o.

1 Radio A few km to A few Hz Oscillatin Radio and TV

Wave 0.3 m to 109 Hz g broadcasting
electronic
circuits

2 Microwav 0.3 m to 109 Hz to Oscillatin Radar, analysis of

e 10-3 m 3 x 1011 g fine details of
Hz electronic atomic and
circuits molecular
structures &
Microwave oven

3 Infra Red 10-3 m to 3 x 1011 Molecules Industry, medicine,

wave 7.8 x 10-7 m Hz to and hot astronomy, night
4 x 1014 bodies vision device, green
Hz house, revealing
secret writings on
ancient walls, etc.

4 Light or 7.8 x 10-7 m 4 x 1014 Atoms Optics and Optical

Visible to Hz to and Instruments,
Spectrum 3.8 x 10-7 m 8 x 1014 molecules Vision,
Hz when photography, etc.
electrons
are
excited

5 Ultra 3.8 x 10-7 m 8 x 1014 Atoms Medical

Violet to Hz to and application,
Rays 6 x 10-10 m 3 x 1017 molecules sterilization, killing
Hz in bacteria and germs
electrical in food stuff,
discharges detection of
and Sun invisible writing,

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 56

forged documents,
finger print, etc.

6 X - Rays 10-9 m to 3 x 1017 Inner or X-ray photography,

6 x 10-12 m Hz to more treatment of cancer,
5 x 1019 tightly skin disease &
Hz bound tumor, locating
electrons cracks and flaws in
in atoms finished metallic
objects, detection
of smuggled goods
in bags of a person,
study of crystal
structure, etc.

7 γ-Rays They 3 x 1018 Radioactiv Information about

overlap the Hz to e structure of nuclei,
upper limit 3 x 1022 substances astronomical
of the X- Hz research, etc.
Ray. 10-10
m to 10-
14 m

Hint to memorize the electromagnetic spectrum in decreasing order of its frequency and
increasing order of wavelength.

Gandhiji’s X-rays Used Vigorously In Medical Research

OPTICS

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 57

It is the phenomenon of change in the path of light without any change in medium.

According to the laws of reflection, angle of incidence = angle of reflection 2)The incident ray,
reflected ray and normal to the mirror, all lie in the same plane.
Cartesian sign conventions
1) All distances are measured from the pole of spherical mirrors.2) Distances measured in the
direction of incidence of light are taken as positive, and when measured in a direction opposite to
the direction of incidence of light is taken as negative.3) The heights measured upwards to the
principal axis are taken as positive and negative if measured downwards.

Relation between Focal Length and Radius of Curvature –CONCAVE AND CONVEX
MIRROR

The Mirror Equation

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Formation of Image by Spherical Mirrors

Formation of image by a concave mirror
When object lies at infinity: When object lies beyond C:When object lies at C When object lies

between F and C:

When object lies at F: When object lies between P and F: Formation of image by a
convex mirror

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 59

CONVEX MIRROR

Refraction
The phenomenon of change in path of light as it goes from one medium to another is called
refraction.

Laws of refraction
The incident ray, the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence, and the refracted ray
− all lie in the same plane.
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant for
the two given media. This constant is denoted by and is called the relative refractive index of
medium b with respect to medium a.

This law is also called Snell’s law of refraction.

The absolute refractive index of the medium is given by,

Lateral Shift

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The perpendicular distance between the incident ray and the emergent rays when the light is
incident obliquely on a parallel-sided refracting slab is called lateral shift.
Refractive index of the medium b with respect to the medium a is equal to the reciprocal of the
refractive index of the medium a with respect to the medium b.

Real and Apparent Depths

The depth of an object immersed in water appears to be lesser than its actual depth.
Let O be a point object at an actual depth OA below the free surface of water XY.

at ∠ion XY along OB deviates away from normal. It is refracted at ∠ralong BC. On producing
A ray of light incident along OA passes straight along . Another ray of light from O incident

backwards, BC meets OA atI. Therefore,I is virtual image of O.

Apparent depth = AI
Real depth = OA

Now, ∠BOA = ∠OB

Clearly, AI < OA

∠AIB = ∠CBN = r(Corresponding angles)

= i[Alternate ]

In ΔOAB,

In ΔIAB,
As light is travelling from denser medium to rarer medium,

B is close to A. [As angles are very close]

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PGT (PHY)
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 61

Total internal reflection

Total Internal Reflection (TIR) is the phenomenon of complete reflection of light back into the
same medium for angles of incidence greater than the critical angle of that medium.
Conditions for TIR: The incident ray must be in optically denser medium. The angle of incidence in
the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle for the pair of media in contact.
Relation between critical angle and refractive index
When, i = C, r = 90°
Applying Snell’s law at A2,
μb sin C = μa sin 90° = μa × 1

Applications of total internal reflection-

1. Mirage
It is an optical illusion in which an object such as tree appears to be inverted.
This happens due to uneven heating of the different layers of air due to which density and refractive
index of air goes on increasing slightly with height above the surface of earth.
As a result of this, light from a tall object, such as a tree, passes through a medium whose refractive
index decreases towards the ground. Thus, a ray of light undergoes total internal reflection. To a
distant observer, the light appears to be coming from somewhere below the ground.
2.

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Right angled isosceles prism can turn light through 90o or 180o. This is based on total internal
reflection. Since m for glass-air is 1.5, the value of 'C' is 42o. In such a prism, the angle of incidence
in the denser medium is 45o (>C) and hence light suffers total internal reflection.

Brilliance of diamond: The critical angle for diamond-air interface is 24.4°. The diamond is cut
suitably so that light entering the diamond from any face falls at an angle greater than 24.4°, suffers
multiple total internal reflections at the various faces, and remains within the diamond. Hence, the
diamond sparkles.

Optical Fibers: Optical fibres are extensively used for transmitting audio and video signals through
long distances. These make use of the phenomenon of total internal reflection. When a signal in the
form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, it undergoes repeated total
internal reflections along the length of the fibre and finally comes out from the other end..

Refraction at a Spherical Surface

REFRACTION AT ACONVEX SPHERICAL SURFACE

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Assumptions:
(i) The aperture of the surface is small compared to other distance involved.
(ii) NM will be taken to be nearly equal to the length of the perpendicular from the point N on the
principal axis.

∴ i = ∠NOM + ∠NCM
For ΔNOC, i is the exterior angle.

Similarly, r = ∠NCM − ∠NIM

i.e.,
By Snell’s law,
n1sini = n2sinr
For small angles,
n1i= n2 r
Substituting the values of i and r from equations (i) and (ii), we obtain

Applying new Cartesian sign conventions,

OM = − u, MI = + v, MC = + R
Substituting these in equation (iii), we obtain

This equation holds for any curved spherical surface.

Refraction by a Lens-LENS MAKER’S FORMULA

The above figure shows the image formation by a convex lens.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 64

Assumptions made in the derivation:

The lens is thin so that distances measured from the poles of its surfaces can be taken as equal to
the distances from the optical centre of the lens.
The aperture of the lens is small.
The object consists only of a point lying on the principle axis of the lens.
The incident ray and refracted ray make small angles with the principle axis of the lens.
A convex lens is made up of two convex spherical refracting surfaces.
The first refracting surface forms image I of the object O [figure (b)].
Image I1acts as virtual object for the second surface that forms the image at I [figure (c)]. Applying
the equation for spherical refracting surface to the first interface ABC, we obtain

A similar procedure applied to the second interface ADC gives

For a thin lens, BI1= DI1

Adding equations (i) and (ii), we obtain

Suppose the object is at infinity i.e.,

OB → ∞and DI → f
Equation (iii) gives

The point where image of an object placed at infinity is formed is called the focus (F) of the lens
and the distance fgives its focal length. A lens has two foci, Fand , on either side of it by the sign
convention.
BC1= R1
CD2= −R2

Therefore,equation (iv) can be written as

Equation (v) is known as the lens maker’s formula.

From equations (iii) and (iv), we obtain

As B and D both are close to the optical centre of the lens,

BO = − u, DI = + v, we obtain

Equation (vii) is known as thin lens formula

OR

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
65

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 66

Linear Magnification Produced by a Lens

Convex Lens
Real Image

Virtual Image

Concave Lens

RAY DIAGRAMS-CONVEX LENS

Object at Infinity Object Beyond 2F

Object at 2F Object between F and 2 F

Object at F Object between F and O

CONCAVE LENS

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
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 67

-lens A -lens B

Adding

Therefore

Combination of lens and mirroe-refer supplementary material issued by CBSE

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PGT (PHY)
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 68

Plot of angle of deviation (d) versus angle of incidence (i) for a

triangular prism.

Compound Microscope

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 69

_________1 (v=-ve =D)

from the above fig

L=length between objective and eyepiece

From eqn 1

Refracting Telescope (Astronomical telescope)

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 70

Reflecting Telescope

(ii) Advantages of Reflecting Telescope over Refracting Telescope:

(a) Less chromatic aberration (b) Less spherical aberration
(c) High resolving power (d) High intense image

Wave Optics

Wavefront- a wavefront is defined as a surface of constant phase. 1

(a) A diverging spherical wave emanating from a point source. The wavefronts are spherical.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 71

1 (b) At a large distance from the source, a small portion of the spherical wave can be approximated
by a plane wave.36058

1 (b) At a large distance from the source, a small portion of the spherical wave can be approximated

by a plane wave.

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE and explanation

F1 F2 represents the spherical wavefront (with O as centre) at t = 0. The envelope of the secondary
wavelets emanating from F1 F2 produces the forward moving wavefront G1G2 . The backwave
D1D2 does not exist.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
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n1=refractive index of medium1, n2= refractive index of medium2

Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface

A plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN. If v represents the speed of the
wave in the medium and if t represents the time taken by the wavefront to advance from the point B
to C then the distance

BC = vt

Obviously AE = BC = vt

Reflection of a plane wave AB by the reflecting surface MN. AB and CE represent incident and
reflected wavefronts.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 73

Coherent Sources of light are those sources of light which emit light waves of same
wavelength, same frequency and in same phase or having constant phase difference.

Conditions for constructive and destructive interference

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 74

Young’s Double Slit Experiment: fringe width-NO DERIVATION

----maximum

replace
when

Conditions for sustained interference:

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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1. The two sources producing interference must be coherent.

2. The two interfering wave trains must have the same plane of polarisation.
3. The two sources must be very close to each other and the pattern must be observed at a
larger distance to have sufficient width of the fringe. (D λ / d)
4. The sources must be monochromatic. Otherwise, the fringes of different colours will
overlap.
5. The two waves must be having same amplitude for better contrast between bright and dark
fringes.

The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners and the encroachment of light
within the geometrical shadow of the opaque obstacles is called diffraction.

NP-LP= Extra path travelled=λ =aϴ

To establish the condition for secondary minima, the slit is divided into 2, 4, 6, … equal parts such
that corresponding wavelets from successive regions interfere with path difference of λ/2.Or for n th
secondary minimum, the slit can be divided into 2n equal parts.
For θ1, a sin θ1 = λ
For θ2, a sin θ2 = 2λ
For θn, a sin θn = nλ
Since θn is very small,
a θn = nλ
θn = nλ / a (n = 1, 2, 3, ……)
To establish the condition for secondary maxima, the slit is divided into 3, 5, 7, … equal parts such
that corresponding wavelets from alternate regions interfere with path difference of λ.Or for n th
secondary minimum, the slit can be divided into (2n + 1) equal parts.

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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For θ1’, a sin θ1’ = 3λ/2

For θ2’, a sin θ2’ = 5λ/2
For θn’, asin θn’ = (2n + 1)λ/2

Since θn’ is very small,

a θn’ = (2n + 1)λ / 2
θn’ = (2n + 1)λ / 2a (n = 1, 2, 3, ……)

Width of central maximum is twice that of width of young’s double slit experiment

Differences between Interference and Diffraction:

Interference Diffraction

Interference is due to the Diffraction is due to the

superposition of two different superposition of
wave trains coming from secondary wavelets from
coherent sources. the different parts of the
same wave front.
Fringe width is generally

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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constant. Fringes are of varying

width.
All the maxima have the
same intensity The maxima are of
varying intensities.
There is a good contrast
between the maxima and There is a poor
minima. contrast between
the maxima and
minima.

Explanation of Polarisation

Transverse waves can be polarized(light) where as longitudinal waves cannot be

polarized(sound)

Law of Malus
It states that when a completely plane polarised light beam is incident on an analyser, the intensity
of the emergent light varies as the square of the cosine of the angle between the plane of
transmission of the analyser and the polariser.

Case I : When θ = 0° or 180°, I = I0

Case II : When θ = 90°, I=0
Case III: When unpolarised light is incident on the analyser the intensity of
the transmitted light is one-half of the intensity of incident light. (Since
average value of cos2θ is ½)

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

Work function − A certain minimum amount of energy is required to be given to an electron to
pull it out from the surface of the metal. This minimum energy required by an electron to escape
from the metal surface is called the work function of the metal.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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Hertz’s observations
Hertz observed that high voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the emitter
plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. When light falls on a metal surface,
some electrons near the surface absorb enough energy from the incident radiation to overcome the
attraction of the positive ions in the material of the surface. After gaining sufficient energy from the
incident light, the electrons escape from the surface of the metal into the surrounding space.
Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations
Hallwachs, in 1888, undertook the study further and connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an
electroscope. He observed that the zinc plate lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet
light. Further, the uncharged zinc plate became positively charged when it was irradiated by
ultraviolet light. Positive charge on a positively charged zinc plate was found to be further
enhanced when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light. From these observations he concluded that
negatively charged particles were emitted from the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.
Threshold frequency
When ultraviolet light fell on the emitter plate, no electrons were emitted at all when the frequency
of the incident light was smaller than a certain minimum value, called the threshold frequency. This
minimum frequency depends on the nature of the material of the emitter plate.
Photoelectric effect.
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from mainly metal surfaces exposed to light energy (X –
rays, γ – rays, UV rays, Visible light and even Infra Red rays) of suitable frequency is known as
photoelectric effect.
The electrons emitted by this effect are called photoelectrons.The current constituted by
photoelectrons is known as photoelectric current.
zinc, cadmium, magnesium- ultraviolet light
lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium and rubidium- visible light
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The apparatus consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube, which encloses a photosensitive plate C
and a metal plate A.
The window W will allow the light of a particular wavelength to pass through it.
When a monochromatic radiation of suitable frequency obtained from source S falls on the
photosensitive plate C, the photoelectrons are emitted from C, which get accelerated towards the
plate A (kept at positive potential).These electrons flow in the outer circuit, resulting in the
photoelectric current. Due to this, the microammeter shows a deflection.

Factors affecting photoelectric current:

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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The photocurrent is directly proportional to the number

of photoelectrons emitted per second. This implies that the number of photo electrons emitted per
second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.

Keep plate A at some positive accelerating potential with respect to plate C and illuminate
plate C with light of fixed frequency ν and fixed intensity I1.
It is found that photoelectric current increases with increase in accelerating potential. At some
stage, for a certain positive potential of plate A, all the emitted electrons are collected by
plate A and the photoelectric current becomes maximum or saturates. This maximum value of
photoelectric current is called saturation current.
The minimum negative potential V0 given to plate A with respect to plate C at which the
photoelectric current becomes zero is called stopping potential or cut off potential. If e is the charge
on the photoelectron, then

Where,
m = Mass of photoelectron
vmax = Maximum velocity of emitted photoelectron

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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Taking radiations of different frequencies but of same intensity, the variation between photoelectric
current and potential of plate A is obtained
(i) The value of stopping potential is different for radiation of different frequency.
(ii) The value of stopping potential is more negative for radiation of higher incident frequency.
(iii)The value of saturation current depends on the intensity of incident radiation, but is independent
of the
frequency of the incident radiation.
Graph between stopping potential and the frequency of the incident radiation:

(i) For a given photosensitive material, the stopping potential varies linearly with the frequency of
the incident radiation.
(ii) For a given photosensitive material, there is a certain minimum cut-off frequency ν0 (called
threshold frequency), for which the stopping potential is zero.

Laws of photo-electric emission:

1. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the number of photoelectrons
ejected per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
2. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the incident radiation
below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place. This frequency is called
threshold frequency.
3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron is independent of the intensity of the incident light, but depends only
upon the frequency (or wavelength) of the incident light.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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Einstein explained the various laws of photoelectric emission on the basis of Planck’s quantum
theory. According to Planck’s quantum theory, light radiations consist of small packets of energy
called quanta. One quantum of light radiation is called a photon, which travels with the speed of
light. The energy of a photon is given by,
E = hν
Consider a photon of light frequency ν incident on a photosensitive metal surface. The energy of
the photon (= hν) can be used in two ways:
(i) To liberate the electron from the metal surface (= Work function)
(ii) The rest of the energy of the photon is used in imparting the maximum kinetic energy kmax to the
emitted photoelectrons.

Where,
Φ0 − Work function of the metal
vmax − Maximum velocity of the emitted photoelectron

Where,
kmax − Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons

Determination of planck’s constant

V0 the value of e, planck’s constant can be determined from the slope . Intercept on the Y
knowing
axis gives work function of the metal.

ν matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles called

In interaction ofν0radiation with
photons.
Each photon has energy E (= hν), momentum p (= hν/c), and speed c, which is the speed of
light.
All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have the same
energy E (=hν = hc/λ) and momentum p (= hν/c), independent of the intensity of radiation. By
increasing the intensity of light of given wavelength, there is only an increase in the number of
photons per second crossing a given area, with each photon having the same energy.
Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.In a
photon particle collision, the total energy and total momentum are conserved. However, the

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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number of photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new
photon may be created.

Derivation of de Broglie wavelength

According to Planck’s quantum theory, the energy of a photon of a radiation of frequency ν and
wavelength λ is
E = hν …(i)
According to Einstein’s mass-energy relation,
E = mc2 …(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we obtain
hν = mc2

∴
Since each photon moves with the same velocity c, the momentum of photon, p = Mass × Velocity

That is,

Equation (iv) is equally applicable to both the photons of radiation and other material particles.

, ,

ATOMS AND NUCLEI

A radioactive source S emitting a particles was collimated into a fine beam and made to fall on a
thin gold foil. The a particles scattered in all directions. These produced bright flashes on falling on
the fluorescent screen. A detector was used to observe this.

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PGT (PHY)
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In Rutherford’s model, the entire positive charge and most of the mass of the atom are concentrated
in the nucleus with the electrons some distance away.
The electrons would be moving in orbitals about the nucleus just as the planets do around the sun.
The size of the nucleus comes out to be 10−15 m to 10−14 m. From kinetic theory, the size of an atom
was known to be 10−10 m, about 10000 to 100,000 times larger than the size of the nucleus. Thus,
most of an atom is empty space.
The trajectory of an alpha particle can be computed employing Newton’s second law of motion
andCoulomb’s law for electrostatic force of repulsion between the alpha particle and the positively
charged nucleus.
On plotting a graph between the angles of scattering q and number of alpha particles N, the
following observations were noted:

i) Most alpha particles pass straight through the gold foil or suffer very small angle of scattering.
(ii) Here few a particles scattered through large angles (greater than 90o)
(iii) An a particle is rarely scattered through 180o.
The magnitude of this force is

Distance of Closest Approach (Nuclear size):

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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When the distance between α-particle and the nucleus is equal to the distance of the closest
approach (r0), the α-particle comes to rest.At this point or distance, the kinetic energy of α-particle
is completely converted into electric potential energy of the system.

Impact Parameter (b):

The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the α-particle from the centre of the nucleus
when it is far away from the nucleus is known as impact parameter.

*For large impact parameters, force experienced by the alpha particle is weak because .
Hence, the alpha particle will deviate through a much smaller angle.
When impact parameter is small, force experienced is large and hence, the alpha particle will
scatter through a large angle.

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Atom model

Bohr’s atom model

Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom

Postulates
(i) Every atom consists of nucleus and suitable number of electrons revolved around the nucleus in
circular orbits.
(ii) Electrons revolved only in certain non-radiating orbits called stationery orbits for which the
total angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2p where h is plank's constant.

L is the Angular momentum of the revolving electrons

(iii) Radiation occurs when an electron jumps from one permitted orbit to another. It is emitted
when electron jumps from higher orbit to a lower orbit
i.e., E2 - E1 = hf, where f is frequency of radiation.

Derivation of Radius
According to Bohr's second postulate
Since

Where m is mass of electron, v is linear velocity, r is radius of orbit in which e revolves around the
nucleus.

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PGT (PHY)
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Now

[Because necessary centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between
electron and nucleus] whose charge is Ze where Z is the atomic number of the atom.
Substituting for v,

For Hydrogen atom Z = 1

i.e., r a n2 the stationary orbits are not equally spaced r=

Velocity of electron in a stationary orbit substituting the expression for r in the equation.

We get

The resulting expression is

The total energy (T.E) of the electron in stationary orbit

The energy of electron revolving in a stationery orbit is of two types. Kinetic energy due to velocity
and potential energy due to the position of the electron.
Now

(-ve is for charge of an electron)

Now T.E = K.E + P.E

Spectral series of hydrogen.

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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On putting the value m , k , e, h, we get

For hydrogen

The -ve sign implies that electron is bound to the nucleus. As n increases, the total energy of
electron is more than that in the inner orbits.
Energy level diagram for a hydrogen atom:

THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

When an electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from the higher level to the lower energy level, the
difference of energies of the two energy levels is emitted as a radiation of particular wavelength.

Where,
It is called Rydberg’s constant. Its value is 1.09678 × 107 m−1.
The different spectral series are as follows:
● Lyman series

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PGT (PHY)
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ni = 2, 3, 4 …
Lie in ultraviolet region
● Balmer series

ni = 3, 4, 5 …
Lie in visible region
● Paschen series

ni = 4, 5, 6 …
Lie in infra-red region
● Brackett series

ni = 5, 6, 7 …
Lie in the infra-red region
● P fund series

ni = 6, 7, 8 …
Lie in the far-infra red region

DE BROGLIE’S EXPLANATION OF BOHR’S SECOND POSTULATE OF QUANTISATION

De-Broglie’s hypothesis that electron has a wavelength λ = h/mv gave an explanation for
Bohr’s quantised orbits by bringing in the wave particle duality.
Orbits correspond to circular standing waves in which the circumference of the orbits equal
whole number of wavelength.

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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nλ=2Πr
nh/p=2Πr, nh/mv= 2Πr therefore mvr=nh/2Π
Bohr’s second postulate proved
Limitations of Bohr’s model
Bohr’s model is applicable only to hydrogenic (single electron) atoms.
It cannot be extended to even two electron atoms.
This model is also unable to explain for the relative intensities of the frequencies emitted even
by hydrogenic atoms.
If the energy supplied is large enough to remove an electron from the atom, then the atom is said to
be ionized. The minimum energy needed to ionize an atom is called Ionisation energy.An electron
revolving in a stationary orbit of an atom absorbs some energy the electron may jump over to an
orbit of higher energy. This process is called excitation.

Composition of Nucleus:

Every atomic nucleus except that of Hydrogen has two types of particles – protons and neutrons.
(Nucleus of Hydrogen contains only one proton)Proton is a fundamental particle with positive
charge 1.6 x 10-19 C and mass 1.67 x 10-27 kg (1836 times heavier than an electron).Neutron is also
a fundamental particle with no charge and mass 1.675 x 10-27 kg (1840 times heavier than an
electron).

Atomic Mass Unit (amu):

Atomic Mass Unit (amu) is (1 / 12)th of mass of 1 atom of carbon.

1 12
1 amu = x g

12 6.023 x 1023 = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Nuclear species can be shown by the notation

Where, X = Chemical symbol of the species
Isotopes- The elements having same atomic number but different mass number. 1H1,
2 3
1H , 1H are all isotopes of hydrogen.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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Nuclides with the same mass number (A) are called isobars, and nuclides with the
same neutron number (N) are called isotones.
Size of the Nucleus
It was found experimentally that the volume of a nucleus is proportional to its mass number
(A).
Let
R → Radius of the nucleus

∴Volume

Where, R0 is a constant = 1.2 × 10−15 m is the range of nuclear force

The density of nuclei of all the atoms is same as it is independent of mass number.

Mass defect
The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents is called the mass defect.
Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy with which nucleons are bound in the nucleus.
Expression for Binding Energy
In a nucleus ,
Z = Number of protons
A = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
Let mp = Mass of a proton
mn = Mass of a neutron

∴Mass defect,
mN = Mass of nucleus

Δm = [Zmp + (A − Z) mn − mN]
Using Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence,
Binding energy = ΔmC2

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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Features of the curve

(i) The average binding energy/nucleon for light nuclei like 1H1, 1H2, 1H3 is small.
(ii) For mass numbers ranging from two to twenty, the sharply defined peaks correspond to nuclei,
which are relatively more stable than the neighborhood nuclei.
(iii) The binding energy curve has a broad maximum in the range
A = 30 to 120 and corresponds to 8.5 MeV.
(iv) As mass number increases, the binding energy/nucleon decreases gradually.
This is due to Colombian repulsion between the protons and therefore heavy nuclei are relatively
less stable.
Fission and Fusion on the basis of the above curve

It is the strong force of attraction which holds together the nucleons

(neutrons and protons) in the nucleus of an atom, in spite of strong electrostatic forces of
repulsion between protons.
Characteristics:
They do not depend on the electric charge.
They are the strongest forces in nature.
They are very short range forces.
Nuclear force is negligible when distance between nucleons is more than 10 Fermi. Attraction
develops when brought closer. However, when the distance between them is less than 0.8
Fermi, they repel strongly.

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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It is a spontaneous emission or disintegration of an unstable nucleus resulting in certain radiations.

The elements exhibiting this phenomena are called radioactive elements. e.g., radium, thorium,
actinium, polonium etc

The curie (Ci): The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one curie if it undergoes 3.7 x 10
second.
1 curie = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations / second
The rutherford (Rd): The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one rutherford if it undergo
second.
1 rutherford = 106 disintegrations / second
The becquerel (Bq): The activity of a radioactive substance is said to be one becquerel if it undergo
second.

1 becquerel = 1 disintegration / second

Alpha Decay
Nucleus emits an alpha particle (a helium nucleus, )

Q value of an alpha decay:

Nuclear fission is a phenomenon of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more light nuclei.

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei like uranium is of the order of
200 MeV per fissioning nucleus. This is estimated as follows: Let us take a nucleus with A = 240
breaking into two fragments each of A = 120. Then Ebn for A = 240 nucleus is about 7.6 MeV, Ebn
for the two A = 120 fragment nuclei is about 8.5 MeV. \ Gain in binding energy for nucleon is
about 0.9 MeV. Hence the total gain in binding energy is 240×0.9 or 216 MeV

Nuclear Fusion is the type of nuclear reaction in which two atoms combines under influence
of large amount of heat and energy. The result of this fusion is tremendous amount of energy
and heat.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES

On the basis of energy bands

Difference between energy bands of (a) metals,(b) insulators and (c) semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductor in its purest form. Semiconductor in its impure form.
It has low conductivity. It has a higher conductivity than an intrinsic
semiconductor.
The band gap between the conduction and valence The energy gap is greater than that of an intrinsic
bands is quite narrow. semiconductor.

Temperature alone determines electrical Electrical conductivity in a pure semiconductor is

conductivity. affected by temperature as well as the quantity of
impurity doping.
Pure Silicon and Germanium crystalline forms are Impurities such as As, Sb, P(pentavalent- n type),

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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examples. In, Bi, Al,(trivalent- P type) and others are doped

with Germanium and Silicon atoms
ne = nn = ni, where ne, nn are the number densities of electrons, holes and ni is that of intrinsic
carriers i.e., (electrons or holes).
Doped with pentavalent atoms such as arsenic or phosphorous or
antimony or bismuth.Impurity atom has five valence electrons, which will replace Si or Ge atoms.
Pentavalent dopant donates one extra electron for conduction and hence, is known as donor
impurity.
Total number of conduction electrons ne is due to the electrons contributed by donors and those
generated intrinsically while the total number of holes nh is only due to the holes from the intrinsic
source.
Electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers. Therefore, they are called n-
type semi-conductors.For n-type semi-conductors, ne >> nh
Energy band diagram-n-type

Doped with trivalent atoms such as aluminum, boron, or indium, etc.Dopant

has one valence electron less than Si or Ge. Therefore, the atom can form covalent bonds with three
neighbouring Si atoms, but does not have any electron to offer to the fourth Si atom.

Therefore, the bond between the fourth neighbour and the trivalent atom has a vacancy or hole.

Energy band diagram-P-type

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PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
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The crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality as the charge of additional charge carriers is just equal
and opposite to that of the ionised cores in the lattice.

1.

----due to difference in concentration.

2. The electrons leave ionised donor atoms which are bound and cannot move. Similarly, the p-
region of the junction will have ionised acceptor atoms which are immobile.
3. Therefore, a layer of positive charge is developed on n-side of the junction. Similarly, a layer of
negative charge is developed on the p-side.This space-charge region on either side of the junction
together is called depletion region.
4.The positive space-charge region on n-side of the junction and negative space-charge region on p-
side of the junction, appearing as electric field, is developed and directed from + ve charge to − ve
charge.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 95

5. Due to the field, an electron from p-side moves to n-side and a hole from n-side of the junction
moves to p-side.
6. The motion of charge carriers due to electric field is called drift current and is opposite in
direction to the diffusion current.
7. Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As diffusion continues, the space
charge regions on either side of the junction extends, thereby increasing the electric field strength
and hence drift current. The process continues until the diffusion current is equal to drift current.
8. Thus, a p-n junction is formed. Under equilibrium, there is no net current.
9. Loss of electrons from the n-region and gain of electron by the p-region causes a difference of
potential across the junction of two regions. This potential tends to prevent the movement of
electron from n to p region. Therefore, it is called a barrier potential.

p-side is connected to positive terminal and n-side to the negative terminal.

Applied voltage drops across the depletion region.
Direction of applied voltage (V) is opposite to the build in potential (V0).
As the depletion layer width decreases, the barrier height is reduced.
Effective barrier height under forward bias is (V0 − V).
Electron in n-region moves towards depletion region and reach p-side and holes in p-region
move towards the depletion region and reach n-side..
The width of the depletion layer decreases and hence, it offers less resistance.
Diffusion of majority carriers takes place across the junction.
This leads to forward current.

Positive terminal of battery is connected to n-side and negative terminal to p-side.

Reverse bias supports the potential barrier. Therefore, the barrier height increases and the
width of depletion region also increases.
Effective barrier height under reverse bias is (V0 + V).
No conduction across the junction due to majority carriers; few minority carriers cross the
junction after being accelerated by high reverse bias voltage
This constitutes a current that flows in opposite direction − celled reverse current.

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 96

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM and GRAPH – pn junction diode in forward & reverse bias:

Minority carrier injection-Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the depletion
region and reach p-side (where they are minority carries). Similarly, holes from p-side cross the junction
and reach the n-side (where they are minority carries). This process under forward bias is known as
minority carrier injection

Threshold voltage or cut-in voltage- The diode current increases significantly (exponentially), even
for a very small increase in the diode bias voltage. (~0.2V for germanium diode and ~0.7 V for silicon
diode).

For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~mA) and almost remains constant with
change in bias. It is called reverse saturation current.

Dynamic resistance as the ratio of small change in voltage ΔV to a small change in current ΔI:

RECTIFIER-It is a device used for converting alternating current/voltage into direct

current/voltage.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 97

Half wave rectifier is based on the principle that the resistance of p-n junction becomes low when
it is forward biased and becomes high when reverse biased.
When voltage at A is positive, diode conducts; and when negative, diode does not conduct.
Therefore, in the positive half cycle of ac, there is a current through RL and we obtain output
voltage. In the negative half cycle, there is no current.
Full wave rectifier

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 98

CHECK LIST

MARKS

ELECTROSTATICS AND CURRENT ELECTRICITY-16 MARKS

ELECTROSTATICS

1. Numerical on Coulomb’s force and electrical field/electrical

potential {F=kq2/r2; E=F/q; V=kq/r} (2)
2. Definitions & unit (1)
1. Electric field 2. Electrical potential
3. Dipole moment4. Electric flux(conceptual questions) 5. Energy density
3. Electric field due to isolated (+,-ve) charge (equal &opposite) (1or 2)
(unequal & opposite charge)
4.Electrical field due to dipole on axial/equatorial plane.
(3or5)
5. Torque/P.E, Dipole/(τ=P E sinθ), Numerical, stable/unstable
condition. (3)
6. Gauss’s law/applications (line charge, infinite plane sheet of
charge/charge distributed on hollow spherical shell).
conceptual questions. (3)
7. Potential due to dipole on axial/equatorial (Text book
questions) (3)
8. Equipotential surface/Diagrams. (2)
9. Principle of a parallel plate capacitor/energy stored in a
capacitor/capacitance of a capacitor(C=Є0A/d) (3)
10. Effect of dielectric on capacitance-Derivation (electric
field/potential/capacitance/energy-battery connected &
disconnected). (3or5)
11. Numerical on capacitors in series & parallel. (3)
CURRENT ELECTRICITY-

1. Relation between current and drift velocity. (2)

2. Resistivity -derivation.
ρ=m/ne2 τ (conductors/insulators/semiconductors)
(2)
3. Current density. (2)
4. Mobility μ=Vd/E (1)
5. Limitations of ohm’s law-conceptual questions. (2)
6. Graph (Text book P.No.104). carbon resistors (1 or 2)
7. Electrical energy, power- Numerical (2)
8. Numerical on resistors/cells in series and in parallel. (3)
9. EMF and internal resistance. (2)
10. Kirchhoff’s rules with numerical (text book) (3or5)
11. Wheat stone bridge. (5)

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 99

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC

INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT-- 17 MARKS

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

1. Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor F=BIl
(derivation/numerical).,LorentzForce=Bqv (1) (3m)
3. Biot-Savart’s law–statement-circular current/loop. (5)
4. Ampere’s circuital law-solenoid/toroid (statement)
(3)
=μoI
5. Force between two parallel current carrying conductors/Definition of 1ampere.
(3)
6. Torque in current loop. (3)
7. Current loop as a magnetic dipole (μl)min=eh/4πme (3)
8. Moving coil Galvanometer. (5)
9. Radial magnetic field/importance. (2)
10.Magnetic field –axial and equatorial
Torque due to dipole τ=MB sinθ (2)
11.Properties of para, dia and ferro magnetic substances.
(3)
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT-18 MARKS

1. Faraday’s laws of EMI. (2)

2. Lenz’s law. (text book conceptual questions). (1)
3. Motion EMF. (2)
5. Self induction and mutual induction. (2)
6. AC generator. (5)
7. AC-Resistor- V and I in phase explanation
Inductor-I is leading V and
Capacitor-I is lagging behind V phasor diagram (5)
8. Numerical on E=E0sinωt
I=I0sinωt
Irms=Io/ , Erms=Eo/ (2)
9. Numerical on XL=Lω, XC=1/Cω, current and impedance -conceptual questions (2)
10. Difference-Resistance, Reactance & Impedance. (2)
11. Numerical on R & C,R & L, C & L. (3)
12. LCR (5)
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY ( )
13. Graph between XL AND , XC AND 1
14. Average power-Resistor/inductor/capacitor-derivation.
(1or2)
15. Impedance Z=(R2+(XL-XC)2)1/2, Numerical. (3)
16. Resonance, (Pg.no.248 Graph). (3)
17. Power factor cosθ,wattles current (2)
18. Transformer/numerical (3)
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND OPTICS-18 MARKS
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
1. Displacement current. (1or2)
2. Maxwell’s equations(Pg.no.273). (1)
3. E.M.Waves source-accelerated charge particle (1)

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 100

4. Properties (2)
6. E.M.Spectrum(X, radio, micro waves, gamma, visible, UV, &
IR). (2)
6. Text book questions

OPTICS
Relation between focal length and radius of curvature (2)
Mirror formula with numerical (2or3)
Formation of image by concave & convex mirror -ray diagrams (2)
Lateral shift- factors (2)
Real depth and apparent depth-numerical (2or3)
Total internal reflection- condition/relation/applications (2or3)
Refraction at a convex spherical surface (3or5)
Lens makers formula- derivation/conceptual questions/numerical (3or5)
Thin lens formula, magnifcation- derivation/numerical (3)
Formation of image by concave & convex lens -ray diagrams (2)
Power of a lens (numerical) (1or2)
Combination of lenses/combination of lens and a mirror-derivation/numerical
(3)
Refraction through a prism (3or5)
Scattering of light (1or2)
Compound microscope- ray diagram/magnification/numericals (2or3)

Refracting telescope- ray diagram/magnification/numerical (2or3)

Reflecting telescope- ray diagram (2or3)
Advantages of reflecting over refracting telescope (2)
Wave front (definition)- spherical/plane wave front (1)
Huygens’ Principle (2)
Refraction & Reflection of plane waves using Huygens’ Principle (3or5)
Refraction of a plane wavefront by prism, convex lens, and mirror (2)
Coherent source (2)
Conditions for constructive/destructive interference (5)
Comparison of intensities of maxima and minima (2)
Numerical based on intensities (3)
Derivation of fringe width- derivation/numerical/conceptual questions- text book eg. (5)
Conditions for sustained interference (2)
Intensity distribution curve (1)
Diffraction/derivation/numerical/conceptual question
(1or2or5)
Intensity graph (1)
Differences between interference and diffraction (2)
Polarization- definition and explanation (2or3)
Law of Malus- derivation and numericals-text book eg. (2or3)

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND ATOMS AND NUCLEI -12 MARKS

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER
1. Photo electric effect-

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI
 101

Hertz’s observation. Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observation. (2)

Threshold frequency/wavelength, stopping potential/work function – definition. (2)
2. Experimental study of photo electric effect. (3)
3. *Graph (1) Variation of intensity with Photo electric current,
effect of incident radiation on stopping potential 2
4. Laws of Photo electric emission – 4 laws 2
5. Einstein’s Photo electric equation 2
6. Numerical on eV0 = hν – ϕ0 = –ϕ 2
7. *Graph to determine Planks’ constant.

V0
*Numerical on λ = and conceptual questions- λ =1/√2meV 2
ATOMS AND NUCLEI-
1. Rutherford’s nuclear model of atomisotopes,isotones,isobars (2)
2. Impact parameter, Distance of closest approach (2)
ν0 Frequency,ν Energy of nth orbit. Derivation & numerical
3. Radius, Velocity,
(3)
4. *En = eV (for all spectral lines) numerical (2)

hν = 13.6( ) (numerical) (2)

5. Bohr’s postulates. (2)

1. R=R0A1/3 (1)
2. B.E/nucleon and mass defect (3)
(Numerical) Mass defect= [ZMH+ (A-Z) Mn - M], B.E/nucleon= ΔM × C2
3. B.E/nucleon with mass number – Graph (3)
(Explanation for fission and fusion)
4. Properties of nuclear force (2)
5. Graph between PE and r (2)
(2)
6. Nuclear fission, fusion (2)

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS -7 MARKS

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
1. Energy band diagram (metals/insulators/semiconductors) (2)
2. Differences between intrinsic & extrinsic semiconductors (1)
3. Energy diagram of ‘n’ type and ‘p’ type semiconductors (2)

4. Numericals based on (2)

5. p-n junction formation with diagram (3)
6. p-n junction diode- forward & reverse bias with circuit diagrams and graph/symbol
(1) or (3)
7. Half wave rectifier/full wave rectifier- explanation/circuit diagram with input and output
wave form (3)

Radha Mukundan
PGT (PHY)
KVMINAMBAKKAM,CHENNAI