Spin Wave

Confinement
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Spin Wave
Confinement
Second Edition

Propagating Waves

editors
Preben Maegaard edited by
Anna Krenz
Wolfgang PalzSergej O. Demokritov

The Rise of Modern Wind Energy

Wind Power
for the World
Published by
Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
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Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

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 Contents

Introduction 1

1. Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances

in Magnetic Structures: Excite, Direct, Capture 11
V. V. Kruglyak, C. S. Davies, Y. Au, F. B. Mushenok, G. Hrkac,
N. J. Whitehead, S. A. R. Horsley, T. G. Philbin, V. D. Poimanov,
R. Dost, D. A. Allwood, B. J. Inkson, and A. N. Kuchko

1.1 Introduction 11
1.2 Spin Wave Dispersion 15
1.3 Spin Wave Excitation 18
1.4 Spin Wave Steering 25
1.5 Spin Wave Output 31
1.6 Spin Wave Control and Magnonic Devices 32
1.7 Conclusions and Outlook 37

2. Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides 47

Yu. P. Sharaevsky, A. V. Sadovnikov, E. N. Beginin, M. A. Morozova,
S. E. Sheshukova, A. Yu. Sharaevskaya, S. V. Grishin, D. V. Romanenko,
and S. A. Nikitov

2.1 Introduction 47
2.2 Theoretical Approach 48
2.3 Spin Waves in Coupled Magnetic Stripes 51
2.4 Nonlinear Spin Wave Coupling in Magnonic Crystals 56
2.5 Multilayer Magnonic Crystals 60
2.6 Frequency-Selective Tunable Spin Wave Channeling 67
2.7 Conclusions 72
vi Contents

3. Tuning of the Spin Wave Band Structure in Nanostructured

Iron/Permalloy Nanowire Arrays 77
G. Gubbiotti, S. Tacchi, R. Silvani, M. Madami, G. Carlotti,
A. O. Adeyeye, and M. Kostylev

3.1 Introduction 78
3.2 Sample Fabrication and Brillouin Light Scattering
Measurements 80
3.3 Micromagnetic Simulations 83
3.4 Results and Discussion 84
3.4.1 Spin Wave Band Structure and Mode
Spatial Profiles for the NWs with
Rectangular Cross Section 84
3.4.2 Spin Wave Band Structure and Mode
Spatial Profiles for the NWs with L-Shaped
Cross Section 88
3.5 Conclusions 91

4. Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D

Magnonic Crystals 99
G. Shimon, A. Haldar, and A. O. Adeyeye
4.1 Introduction 100
4.2 Experiments and Simulations 102
4.2.1 Sample Fabrication 102
4.2.2 Ferromagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 104
4.2.3 Microfocused Brillouin Light Scattering
Spectroscopy 105
4.2.4 Micromagnetic Simulations 107
4.3 Coupled Nanodisks 108
4.3.1 Effect of Interdisk Separations 108
4.3.1.1 BLS spectra 109
4.3.1.2 Simulated spectra 111
4.3.1.3 2D mode profiles 111
4.3.1.4 Dipolar field estimation 113
4.3.2 Configurational Anisotropy 114
 Contents vii

4.3.2.1 Resonant spectra and 2D mode

profiles 115
4.3.2.2 Dipolar field models and
estimation 117
4.4 Reconfigurable Magnetization Dynamics 118
4.4.1 Rhomboid Nanomagnets 119
4.4.2 Two- or Three-Coupled Rhomboid
Nanomagnets 121
4.4.3 2D Magnonic Crystals 124
4.4.3.1 Synthetic antiferromagnets 124
4.4.3.2 Synthetic ferrimagnets 126
4.5 Summary 129

5. Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet 139

Ryszard Gieniusz, Andrzej Maziewski, Urszula Guzowska,
Paweł Gruszecki, Jarosław Kłos, Maciej Krawczyk,
and Alexander Stognij

5.1 Introduction 140

5.2 Spin Waves in Patterned YIG Micrometer Films 144
5.2.1 Experimental Methods and Samples
Details 144
5.2.2 Spin Waves Interaction with a Single
Antidot in YIG Micrometer-Thick Films 145
5.2.3 Spin Wave Interaction with a Line of
Antidots in YIG Micrometer Films 149
5.2.4 Modeling Spin Waves Total Nonreflection
Effect 152
5.2.5 Application of Total Nonreflection
Effect for Spin Wave Beam Switching 156
5.3 Optics of Spin Waves in Nanometer-Thick
YIG Film 157
5.3.1 Reflection of Spin Waves from the Edge
of the YIG Thin Film: Goos–Hänchen Effect 157
5.3.2 Molding of Spin Wave Refraction in
Two-Dimensional YIG Antidots Lattice 161
viii Contents

5.3.2.1 Angular filtering 162

5.3.2.2 All-angle collimation 164
5.4 Summary 165

6. Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete

Magnetic Elements 171
Yu. N. Barabanenkov, S. A. Osokin, D. V. Kalyabin, and S. A. Nikitov

6.1 Introduction 171

6.2 Multiple-Scattering Method 174
6.2.1 Circular Arrays 179
6.2.2 Linear Chains 180
6.3 Radiation Losses 181
6.4 Results 187
6.5 Conclusion 192

7. Magnonic Grating Coupler Effect and Microwave-to-Magnon

Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves 197
Haiming Yu and Dirk Grundler

7.1 Introduction 197

7.2 Mix-and-Match Lithography for Mesas with
Magnonic Grating Couplers 200
7.2.1 Photolithography to Prepare a Film Mesa 200
7.2.2 Electron-Beam Lithography and Lift-Off
Processing for Magnetic Nanostructures 201
7.2.3 Integrated Coplanar Waveguide 202
7.3 Antenna Design for Spin Wave Excitation and
Detection 202
7.3.1 Coplanar Waveguide 202
7.4 All-Electrical Spin Wave Spectroscopy 204
7.4.1 Scattering Parameters 206
7.4.2 VNA Calibration 206
7.4.3 Measurement Configuration and Data
Analysis 207
7.5 Spin Wave Properties Studied by Experiments 207
7.5.1 Spin Wave Group Velocity 207
 Contents ix

7.5.2 Decay Length and Nonreciprocity

Parameter 208
7.6 Performance of a Spin Wave Grating Coupler 209
7.6.1 Grating Coupler–Induced Spin Wave Modes 211
7.6.2 Towards Omnidirectional Spin Wave
Emission 212
7.6.3 Enhanced Magnon Excitation via Resonant
Nanodisks 212
7.6.4 Sub-100 nm-Wavelength Spin Waves 213
7.6.5 Angular Dependance of Propagating
Grating Coupler Modes 213
7.7 Conclusions and Outlook 215

8. Spin Waves on Spin Structures: Topology, Localization,

and Nonreciprocity 219
Robert L. Stamps, Joo-Von Kim, Felipe Garcia-Sanchez, Pablo Borys,
Gianluca Gubbiotti, Yue Li, and Robert E. Camley

8.1 Introduction 219

8.2 Chiral Interactions and Spin Waves 222
8.2.1 Nonreciprocity: Symmetry Breaking
through the DMI 223
8.2.2 Caustics 226
8.3 Localization and Reconfigurability 230
8.3.1 Domain Wall Channeling 231
8.3.2 Edge (Partial Wall) Channeling 235
8.3.3 Magnetic Configurations in Artificial
Spin Ice 241
8.3.4 Reprogrammable Microwave Response 247
8.4 Outlook 250

9. Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures 261

Katrin Schultheiss, Kai Wagner, Attila Kákay, and
Helmut Schultheiss

9.1 Introduction 262

9.2 Magnon Transport and Dispersion in Magnonic
Waveguides 265
 Contents

9.3 Steering and Multiplexing Magnons by

Current-Induced, Local Magnetic Fields 270
9.4 Channeling Magnons in Magnetic Domain Walls 280
9.5 Conclusions and Outlook 288

10. Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift 295

Matthieu Bailleul and Jean-Yves Chauleau

10.1 Introduction 296

10.2 A Doppler Shift for Spin Waves 297
10.2.1 Spin Waves in a Drifting Electron
Population 297
10.2.2 Influence of Spin Transfer Torque on
Spin Wave Dynamics 299
10.3 Experimental Observations 301
10.3.1 Frequency Domain Inductive
Measurements 301
10.3.2 Time Domain Inductive Measurements 304
10.3.3 Magneto-Optical Measurements 306
10.4 Parametrizing the Two-Current Model 309
10.4.1 Definitions of the Degree of Spin
Polarization 310
10.4.2 Spin-Dependent Electron Scattering 311
10.4.3 Spin-Polarized Transport in Permalloy
Films 312
10.4.4 Spin-Polarized Transport in Other
Materials 314
10.5 Extraction of the Non-Adiabatic Spin Transfer
Torque Parameter 314
10.6 Other Types of Spin Wave Frequency Shifts 318
10.6.1 Zero-Current Spin Wave Frequency
Non-Reciprocity 319
10.6.2 Reciprocal Oersted-Field-Induced
Frequency Shift 321
10.6.3 Non-Reciprocal Oersted-Field-Induced
Frequency Shift 322
10.7 Conclusion and Perspectives 324
 Contents xi

11. Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves

by Spin Currents 329
Vladislav E. Demidov and Sergej O. Demokritov

11.1 Introduction 329

11.2 Experimental Technique 332
11.3 Excitation of Guided Spin Waves by Spin-Polarized
Currents 335
11.4 Control of the Propagation Length of Spin Waves
by Pure Spin Currents 339
11.4.1 SHE Spin-Wave Control in All-Metallic
Magnonic Waveguides 339
11.4.2 SHE Spin-Wave Control in YIG-Based
Magnonic Waveguides 342
11.5 Excitation of Spin Waves by Pure Spin Currents 346
11.5.1 Excitation of Continuous Propagating
Spin Waves 346
11.5.2 Excitation of Short Spin-Wave Packets 351
11.6 Conclusions 355

12. Propagating Spin Waves in Nanocontact Spin Torque

Oscillators 363
Randy K. Dumas, Afshin Houshang, and Johan Åkerman

12.1 Introduction 363

12.2 Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators 365
12.3 Magnetodynamical Modes 368
12.3.1 Role of the Oersted Field 369
12.4 Asymmetric Spin Wave Propagation 370
12.5 Spin Wave Beam–Driven Synchronization 373
12.6 Conclusions and Future Directions 377

13. Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

in Ultrathin Ferromagnetic Nanowires by Microwave
Electric Field 385
Roman Verba, Mario Carpentieri, Giovanni Finocchio,
Vasil Tiberkevich, and Andrei Slavin

13.1 Introduction 386

xii Contents

13.2 Excitation of Spin Waves 388

13.2.1 Efficiency of the Parametric Interaction
and Excitation Threshold 388
13.2.1.1 Perpendicularly magnetized
nanowire 388
13.2.1.2 Nanowire with in-plane static
magnetization 396
13.2.1.3 Notes on multimode waveguides 399
13.2.2 Nonlinear Spin Wave Dynamics under
Parametric Pumping: Stationary Amplitudes
of Excited Spin Waves 402
13.3 Amplification of Spin Waves by Parametric
Pumping 407
13.3.1 Linear Regime of the Parametric
Amplification 407
13.3.2 Amplification of Large-Amplitude Spin
Waves: Stabilization of Spin Wave
Amplitudes 410
13.4 Effect of Interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya
Interaction on Parametric Processes 412
13.4.1 Spin Wave Nonreciprocity Induced by
Interfacial Dzyloshinskii–Moriya
Interaction 412
13.4.2 Parametric Amplification of Nonreciprocal
Spin Waves 414
13.5 Summary 418

Index 427
Introduction

The book Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Spin Waves,

which you are about to read, reflects an increasing interest of the
magnetic community in dynamic excitations in magnetic systems
of reduced dimensions. It flashes the development of the field
since 2008, when the first edition of the book, Spin Wave
Confinement, appeared. Even at that time it was clear to all
contributors that future reduction in the sizes and dimensions
of the studied magnetic systems is inevitable. Meanwhile, the
successful development of magnonics [1–4] as an emerging
subfield of spintronics, which includes not only the traditional
branches of spinwave research but also considers spin waves
(or their quanta, magnons) as a basis for smaller, faster, more
robust, and more power-efficient electronic devices, on the basis
of propagating spinwaves, is obvious.
The concept of spin waves was introduced by Bloch [5], who
theoretically considered quantum states of exchanged-coupled
spins slightly deviating from their equilibrium orientations.
He found that these disturbances were dynamic: they propagate
as waves through the medium. Later, Holstein and Primakoff
[6] and Dyson [7] generalized this model by taking into account
weaker magnetic dipole interaction between spins and their
interaction with the external magnetic field. This development
was followed by the introduction of the term for the quanta of
spin waves, “magnons,” in the late 1950s. One of the important
distinctions of magnons from photons and phonons is their
anisotropic dispersion: the energy/frequency of a magnon depends
on the orientation of the corresponding wave vector relative to
the orientation of the static magnetization due to the contribution
of the relativistic anisotropic magnetic dipole interaction.
The unique features of magnons, such as the possibility to
carry spin information over relatively long distances, the possibility
to achieve submicrometer wavelength at microwave frequencies,
and controllability by electronic signals via magnetic fields, make
 Introduction

magnonic devices uniquely suited for implementation of novel

integrated electronic schemes characterized by high speed, low
power consumption, and extended functionalities. The utilization
of magnons for integrated electronic applications is addressed
within the emerging field of magnonics. Recent advances
in spintronics and nanomagnetism created essentially new
possibilities for magnonics and brought it onto a new development
stage. Of particular importance here is the recent discovery of
the spintransfer torque [8–10] and the spinHall effect [11–13],
both of which have already been demonstrated to enable novel
device geometries and functionalities [14–18]. The discovery of
the spinwave Doppler effect [19] has opened an alternative way
to control spin waves by electric currents. An important recent
development in nanomagnetism is the understanding of the fact
that the relativistic Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction can exist
not only due to broken bulk inverse symmetry [20, 21] but also due
to asymmetric interfaces of ultrathin magnetic layers [22].
Coming back to spin wave confinement, the history of spin
wave/magnonic studies clearly shows a progressively increasing
interest toward confined magnetic systems. Although the famous
T3/2 Bloch law is valid for three-dimensional magnets, the focus
of the researchers has moved since 1950s to two-dimensional
objects, thin films and magnetic multilayers, resulting in the
discovery of quantized resonances [23, 24], the surface Damon–
Eshbach mode [25, 26], and interlayer coupling [27]. Later in the
1990s quasi-one-dimensional stripes became the most actively
studied magnetic systems, enabling the discovery of lateral
quantization [28] and edge modes [29, 30]. An important step
toward the development of magnonics was the experimental
demonstration of collective propagating spin waves in closely
packed arrays of stripes [31, 32], followed by studies of
collective modes in arrays of single- and bicomponent dots and
antidots [33].
Later the investigation of the magnonic effect was extended
to two-dimensional arrays of single- and bicomponent magnetic
dots and antidots. The theoretical prediction of the spintorque
effect [8, 9] and the development of novel techniques for
nanofabrication allowed for the investigation of magnetic zero-
dimensional objects such as the spintorque nano-oscillator
[34–40].
 Introduction 

The book is structured as follows:

In the first chapter, Kruglyak et al. present the basic classification
of magnonic effects and emphasize the propagating nature of
spin wave excitations. In fact, due to the inevitably non-uniform
magnetization and an internal magnetic field in confined magnetic
systems, propagation of spin waves takes place in a non-uniform
environment, which can be characterized by a graded index of
refraction. Surprisingly, such a simple approach brings about a
deep understanding of complex spin wave phenomena, such as
the spin wave analogue of Fano resonance. Besides the interesting
physics, the chapter highlights technical opportunities associated
with spin wave propagation in systems with a graded index,
important for future magnonic devices and networks.
In chapter 2, Sharaevsky et al. address spin wave–/magnonic-
coupled waveguides as the most promising candidates for
effective channeling of spin waves between the functional units
of magnonic networks. They develop a theoretical approach for
description of magnonic couplers in both lateral and vertical
geometries. The presented theory is compared with experimental
studies of spin wave propagation in such structures using both
broadband microwave spectroscopy and Brillouin light scattering
spectroscopy.
Chapter 3, written by Gubbiotti et al., presents results
of combined experimental and theoretical investigations of
propagating spin waves in bilayered iron/permalloy (Fe/Py)
nanowaveguides with both regular cross sections (bottom and
upper layers of equal width) and L-shaped cross sections (upper
layer of half width). Particular attention is paid to the bands
created in the spin wave spectrum because of finite sizes of the
waveguides. For the case of nanowires with an L-shaped cross-
section, two dispersive modes with a sizeable magnonic band have
been observed. These are interpreted as the fundamental modes
of either the thick or the thin portion of each nanowaveguide.
In chapter 4, Shimon, Haldar, and Adeyeye investigate
the spin wave dynamics in reconfigurable two-dimensional
magnonic crystals. A simple example of such system is a cluster
of two or more magnetically coupled disks. It is shown that the
frequencies of the spin wave eigenmodes of one disk depend on
the orientations of its magnetization with respect to its neighbors.
The second, more complex, studied system is a network of
 Introduction

rhomboid nanomagnets, where a reliable reconfiguration between

ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and ferrimagnetic ground states
can be realized deterministically. Correspondingly, the microwave
properties of such system can be efficiently controlled.
In chapter 5 Gieniusz et al. present a comprehensive study of
spin wave optics in patterned yttrium iron garnet films. A variety
of effects, such as reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction,
and focusing of spin waves, as well as the Goos–Hänchen effect
are demonstrated. Experimentally, Brillouin light scattering
spectroscopy was used for imaging of spin wave interaction with
a single antidot and a line of antidots. Especially interesting is
the demonstration of the total nonreflection of spin waves by a
line of antidots. In this case, a highly focused beam of spin waves
propagates along and behind the line. Low-pass angular filtering
and high-pass angular filtering of spin waves are observed in two-
dimensional antidot lattices for specific ranges of the spin wave
frequencies.
Chapter 6, written by Barabanenkov et al., is devoted to a
theoretical description of spin waves in circular and linear chains
of confined magnetic elements, which provides a spin wave
analogue to the optical theorem for the T-scattering operator. In
particular, a general theory for multiple scattering of forward-
volume magnetostatic spin waves by a two-dimensional ensemble
of cylindrical magnetic inclusions in a ferromagnetic matrix is
built. Using this theory, the authors show that such elements
arranged periodically along a circle demonstrate spin wave
eigenmodes with high values of the mode quality factor.
Besides, the authors also demonstrate that a linear chain of
such elements can serve as an efficient microwaveguide for spin
wave propagation.
In chapter 7 Yu and Grundler investigate the magnonic
grating coupler effect in magnonic crystals and its application to
realization of multidirectional microwave-to-magnon transducers
for excitation of high-frequency spin waves with wavelengths
below 100 nm. It is also shown that by further optimization, spin
waves with wavelengths of about 20 nm may be excited.
In chapter 8 Stamps et al. address the propagation of spin
waves in nontrivial magnetic structures (e.g., along domain walls)
and the consequences of the Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction
on their dispersion. In particular, the authors discuss how the
 Introduction 

Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction affects the gap between

the frequencies of freely propagating spin waves and the spin
waves channeled along domain walls, as well as consequent
nonreciprocities. Moreover, they analyze the possibility of creating
a mesoscopic metamaterial analogue of domain wall channeling,
based on artificial spin ice, which is an arrangement of interacting
single-domain nanomagnets. Through manipulation of the static
magnetic configurations in artificial spin ice by application of
magnetic fields, many details of the allowed microwave frequency
spin wave eigenmodes can be controlled.
In chapter 9 Schultheiss et al. discuss propagation of magnons
in noncollinear spin textures. They present experimental studies
on magnon transport in metallic, ferromagnetic microstructures,
with a focus on actively controlling the magnon propagation
path by using two inherent characteristics of magnons: the
anisotropy of the magnon’s dispersion law and its sensitivity to
changes in the internal magnetic field distribution. They show
how these features can be utilized toward realizing complex
magnonic networks, a magnon multiplexer for switching the
magnon propagation path and channeling magnons inside
magnetic domain walls being good examples.
In chapter 10 Bailleul and Chauleau provide an overview of
the current-induced spin wave Doppler effect, which is observed
when a spin wave propagates in a metallic ferromagnet, subjected
to an electrical current. In this case, the spin wave continuously
accumulates an additional phase due to motion of the conducting
electrons in the metal. Predicted a long time ago, this phenomenon
has recently been experimentally demonstrated. Here this effect
is interpreted in terms of adiabatic spintransfer torque, and the
experimental demonstration of the effect using both inductive
(frequency or time domain) and magneto-optical techniques is
presented. Application of the spin wave Doppler effect to extract
relevant information on the spin-polarized electrical transport
is shown. Moreover, a related effect, namely current-induced
modification of spin wave attenuation associated with nonadiabatic
spin transfer torque, is discussed.
Chapter 11 by Demidov and Demokritov is devoted to excitation
and amplification of propagating spin waves by spin current
microscopic waveguides by using the spintransfer torque effect.
First, the excitation of propagating guided spin waves by utilizing
 Introduction

traditional spintransfer torque devices driven by spin-polarized

electric currents is discussed. Then experiments on the control of
spin wave propagation by using pure spin currents created by the
spinHall effect for the cases of all-metallic magnonic waveguides
and waveguides based on ultrathin insulating yttrium iron garnet
films are presented. Finally, it is shown that pure spin currents
created by the nonlocal spininjection mechanism can be utilized
for the efficient excitation of propagating spin waves with a large
propagation length and short spin wave packets with the duration
down to a few nanoseconds.
In chapter 12 Dumas, Houshang, and Åkerman focus on
nanocontact spintorque oscillators—devices in which high-
amplitude precession of magnetization is driven by the
spintransfer torque due to locally injected spin-polarized electric
or pure spin currents. Particular attention is given to spin
waves associated with such oscillators and to the synchronization
of two or more oscillators mediated by such spin waves. By “daisy
chaining” of several oscillators one can extend the spinwave
propagation length, forming a type of spin wave repeater capable
of transporting information over much larger distances than
the intrinsic propagation length of the spin wave. Besides,
the oscillators are considered as potential building blocks for
next-generation neuromorphic computing architectures, which
aim to mimic the neurobiological functionality found in the
human brain.
Finally, in chapter 13 Verba et al. present an analytic theory
of parametric excitation and amplification of spin waves by
microwave electric fields. In particular, the authors focus on the
application of the voltage-controlled magnetic anisotropy effect,
which can be used for spinwave signal processing by electric
fields. It is shown that a microwave electric field allows excitation
of propagating spin waves or amplification of small-amplitude
spin waves if the spinwave frequency is half of the microwave
frequency. Besides, the effect of the interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–
Moriya interaction on the amplification of spin waves in ultrathin
ferromagnetic waveguides is analyzed.
This book, together with the first book of this series, provides
a rich spectrum of information on spinwave dynamics for scientists
 References 

working in the area of spintronics and magnonics and will serve as

a textbook for graduate students starting in this field. I am grateful
to all the contributors to the book. Without their efforts, this
project could not have been successful. Last but not least, I would
like to thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the
Russian Ministry of Education and Science (Megagrant №
14.Z50.31.0025) for financial support.

Sergej O. Demokritov
Yekateringburg
January 2017

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Bihlmayer, G., Kubetzka, A., Pietzsch, O., Blügel, S., and Wiesendanger, R.
(2007). Chiral magnetic order at surfaces driven by inversion
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(1986). Layered magnetic structures: evidence for antiferromagnetic
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micrometer size magnetic elements, Phys. Rev. Lett., 88, 047204.
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(2002). Spatially resolved dynamics of localized spin-wave modes
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and Kostylev, M. (2007). Collective spin modes in monodimensional
magnonic crystal consisting of dipolarly coupled nanowires, Appl.
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S., Madami, M., Gubbiotti, G., Duerr, G., and Grundler, D. (2013).
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10 Introduction

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Chapter 1

Graded Magnonic Index and Spin

Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic
Structures: Excite, Direct, Capture

V. V. Kruglyak,a C. S. Davies,a Y. Au,a F. B. Mushenok,a G. Hrkac,a

N. J. Whitehead,a S. A. R. Horsley,a T. G. Philbin,a V. D. Poimanov,b
R. Dost,c D. A. Allwood,c B. J. Inkson,c and A. N. Kuchkod
aSchool of Physics, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
bDonetsk National University, Donetsk, Ukraine
cDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield,

Sheffield, S1 3JD, United Kingdom

dInstitute of Magnetism of NAS of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine

[email protected]

Starting from the general topic and fundamentals of magnonics,

we discuss and provide demonstrations of exciting new physics
and technological opportunities associated with the graded
magnonic index and spin wave Fano resonances, highlighting
them as the next big thing in magnonics research.

1.1 Introduction
The most general definition of magnonics [1, 2], as the study
of spin waves [3, 4], leaves a lot of freedom for interpretation

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
12 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

and scientific discussion of directions of the field’s further

development. Thus, we have recently seen a number of excellent
review papers with emphasis on different aspects of spin wave
research and technology, e.g., magnonic crystals and metamaterials
[5–9], photomagnonics [10, 11], spin caloritronics [12], magnon
spintronics [13–15], nanoscience [16–19], and applications of
spin waves in microwave signal processing and data manipulation
[20–22]. There is, however, an aspect of magnonics that has been
both ubiquitous and somewhat underrated so far: magnonics is
the study not only of spin but also (and most importantly) of
waves, which have an extremely rich and peculiar dispersion
that is nonlinear, anisotropic, and nonreciprocal. The spin wave
dispersion is very sensitive to the sample’s magnetic properties
and micromagnetic state, including both the internal magnetic
field and magnetization, so that spin waves are rarely observed
to propagate in uniform media. Inspired by and feeding from
other fields of wave physics, such as quantum mechanics [23],
graded-index optics [24], and transformation optics [25], we have
recently tried to formulate the concept of graded-index magnonics
as a unifying theme focusing on general aspects of spin wave
excitation and propagation in media with continuously non-
uniform properties [26, 27]. Graded-index magnonics is the
main topic of this chapter, and is also highlighted throughout the
rest of this book.
The term graded-index magnonics implies existence of a
single quantity, often dubbed magnonic or spin wave refractive
index or more simply magnonic index, that describes fully the
spin wave dispersion in a continuous and uniform sample. Yet,
it would be extremely difficult (if at all possible) to do this, given
the plethora of factors that influence the (already complex) spin
wave dispersion, with their sheer diversity necessarily limiting
any definition to special cases and approximations [28–35]. So,
we treat the term magnonic index here as a tag for the entirety of
the spin wave dispersion and its modifications dictated by the
variation of the magnetic medium’s properties.
With a historical perspective on graded-index magnonics
already presented by Davies and Kruglyak [27], we limit coverage
of this chapter mostly to our own published and forthcoming
results, which deal with the spatial variation of the magnonic
index induced by patterning thin magnetic films of the same
 Introduction 13

material (Permalloy). Such patterning has been extensively

discussed in the context of spin wave confinement in the previous
book of this series [36]. So, given the additional focus of this
book on spin wave propagation, this leads to another topic of central
importance for this chapter: spin wave Fano resonances [37].
Resulting from the interaction between systems with a discrete
spectrum and continuous spectra, Fano resonances have been
widely studied for other wave excitations [38] but have been
explored and exploited much less in magnonics [39, 40]. Here, we
will demonstrate retrospectively their relevance to some of our
previous observations.
It is conventional to discuss spin wave phenomena in the
context of magnonic technology, focusing on data or microwave
signal processing. The areal density of transistors in integrated
circuits was famously conjectured by Moore [41] in 1965 to
double every two years as part of Moore’s law. This growth has
been consistently observed, and modern handheld computing
devices can easily contain gigabytes of memory and process data
at gigahertz rates. However, in the most recent period, the
transistor areal density took three years to double, and the
clock rate of modern processers has not advanced since 2004
[42, 43]. To safeguard the technological progress, condensed
matter researchers are now striving to develop technologies
that will enable computing devices to break past the barriers
faced by electronics, with magnonics being one of such emerging
alternatives. More generally, magnonics is envisioned to become
a natural companion to electronic, spintronic, and microwave
technologies, which could offer additional functionalities (e.g.,
nonvolatility and magnetic field tunability/programmability) to
the more conventional technologies.
The place of magnonics among its sister fields of research
and associated technologies is illustrated in Fig. 1.1a. Direct
current (dc) electricity and conventional semiconductor
electronics use the one-way translational motion of charge to
transmit energy and information across a circuit, while the same
goal is achieved using charge oscillations in ac electricity and
electromagnetics [44]. Each charged particle in an ensemble
can experience a local electromagnetic oscillation relative to
its individual equilibrium position. Collectively, these phase-
coherent oscillations give rise to a net wavelike motion, which
14 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

transmits energy (signal) without charge or particle transport.

An immediate successor of electronics, spintronics, instead exploits
the translational motion of spins. However, the use of the wave
motion of spins to carry and process information has only just
begun to be explored, giving rise to the recent burst in
magnonics research. The relationship between spintronics and
magnonics is analogous to that between dc electricity and
electromagnetics [45], with an important difference that
spin waves can transfer not only energy but also angular
momentum [12–15].

Figure 1.1 (a) The relationship between magnonics and its sister fields
of research and technology. (b) A block diagram of a generic magnonic
device and its constituents. Adapted from Davies et al. [46].

This chapter is organized using the scheme introduced

earlier by Kruglyak et al. [1]. Specifically, we consider the generic
magnonic device shown in Fig. 1.1b. Then, even findings of a
fundamental nature can be discussed in terms of their relevance
 Spin Wave Dispersion 15

to one of the four constituents of the device: source, functional

medium, output, and control (mechanism). We show that the
concepts of graded magnonic index and spin wave Fano resonances
are relevant to each of the constituents. In Section 1.2, we remind
the reader about the main aspects of the spin wave dispersion.
In Sections 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5, we discuss how the graded magnonic
index and spin wave Fano resonances can be used to aid spin
wave emission, steering, and detection, respectively. In Section
1.6, we discuss spin wave control and show some conceptual
device designs, for illustration.

1.2 Spin Wave Dispersion

Generally, magnetic systems contain ordered ensembles of tiny
magnetic moments—spins—coupled by the exchange interaction.
On a quasi-classical basis, the magnetic moments are individually
capable of precessing about their equilibrium orientation.
Due to the coupling between spins, it is possible to excite phase-
coherent precessional waves of magnetization—the average
magnetic moment per unit volume. It is these waves that are called
“spin waves,” and their quanta are called “magnons” [3, 4]. Like
other waves, spin waves are characterized by their amplitude,
phase, frequency, wave vector, and group and phase velocities, each
representing a resource for signal manipulation.
The key feature that makes spin waves unique is their
dispersion (Fig. 1.2a), which can be peculiarly anisotropic
depending on the dominant interaction between magnetic
moments [3, 4]. There are two main interactions to consider. The
quantum-mechanical exchange interaction (responsible for the
magnetic ordering) dominates over nanometer wavelengths
and gives rise to an isotropic, parabolic dispersion of so-called
exchange spin waves. In the wavelength range from hundreds of
nanometres and above, spin waves are said to be magnetostatic
(or dipolar) in nature, since their dispersion is dominated by
the anisotropic magneto-dipole interaction. In the intermediate
wavelength range, when both exchange and dipolar energies
contribute noticeably to the dispersion, the spin waves are said
to be of dipole exchange character. In either case, spin waves
travel with typical speeds of several kilometers per second,
16 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

and so are admittedly rather slow. However, this also means that,
at the same frequency, they have a much shorter wavelength
compared to, e.g., electromagnetic waves, paving the way toward
device miniaturization.

Figure 1.2 (a) The magnetostatic spin wave dispersion plotted in one
quadrant of reciprocal space for a film in the yz plane with in-plane
magnetization in the z direction. Above and below the FMR frequency
fFMR, there is a single and infinite manifold of dispersion branches,
referred to as the surface (Damon–Eshbach) mode and backward volume
modes, respectively. Only the first branch of the volume spin wave modes
is shown, corresponding to the uniform precession across the film
thickness. (b) The isofrequency curves characterizing the propagation
of magnetostatic spin waves, where f2 > fFMR > f1. (c) The isofrequency
curves characterizing the propagation of dipole exchange spin waves,
where f2 > f1 > fFMR.
 Spin Wave Dispersion 17

The frequency of spin waves with infinite wavelength

(and therefore also zero wave vector) is called the ferromagnetic
resonance (FMR) frequency, fFMR, which corresponds to the
magnon energy gap. An incident microwave at this frequency
will couple to the magnetization precession in the sample most
strongly, exciting its uniform (fundamental) precessional mode.
A constant magnetic field applied to the sample (i.e., bias
magnetic field) shifts fFMR up or down, along with the rest of the
dispersion. The direction and speed of the energy transfer by
spin waves is determined by their group velocity, defined as the
gradient of the angular frequency in reciprocal space. In addition
to the bias magnetic field, the spin wave group velocity depends
dramatically on the angle between the spin wave’s wave vector
and the magnetization. In particular, the group velocity is
negative (roughly antiparallel to the wave vector k) for backward
volume spin waves, i.e., spin waves with their frequencies below
fFMR and their wave vectors roughly parallel to the magnetization.
Yet, it is positive (roughly parallel to k) for Damon–Eshbach
spin waves, i.e., spin waves with their frequencies above fFMR
and their wave vectors roughly orthogonal to the magnetization.
In general, the direction of the group velocity is convenient
to predict using isofrequency curves, i.e., curves of constant
frequency [47]. The group velocity is always orthogonal to the
isofrequency curves in the reciprocal space, in the same way as
the electric field is always orthogonal to the curves of constant
potential in real space. The dispersion anisotropy is strongest
for magnetostatic spin waves, quickly diminishing as the
wavelength decreases.
The main attraction of the spin wave dispersion for wave
physicists is the variety of factors that determine and therefore
could be used to tailor its character. The compositional modulation
of magnetic media represents the most obvious (albeit
technologically challenging) way to achieve this. The dispersion
of magnetostatic spin waves in thin-film magnetic samples is
also sensitive to the variation of the film thickness. Moreover,
the finite thickness of magnetic film structures leads to quantization
and thus appearance of several dispersion branches for spin
waves (of any sort) propagating within the plane of the film.
18 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

The same is true for the effect of the lateral quantisation in

waveguides with a finite width. The dispersion is different for
each branch and depends on the film thickness, which suggests
the continuous variation of the thickness and/or width as a
means by which to control the spin wave propagation in patterned
magnetic structures.
The presence of lateral boundaries leads to a non-uniform
demagnetizing field and internal magnetic field (and therefore
graded magnonic index) in their vicinity [36]. The non-uniform
internal magnetic field can lead to a non-uniform configuration
of the magnetization. Furthermore, the magnetization is often non-
uniform in samples with a significant antisymmetric exchange
interaction (Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction) [48, 49] and
those with spatially varying directions of the easy and/or hard
magnetization axes of the magnetic anisotropy [3, 4]. The field
and magnetization non-uniformity can also be delivered by a
non-uniform bias magnetic field, which in addition offers an
opportunity to study magnonic phenomena in time-varying graded-
index magnonic landscapes [22]. The non-uniform magnetization
textures modify the magnonic index not only through the
dispersion anisotropy (Fig. 1.2) but also via modification of the
demagnetizing field [36] and emergence of topological effects,
such as Berry phase [50], geometrical anisotropy [51, 52],
and topological protection [53, 54]. The non-uniformity breaks
the translational invariance, limiting the use of the wave vector
and therefore the notion of wave dispersion. The notable
exceptions are given by the periodic and slowly varying (spatially)
non-uniformities, the former giving rise to magnonic crystals
[1, 2, 5–9] and the latter allowing the use of the geometrical optics
(quasi-classical) approximation [26, 28].

1.3 Spin Wave Excitation

To excite propagating spin waves, it is necessary to perturb the
magnetization both quickly and locally, so that the frequency
and wave vector of the spin wave to be excited are covered by
the spectrum of the perturbation. Conventionally, this is done
using microwave microstrips [2, 7] or spin-transfer torque
techniques [13, 14]. Another promising mechanism of spin
 Spin Wave Excitation 19

wave excitation involves coupling free-space microwaves to spin

waves through the use of local magnetic inhomogeneities, which
can have the form of either a graded magnonic index [55–60] or
Fano resonators [26, 61–63]. The main idea behind the method
is that the spatial non-uniformity breaks the translational
symmetry in the system, thereby enabling coupling between the
microwave magnetic field and spin waves irrespective of their
wavelengths.
In the most basic case, the FMR frequency of magnetic samples
depends on the saturation magnetization of the material, the
sample’s dimensions and the applied bias magnetic field. The
same is true for spin wave (higher-order) resonances. It is possible
to design a system of two neighboring (or connecting) magnetic
elements that have different dominant resonance frequencies
for a given bias magnetic field value/orientation. When the entire
system is pumped by a harmonic microwave magnetic field at
the higher resonance frequency, the resonance is excited in
one element only (the “transducer”). The coupling between the
magnetizations of the two elements then leads to injection of
spin waves into the second element (the “waveguide”), with
their wavelength dictated by the magnonic dispersion in the
waveguide. Such a resonance, in which the energy from one
resonantly excited element with a discrete spectrum is “leaked”
into wave modes propagating in the element with a continuous
spectrum, is an example of a Fano resonance [37, 38].
This Fano resonance–assisted mechanism of spin wave
excitation is illustrated in Fig. 1.3 with the help of micromagnetic
simulations [64] (see Ref. [62] for associated experimental results
and specific simulation parameters). The sample consists of two
cuboidal magnetic elements, aligned orthogonally and overlaid
with a vertical separation of 10 nm (Fig. 1.3a). Both the Fano
transducer and waveguide are made of Permalloy but differ in
thickness and width. When no bias magnetic field is applied, the
shape anisotropy of the two elements compels the magnetization
to align along each element’s long axis. The frequency spectrum of
the sample is shown in Fig. 1.3b, from which the resonance
frequencies of the transducer and waveguide are identified as
ft = 11.5 GHz and fwg = 9 GHz, respectively. A global microwave
magnetic field of 11.5 GHz frequency applied along the x axis
20 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

resonates with the transducer only. The precessing magnetization

of the transducer generates an oscillatory stray magnetic field
that excites propagating spin waves in the waveguide (Fig. 1.3c).

Figure 1.3 (a) The geometry of the transducer–waveguide Fano resonance

system. The arrows show the orientation of the static magnetization
within each element. (b) The frequency spectrum of the sample. (c, d)
Snapshots of the out-of-plane component of the magnetization of the
waveguide are shown for time steps of 22 ps, when the entire sample
is excited at 11.5 GHz. The Fano transducer is magnetized (white
arrows) parallel and antiparallel to the y axis in panels (c) and (d),
respectively. Adapted from Davies et al. [46].

The Fano transducer has two roles in the design. Firstly, it

localizes the high-frequency magnetic field to the nanoscale,
enabling coupling to short-wavelength spin waves. Secondly, it
resonantly amplifies the incident field [65], helping achieve a
stronger spin wave emission. In addition, the orientation of
the transducer’s magnetization has a marked impact on its
functionality. When the transducer is excited at resonance,
its magnetization precesses with a well-defined chirality. The
handedness of this chirality leads to the unidirectional excitation
of propagating spin waves, similar in manner to the water flow
 Spin Wave Excitation 21

generated by a rotating water mill. In Fig. 1.3c, the magnetization

in the transducer is parallel to the y axis, and spin waves are
excited toward the negative x direction. However, if the direction
of the transducer’s magnetization is flipped (Fig. 1.3d), the spin
waves instead propagate toward the positive x direction. Several
periodically spaced Fano transducers create a periodic high-
frequency magnetic field [65], leading to the idea of a resonant
grating coupler, discussed in detail by Arikan et al. [63] and
Yu et al. [66, 67] and in Chapter 7 of this book.
In a graded magnonic medium, one could consider the
incident microwave magnetic field as tuned in frequency to some
of its regions better than to others. One could therefore tune
the microwave frequency so as to excite certain (specifically
targeted) regions of the medium at resonance. The resonantly
driven magnetisation precession could then launch spin waves of
finite wave vector into the adjacent regions, if such propagating
spin wave modes are at all allowed by the dispersion relation in
those regions. In this so-called Schlömann mechanism of spin
wave excitation [55, 56], the resonating regions of the sample do
not confine spin waves and therefore are not characterized by a
discrete spectrum. Hence, the mechanism is free from reliance on
the resonance with discrete normal modes of well-defined parts
of the sample, inherent to the case with Fano resonances.
This means that the frequency tuning range of the emitted spin
waves is no longer limited by the resonance linewidth of the
Fano transducer. Instead, the tuning is determined by the graded
magnonic index, leading to a continuous distribution of the
local FMR frequency, fFMR(r), assigned to each and every point of
the sample under the assumption of negligible impact of
magnetization gradients on the precession frequency [68].
In other words, the local FMR frequency is defined by setting the
wave vector to zero in the spin wave dispersion relation, with
the latter defined by the loal values of the magnetic parameters,
field strength, and static magnetization orientation.
The mechanism is illustrated in Fig. 1.4. Specifically, we
have studied a 10 μm wide, 100 nm thick stripe of Permalloy,
magnetized along its width [107]. The magnetic charges dynamically
induced at the stripe’s left end by the magnetization precession
create a local increase in fFMR(r), which then gradually decreases
to the bulk value (i.e., the value far from the stripe ends) as the
22 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

distance from the end increases (Fig. 1.4a). The different values
of fFMR(r) correspond to different propagating spin wave modes,
the dispersion of which is shown in Fig. 1.4b. Hence, when the
stripe is excited by the uniform microwave magnetic field with a
frequency matching fFMR(r) at a particular distance from the end,
the magnetization at the distance gets resonantly excited and
becomes a source of spin waves propagating into the stripe.
The spin waves are imaged using the time-resolved scanning
Kerr microscope (TRSKM) [26, 61], with the acquired images
presented in Fig. 1.4c,d for the excitation at frequencies of 5.76
and 7.52 GHz, respectively. Further measurements (not shown
here) have demonstrated successful excitation of spin waves
across a frequency range of more than 4 GHz, which far surpasses
in bandwidth the Fano resonance–assisted mechanism described
by Au et al. [61, 62].
A peculiar example of a graded magnonic landscape is given
by magnetic domain walls, i.e., boundaries between regions of
different magnetization orientation. In particular, it has been
recently shown that a domain wall can generate spin waves when
excited by an external magnetic field or a spin-polarized current
[69–74], while arrays of domain walls were proposed as spin
wave grating couplers [75]. The spin wave emission has traditionally
been attributed to the effect of the domain wall oscillations.
However, at least in two of the studies referenced above, the
spin waves were observed to have the frequency of the driving
stimuli, rather than twice its value (as one would expect for
a nonlinear process of interaction between two oscillatory
modes). So, to uncover the mechanism of the emission, we
have developed a linear analytical theory [108] in the exchange
approximation using the formalism from Ref. [58].
Figure 1.5a shows a domain wall excited by a uniform
microwave magnetic field oriented perpendicular to the
magnetization in both the domain wall and domains. Our
calculations show that propagating spin waves at the frequency of
the incident field are emitted from the domain wall (Fig. 1.5b), as
a result of a linear process. The underlying mechanism is similar to
that proposed by Schlömann [55], except the domain wall creates
a natural graded magnonic index landscape with a reduction of
 Spin Wave Excitation 23

the local FMR frequency. This reduction prevents the incident

microwave field from matching the local FMR frequency in any
point of the sample. Although our theory is developed in the
exchange approximation, we believe the described mechanism
for spin wave generation is general and therefore applicable to
the experimental observations referred to above.

Figure 1.4 (a) A cross section of the calculated fFMR(r) profile along
the length of the stripe is shown for the first 5 μm from its left end
and y = 5 μm. (b) The spin wave dispersion calculated from simulations
of an infinitely long stripe is shown in grayscale, with the overlaid red
circles showing the points deduced from the measurements of the
finite length stripe. For the dispersion calculation, the results of the
simulations were spatially smoothed so as to mimic the experimental
resolution. The horizontal dashed lines extending from panel (a) to
(b) illustrate the correspondence between the source region and wave
number of propagating spin waves excited at frequencies of 5.76 and
7.52 GHz, the Kerr images of which are shown in panels (c) and
(d) respectively. After Mushenok et al. [107].
24 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

Figure 1.5 (a) Geometry of a thin film extending infinitely in the yz

plane with blue arrows showing the calculated magnetization of a
domain wall (centered at y = 0) and adjoining antiparallel domains. The
driving magnetic field is aligned along the y direction. (b) Calculated
magnetization vectors at phase values of 0 (main plot) and p (inset),
showing spin waves emanating from the domain wall in (a). After
Whitehead et al. [108].

Curiously, we find that the graded magnonic index profile

induced by a domain wall (that of the Pöschl–Teller potential well
[76]) is naturally sized so that spin wave emission does occur
and is locally optimized. For other values of the profile’s aspect
ratio, the emission could be suppressed or even completely
eliminated—that is, although a graded magnonic index may be
able to generate spin waves, their emission is not guaranteed. As a
final note of this section, we point out that the distinction between
the spin wave emission mechanisms due to Fano resonances
 Spin Wave Steering 25

and graded magnonic index is very subtle. Indeed, depending

on their taste, one could also consider the continuously varying
local FMR frequency as an array of coupled Fano resonators, each
with a slightly different yet discrete spectrum. At the same time,
the spin wave emission from a domain wall could still be argued to
be of resonant character, albeit with a large detuning from the
domain wall resonance. A more detailed discussion of this will be
presented elsewhere.

1.4 Spin Wave Steering

The functional medium element of the generic magnonic device
shown in Fig. 1.1b has two main purposes: to deliver the signals
from the input to the output and, as magnonic devices can have
multiple inputs and outputs, to steer the signals between them.
A graded magnonic index between the inputs and outputs can
be used to channel [77–80] or focus [81] or defocus [82] spin
waves, or to “cloak” an object from them [32], in analogy to a
similar research topic in electromagnetics [25]. Spin wave
steering is the key prerequisite for creation of efficient magnonic
interferometers [83–85], Boolean and analog computing
primitives [21, 86–89], splitters (demultiplexers and inverse
multiplexers) [26, 90–92], and combiners (multiplexers) [93–95].
Figure 1.6 demonstrates the function of a magnonic inverse
multiplexer formed by a Permalloy T junction with 5 µm wide
features [26]. The spin waves are excited in the central “leg” of
the T junction by a uniform microwave magnetic field through
the Fano resonance–assisted mechanism, as described in the
previous section. The frequency of the incident microwave field is
tuned to fFMR of the leg, which acts as an element with a discrete
spectrum. The sample was biased by a uniform in-plane static
magnetic field, HB, of 500 Oe strength, applied either parallel to
or slightly tilted from the long axis of the leg. Due to the magnetic
shape anisotropy, the arms of the T junction have a lower fFMR
compared to the leg. So, the resonantly excited magnetization
of the leg launches propagating magnetostatic spin waves into
either one or both of the T junction’s arms, which act as elements
with a continuous spectrum. The spin waves were imaged by the
TRSKM and modeled using micromagnetic simulations.
26 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

Figure 1.6 Snapshots of spin waves propagating in the arms of the

T junction. The bias magnetic field HB of 500 Oe strength is applied
(a) parallel to and at angles of (b) –15° and (c) +15° relative to the leg of
the junction. In each case, the top and bottom panels show results
of the TRSKM imaging and micromagnetic simulations, respectively.
The frequency of the continuous-wave (cw) pump was 8.24 GHz for
experiments, while for simulations it was 7.62 GHz in panel (a) and
7.52 GHz in panels (b) and (c). In panel (c), the extracted directional
vectors of the incident (index “i,” solid lines) and reflected (index “r,”
dashed lines) group velocities v and wave vectors k are shown for
kx = 0.94 µm–1. Adapted from Davies et al. [26].

The observed switching of the spin wave propagation in the

arms of the T junction via the tilting of the in-plane bias magnetic
field is a direct result of the graded magnonic index in the patterned
structure and an excellent illustration of the opportunities in
graded index magnonics in terms of spin wave steering. Firstly,
Fig. 1.6a shows that the phase fronts of the spin waves in the
arms are somewhat tilted relative to their symmetry axis, even
though the bias field is applied symmetrically. This is because the
bias magnetic field does not fully saturate the magnetization in
the arms, which therefore tilts from their symmetry axis. At the
 Spin Wave Steering 27

same time, the energy flow along the arms dictates the direction
of the group velocity, which is therefore bound to be parallel to
their horizontal symmetry axis. Hence, the anisotropic dispersion
of the magnetostatic spin waves (Fig. 1.2) leads to a small,
non-zero angle between the directions of the group velocity and
wave vector (phase velocity), explaining the tilt of the phase fronts.
The same explains the tilts of the spin wave phase fronts observed
in Fig. 1.4c,d. When the bias magnetic field is rotated from the
symmetry axis by just ±15°, we observe only one spin wave beam
propagating into one of the arms (Fig. 1.6b,c). The direction of
the propagation is “switched” between the two arms by the sign
of the tilt angle. In each case, the spin wave beam (emitted from
the leg-arm junction) propagates at an oblique angle to the arm’s
axis, hits its edge, and is reflected into a much broader beam,
propagating approximately along the arm’s length. The incidence
and reflection angles are different, again resulting from the
anisotropy of the magnetostatic dispersion relation and the tilt of
the static magnetisation.
We interpret our observations in terms of the graded magnonic
index induced by the spatial variations of the orientations of
the magnetisation and the value of the internal magnetic field in
the sample. Using the convincing agreement between the
measured and numerically simulated results, we apply the theory
from Vashkovsky and Lock [96, 97] to the numerically computed
static magnetization and field distributions (Fig. 1.7a) to derive
the local directions of the wave vectors and group velocities of
the propagating spin waves (shown Fig. 1.6c). The confinement of
the precessing magnetization to the width of the T junction’s
leg results in a broad kx spectrum (Fig. 1.7c). For each kx value,
the isofrequency curve corresponding to the frequency of the
incident microwave field returns allowed (by the magnetostatic
dispersion relation) values of ky, while the normals to the
isofrequency curves show the group velocity directions
(Fig. 1.7d–h). The field and magnetization distributions in the
arms are quite uniform along the x axis starting from about 1 µm
from the leg-arm boundary, which ensures conservation of the
kx value of the spin wave propagating across the arm’s width.
In contrast, the values of ky and the group velocity adjust
adiabatically to the variation of the internal field magnitude and
direction of the magnetization [98]. The non-uniformity also
28 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

leads to a distributed partial reflection of the spin wave amplitude,

with the group velocity directions of the reflected waves also
shown in Fig. 1.7c–h. The overall wave field is given by the
superposition of the incident and scattered waves.

Figure 1.7 (a) The calculated distributions of the static magnetization

(arrows) and the projection of the internal magnetic field onto the
magnetization (color scale) are shown for the bias magnetic field HB of
500 Oe applied at 15° to the vertical symmetry axis. Each arrow represents
the average of 5 × 5 mesh cells. (b) The calculated distribution of fFMR(r)
across the T junction [109]. (c) kx spectra of the dynamic magnetization
distributions across the leg and along the arms (amplified ×5) of the T
junction excited at 7.52 GHz are shown by the dotted and solid
curves, respectively. (d–h) Constructions of the isofrequency curves
and the group velocities of the incident (index “i”) and reflected (index
“r”) beams are shown for the pixels boxed in (a), for the transverse
wave vector components kx = ±0.94 μm–1 (as indicated by the dashed
grey lines). Adapted from Davies et al. [26].
 Spin Wave Steering 29

Apart from the small region at small wave vectors, the spin
wave isofrequency curves depicted in Fig. 1.7d–h consist of
nearly straight lines. This leads to virtually the same direction of
group velocity for a wide range of wave vectors, giving rise to the
formation of spin wave caustic beams [47, 96, 97]. This explains
the strongly directional beam emitted from the leg-arm boundary
for the tilted-bias magnetic field, but not the absence of the
other beam. Due to the inhomogeneities of the internal field and
magnetization (Fig. 1.7a), the beam curves slightly and experiences
distributed scattering, with the group velocities of the scattered
waves being roughly aligned with the arm’s length (Fig. 1.7d,e).
The group velocity of the reflected beam switches direction near
the far edge of the arm (Fig. 1.7f), leading to the phenomenon
of “back reflection” [96]. The reflected beam is confined by the
non-uniform demagnetizing field and magnetization near the
arm’s edge. In addition to this, some spin waves with small
(negative or positive) kx values are not supported in parts of
the magnetic landscape at all. In Fig. 1.7h, for example, there
is no intersection between the line kx = 0.94 μm–1 and the
isofrequency curves, giving rise to a “forbidden” path for spin waves
of certain wave vector. Finally, and quite surprisingly, we find
that the beam formed from spin waves with negative kx values
cannot possibly propagate into the left arm of the junction (for
the bias field direction in Fig. 1.7). Indeed, the beam is curved
into the nearest edge of the left arm from which it is then
scattered backwards into the right arm (Fig. 1.7g). The observed
complete disappearance of one of the two beams in favor of
the other one would be impossible without the graded
distribution of the magnonic index. The anisotropic dispersion is
also required for the effects to take place, but on its own it could
only lead to a tilt of both beams and asymmetry of their
intensities [92].
Figure 1.6 clearly shows that the spin wave beam initiated
near the leg-arm boundary then propagates along the arms of
the structure as prescribed by the direction of the bias magnetic
field. However, the beam is also quite wide and not as distinct
as one could wish. So, Fig. 1.8 presents results of simulations
for a Permalloy T junction that has a narrower (1 µm wide)
leg, which leads to a better-defined spin wave caustic beam
propagating into one arm of the structure. The smaller width
30 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

of the leg leads to the higher frequency of its quasi-uniform

mode and to the observed smaller cross section of the spin wave
beam excited at the frequency into the right arm of the structure.
Notably, the observations and interpretations developed for the
wider leg sample also remain valid here.

Figure 1.8 (a) A numerically calculated snapshot of the dynamic out-of-

plane component of the magnetization in the T junction. The bias magnetic
field HB of 500 Oe strength is applied at an angle of a = 15° relative to
the leg of the T junction driven by a microwave magnetic field of
10.3 GHz frequency. (b) An example isofrequency curve calculated for
the frequency of excitation and with the internal field and magnetization
corresponding to the region at the center of the arms (above the leg).
The arrows represent examples of the wave vector (k) and group velocity
(vi) vectors: the mutual collinearity of the group velocity vectors gives
rise to the spin wave caustic beam observed in panel (a). Adapted from
Davies et al. [26].

The non-uniformity of the magnetisation and internal

magnetic field plays a key role in defining the spatial variation of
the graded magnonic index and thereby in steering the direction
of the spin wave propagation in the T junction. However, the
other key ingredient—the anisotropy of the magnetostatic spin
wave dispersion—is only (strongly) present at micrometer
 Spin Wave Output 31

to millimeter length scales, impeding miniaturization of any

magnonic devices that would exploit the type of spin wave
steering discussed here. In contrast, the non-uniformity of the
internal magnetic field and the magnetization persists to much
shorter length scales and could still lead to useful device concepts.
Moreover, on the nanometer length scales, the non-uniform
exchange field (completely neglected here) becomes more
important and could therefore be exploited, while additional
opportunities arise from the use of the highly localized magnetic
field due to magnetic domain walls [70–75, 83]. In this context,
the main challenge is that the configurations of the internal
magnetic field and the static magnetization in magnetic nano-
and microstructures are not arbitrary but are determined by the
magnetostatic Maxwell equations. This limits the range of magnetic
configurations that could be exploited and favors alternative
pathways to creation of the graded magnonic index.

1.5 Spin Wave Output

In research labs, the spin wave outputs from magnonic devices
are often detected using Kerr microscopy [17, 26, 33, 61–63, 72]
and Brillouin light scattering [9, 16, 22, 59, 77, 91–93], the two
most popular magneto-optical techniques in magnonics. However,
the outputs of realistic magnonic devices will need to be more
congenial to logic circuitry of interest, with their nature depending
on the envisaged purpose of the magnonic chip. For example,
spin waves can be interfaced with high-frequency electrical
signals inductively [19] or magnetoresistively [13, 14], or their
action could be encoded into the micromagnetic configuration
of domain walls [99] or magnetic nanoelements [9, 16, 17], or
both [100]. Indeed,propagating spin waves have been
demonstrated to be able to drive domain walls across magnetic
samples [101], which could be used either to toggle binary
logic states or for a memristor-type function [14].
Arguably, the most important missing element in the
technological toolbox of modern magnonics is the direct
interfacing of two or more magnonic devices in series. The
only demonstration of this kind was done using micromagnetic
simulations in Ref. [86], with none reported experimentally.
32 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

It is more challenging to realize the fan-out function, whereby the

output of one device (e.g., a logic gate) is connected and can drive
the input of more than one identical devices. However, the
expanding use of ultrathin films of yttrium-iron garnet (YIG)
[67], which have naturally low magnetic damping [102], and the
recent demonstration of low damping in metallic CoFe alloys
[103, 104] should help further experimental progress in this
direction as well as in magnonics, in general.
In the context of detection of output signals from magnonic
devices, the graded magnonic index could be used to fine-tune
the wavelengths of propagating spin waves to the range of values
optimal for a specific output detection method. Indeed, in a
reverse process to the Schlömann excitation mechanism, an
increase in the local FMR frequency fFMR(r) in a medium with
a positive dispersion results in an increase of the spin wave
wavelength [98, 105]. Thus, a scheme can be realized in which the
data or signal processing is done by spin waves of shorter
wavelength that are then upscaled to a larger wavelength, e.g., about
twice the size of the detector, thereby optimizing the spin wave
coupling to the external circuitry.
In the same spirit, we have shown [106] that the transducer–
waveguide Fano resonance system shown in Fig. 1.3 can be
used in the reverse direction: to couple an incident propagating
spin wave to the uniform precession in the “transducer,” with the
latter acting in this case as a receiving antenna. As a result, the
spin wave can be fully absorbed, leading to a pronounced uniform
precession of the receiving element. This uniform precession
could then be more easily outcoupled to the external circuitry,
in a function that is similar to that of the case of the graded
magnonic index discussed in the previous paragraph. The only
experimental demonstration of this kind was reported by Yu
et al. [67], albeit without a detailed discussion of the detection
mechanism.

1.6 Spin Wave Control and Magnonic Devices

The magnonic dispersion itself and the spin wave excitation,
steering, and detection mechanisms discussed in the preceding
sections of this chapter are all determined by the internal
magnetic field and magnetization texture in the sample. Hence,
 Spin Wave Control and Magnonic Devices 33

the mechanisms lend themselves readily to external control,

which could be realized through application of the bias magnetic
field or even the history of its application. The former can enable
construction of magnetically tunable magnonic devices, while the
latter property describes devices reprogrammable by the applied
(and eventually removed) magnetic field. However, the physics
of magnetic switching and control of micromagnetic textures
(either by a magnetic field or otherwise, e.g., electrically, optically,
acoustically, spintronically, etc.) forms a separate and extremely
broad research field, which is beyond the scope of this chapter.
So, in this section, we discuss only a few examples of magnonic
devices that exploit the graded magnonic index and/or
Fano resonances and can be controlled either by the applied
magnetic field or by switching their micromagnetic configuration.
The results of our TRSKM imaging experiments and
micromagnetic simulations presented in Fig. 1.6 demonstrate the
efficiency by which an external bias magnetic field can be used
to steer magnetostatic spin waves across a T junction [26]. When
the bias magnetic field is applied symmetrically along the leg, the
T junction acts as a magnonic inverse multiplexer, i.e., a spin wave
splitter [91]. The demonstrated magnetic field control of the spin
wave beam enables the T junction to be also used as an analog
time division demultiplexer, i.e., a device that can steer time-
separated signals between different outputs. The switching of the
500 Oe magnetic field from +15° to –15° is equivalent to applying
a constant bias field of 486 Oe along the leg and toggling a control
magnetic field of ±117 Oe to switch the signal between outputs.
A similar device fabricated from YIG could be switched by an
orthogonal control field of ±127 Oe for a constant bias magnetic
field of 1153 Oe [92].
Magnetically reprogrammable magnonic devices can be
built using Fano resonances, the function of which could be
“programmed” by switching the magnetization of the Fano
resonator (above a magnonic waveguide) discussed earlier in the
context of spin wave excitation and detection, i.e., the magnonic
transducer from Fig. 1.3. In particular, this Fano resonator can act as
a control element performing the function of either a valve or phase
shifter, depending on the distance between the element and the
waveguide (Fig. 1.9) [106]. For one orientation of the element’s
magnetization (the bottom images in panels (b) and (d)), the
34 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

element does not couple to the propagating spin wave at all.

However, for the opposite orientation of the magnetization (the
middle images in panels (b) and (d)), the stray magnetic field
generated by a spin wave passing underneath can resonantly
excite its precession. This precession is then partly re-emitted
(in the same manner as the process shown in Fig. 1.3) as a
spin wave propagating in the same direction as the originally
incident wave, but with opposite phase. For the 20 nm element-
to-waveguide separation, the partly transmitted original
and the re-emitted spin waves have similar amplitudes and
opposite phases. Thus, they nearly cancel each other, yielding the
observed valve functionality. For the 5 nm element-to-waveguide
separation, the incident spin wave is first fully converted into
the element’s precession and then fully re-emitted with a 180°
phase shift. In this case, no interference occurs, since there is
no directly transmitted wave, and only the observed phase
shifter functionality is observed.

Figure 1.9 (a) The Fano control element is positioned 5 nm above the
waveguide. A spin wave (SW) excited elsewhere propagates along the
waveguide in the negative x direction. (b) The first (top) snapshot shows
the out-of-plane component of magnetization (mz) when the control
element is absent. The second (middle) and third (bottom) snapshots
show mz with the control element present and magnetized parallel and
antiparallel to the y axis, respectively. (c, d) The same as (a, b) but for
the control element positioned 20 nm above the waveguide. Adapted
from Davies et al. [46].
 Spin Wave Control and Magnonic Devices 35

The described methods of spin-wave excitation, control, and

detection can be used to construct a complete magnonic logic
architecture. The simplest of logic gates is the NOT gate, and this
can be straightforwardly realized using the scheme discussed in
Fig. 1.9d. The binary input, which can take the values 0 or 1, is
assigned to the polarity of the valve’s static magnetization to be
respectively toward negative and positive y. A spin wave detector,
positioned on the waveguide past the valve, records an output of
1 if non-zero (i.e., above a set threshold) spin wave amplitude is
detected, or 0 if spin waves are absent. Hence, the valve can act
as a simplistic magnonic NOT gate, as an input of 0 generates an
output of 1, and vice versa. Of course, this will require a subsequent
amplification stage if the output is to be used in another magnonic
logic gate.
Gates more sophisticated than a NOT gate require two input
signals. This can be implemented by considering either two control
elements, or two input transducers with a shared waveguide.
For example, an XNOR gate can be constructed using two spin
wave phase shifters combined to form a magnonic interferometer
shown in Fig. 1.10a. Here, the two phase shifter elements are
positioned 5 nm above each branch of the interferometer.
The magnetization follows the twists of the interferometer, the
symmetry of which causes the propagating spin wave to split
equally between its two branches. If the magnetizations in both
phase shifters are parallel, i.e., input (0,0) or (1,1), the spin
waves from the branches will interfere constructively upon
recombination. Hence, a spin wave will be observed by the detector,
i.e., output of 1. If instead the phase shifters are antiparallel in the
magnetization polarity, i.e., input (0,1) or (1,0), the phase of one
spin wave is shifted by 180°. So, the spin waves interfere upon
recombination destructively, generating an output of 0. This action
is shown in Fig. 1.10b, where the results of micromagnetic
calculations are presented for the (0,0) and (0,1) inputs.
Figure 1.11a shows a magnonic NAND gate constructed using
two input transducers. Similar to the encoding used in Fig. 1.10a,
the transducers’ static magnetization polarity, at A and B, is
encoded by 0 when the magnetization is aligned along the positive
and negative y directions, respectively, and encoded by 1 for the
reversed case. The entire sample is excited globally by a harmonic
microwave field. As shown in the calculated snapshots of spin
36 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

Figure 1.10 (a) Magnonic XNOR gate realised as a spin-wave interferometer.

The directions of the static magnetisation and spin wave (SW)
propagation in the interferometer are shown. The magnonic phase-
shifter elements are positioned above each branch of the interferometer.
(b) Snapshots of the out-of-plane component of magnetisation (mz)
are shown for two of the four possible XNOR gate input combinations,
as calculated using micromagnetic simulations. (After Ref. [46]).

Figure 1.11 (a) Magnonic NAND gate realized as a pair of two transducers
positioned on a shared waveguide. (b) Snapshots of mz corresponding to
the same moment of time are shown for the four possible NAND gate input
combinations. Adapted from Davies et al. [46].
 Conclusions and Outlook 37

wave propagation in Fig. 1.11b, spin waves are only absent from
the center of the waveguide when an input of (1,1) is used. The
NAND gate functionality is therefore obtained, as demonstrated
in the truth table shown in the inset of Fig. 1.11a.

1.7 Conclusions and Outlook

As conventional electronics is beginning to become restricted in
its potential for growth, the research and development of
technologies that use alternative means of data processing and
communication is gathering significant attention. Among others,
magnonic technology promises devices that will have a small
footprint, moderately high operational frequencies, and intrinsic
nonvolatility, with scope for efficient interfacing with electronic
and other emerging research devices. However, in order to
advance the development of spin wave devices, research should
not just focus on the design, experimental construction, and
miniaturization of prototype magnonic devices within existing
paradigms. While deepening our understanding of known,
fundamental spin wave concepts, we should also proactively
search for novel spin wave phenomena and use this knowledge
to imagine new devices, which are designed to harness the unique
properties of spin waves.
In this chapter, we attempted to demonstrate the interesting
physics and highlight technical opportunities associated with
the graded magnonic index and spin wave Fano resonances. The
research into these two exciting (yet underexplored in magnonics)
wave phenomena is rapidly gaining momentum, as evidenced by
the increased attention they receive throughout this book. We
foresee three main research avenues for further advances and
the ultimately bright future of these fields. First, the science of
spin wave propagation in media with a graded magnonic index
and/or Fano resonators is unchartered territory in terms of
mathematical physics, with lots of challenges and surprises awaiting
theoreticians’ attention. Second, similarly vast opportunities will
open to experts in numerical micromagnetic simulations that
will venture into the world of media and devices, including
compositionally modulated structural elements that extend into
three dimensions. And last but not least, the continuing progress
in nanotechnology and materials science and the most recent
38 Graded Magnonic Index and Spin Wave Fano Resonances in Magnetic Structures

advances in reducing the magnetic damping hold promise for the

latter exciting phenomena to be observed experimentally and
implemented within realistic magnonic device architectures.

Acknowledgments
The research leading to these results has received funding from
the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council of the
United Kingdom (Project Nos. EP/L019876/1, EP/L020696,
and EP/P505526/1), and from the European Union’s Horizon
2020 research and innovation program under Marie Skłodowska-
Curie Grant Agreement No. 644348 (MagIC).

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Chapter 2

Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic

Waveguides

Yu. P. Sharaevsky, A. V. Sadovnikov, E. N. Beginin, M. A. Morozova,

S. E. Sheshukova, A. Yu. Sharaevskaya, S. V. Grishin,
D. V. Romanenko, and S. A. Nikitov
Laboratory “Metamaterials,” Saratov State University,
83 Astrakanskaya Str., Saratov 410012, Russia
Kotel’nikov Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics,
Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 125009, Russia
[email protected]

2.1 Introduction
Recent developments in magnetic thin-film technology led to
the fabrication of basic functional elements for spin wave (SW)
signal transmission and processing in the microwave range in
micro- and nanoscales: SW waveguides, delay lines, resonators,
and oscillators [1–5]. A magnonic waveguide, formed from a
magnetic stripe, is a building block of any complex integral
reconfigurable magnonic network [6, 7]. Control over the dispersion
of SWs can be achieved, for example, by periodic patterning of
thin magnetic films. Periodic variation of the magnetic materials’
parameters allows fabrication of magnonic crystals (MCs) [3, 4, 8],

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
48 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

which can be widely used for spin-wave-based computing

applications. It was shown, that MCs can demonstrate a
complicated magnonic band structure with strong dispersion
and anisotropy. To fabricate the topology of a magnonic network,
signal processing devices should be put together to create
integrated circuits where magnons carry data. The most promising
candidates for effective channeling of SWs between the functional
units of a magnonic network are magnonic couplers, which are
essential to control the interelement coupling in the horizontal
and vertical directions. Horizontal couplings can be realized on
the base of laterally coupled magnetic waveguide segments,
whereas vertical couplings can be performed by using layered
waveguiding stripes.
In this chapter, we develop a theoretical approach and
propose lateral and vertical topologies of magnonic couplers as
candidates to the internode elements in magnonic networks. We
consider the features of SW propagation and the formation of
forbidden zones for coupled planar and layered SW elements.
Theoretical investigation of wave processes in SW waveguides
is performed on the basis of a common mathematical approach
using the method of coupled waves [9]. This method is well
defined under an assumption of single-mode SW propagation and
weak interwaveguide coupling. Influence of intermode coupling
may be accounted for by numerical simulation of Maxwell’s
equations by means of the finite element method (FEM) and
micromagnetic simulations of high-frequency magnetization
dynamics in thin-film magnonic structures in space and time
domains. SW transmission and dispersion in the proposed
topology of magnonic couplers were investigated by broadband
microwave spectroscopy using a vector network analyzer (VNA).
By means of optical imaging Brillouin light scattering (BLS)
[10, 11] techniques the dynamics of SWs at different frequencies
and input signal power levels in lateral and vertical coupled
magnonic stripes and crystals were addressed directly.

2.2 Theoretical Approach

We consider two coupled magnetic waveguiding structures.
Using the coupled wave approach [9] the magnetic field in each
waveguide can be represented in the following form:
 Theoretical Approach 49

H1,2(t )= H0 + h1,2(t )+ Kh2,1 (t ), (2.1)

where
H1,2(t )= H0 + h1,2(is
t )+the dynamic
Kh2,1 (t ) magnetic microwave field in each layer
and K is the coupling coefficient that determines the coupling
between microwave magnetic fields of each waveguide. The
external magnetic (t )= H0 +ish1,2directed
H1,2field (t )+ Kh2,1along
(t ) the x axis. We can
obtain the following set of wave equations for magnetic waveguides
using the equation of motion for high-frequency components
of magnetization and the equation for the magnetostatic potential
in each film, as well as the appropriate boundary conditions in
the long-wave approximation for magnetostatic surface waves
(MSSWs) [12] propagating along the y axis [13, 14]:

∂ 2m1,2 w2M d ∂
2 + wH ( wH + wM )m1,2 + (m + Km2,1)= 0 , (2.2)
∂t 2 ∂y 1,2
where m1,2 = my1,2/M0 are dynamic magnetization components in
each waveguide, M0 is the saturation magnetization, d is the
magnetic film thickness, wM = g4pM0, wH = gH0, and g is the
gyromagnetic ratio. This approach can be adopted to a periodic
structure using expansion into Fourier series for dynamic
magnetization components in each waveguide. We consider
further two coupled 1D MCs separated by a dielectric layer with
thickness D (for a layered structure) or width D (for lateral
magnetic stripes). The surfaces of each MC (MC 1 and MC 2) are
periodically corrugated with the period L. In general, it is assumed
that the MCs’ periods are shifted relatively to each other in the
direction of the y axis by the value of q.
The solution of the wave equations in each MC can be
represented as a sum of spatial harmonics [15]. We shall consider
only the zero-order harmonic of forward waves and the –1
harmonic of backward waves in the first Brillouin zone. In this
case the solution of Eq. 2.2 for each of the crystals is the
superposition of forward and backward waves:

m1,2 = A1,2exp[ j(wt – k0 y )]+B1,2exp[ j( wt + k– y )], (2.3)

where A1,2 and B1,2 are the amplitudes of the forward and
backward waves [14], respectively; k0 is the propagation constant
of the zero-order harmonic; k– = k0 – 2p/L refers to the −1
50 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

harmonic; and w is the frequency. Assuming in Eq. 2.2 that the

thickness of each film is a periodic function, it can be represented
as [14, 16]:

d1,2 = d01,02[1+ dd1,2cos( py L + q1,2 )], (2.4)

where dd1,2 = 2Dd1,2sin(p(L – a)/L)/(pd01,02) and d01,02 = d + Dd1,2

(L – a)/L are the parameters that depend only on the geometry;
Dd1,2 and a are the grooves’ depths and width, respectively; and
q1 = 0, q2 = q. By substituting Eqs. 2.3 and 2.4 in Eq. 2.2 we can
obtain the equations for waves in the coupled periodic structures:
  A1,2 A1,2  + – –
 j + 1,2 + D A + 1,2k0 KA2,1  q1,2 B1,2 q1,2 KB2,1 = 0,
  t y  1,2 1,2

  A1 ,2 B1,2  – + +
 j t – 1 ,2 y + D1,2 B1,2 + 1,2kKB2,1  q1,2 A1 ,2  q1,2KA2,1 = 0,
 
(2.5)

–
where D1,2 = – w2 + w2H + wM wH + 1 ,2k– , 1,2 = w2Md01,02 /2, and
± i ( y1 ,2 ) ± ±
±
q1,2 = e d1,2; and d1,2 = k± dd1,2/2, y1 = 0, and y2 = 2pq/L.
If dd1,2 = 0 and B = 0 Eq. 2.5 describes a structure consisting
of two coupled homogeneous film (HFs). If K = 0 then Eq. 2.5
describes SW dynamics in separated MCs.
We determine the dispersion relation for waves in a coupled
structure by equating the determinant of the set of equations in
Eq. 2.5 to zero:

 D1+  1 k0 K q1– q1– K 

 
  2 k0 K D2+ q2– K q2– 
 q+ = 0. (2.6)
q1+K D1– 1 k – K 

 +
1 

 q2 K q2+ 2k– K D2– 

If the diagonal components of the determinant in Eq. 2.6

are equal to zero, one can obtain the dispersion relations for
forward and backward MSSWs in HFs. The off-diagonal components,
which include the coupling coefficient K, describe the coupling
±
between MC 1 and MC 2, d1,2 are the coupling parameters between
the forward and backward waves in each MC, and q1,2±
depend on
 Spin Waves in Coupled Magnetic Stripes 51

the phase shifts y1 and y2 between the MCs. Note that when K ≠ 0
±
and d1,2 = 0, Eq. 2.6 describes the dispersion relation for MMSWs
±
in the structure of the two coupled HFs. When K = 0 and d1,2 ≠0
in Eq. 2.6 we obtain the dispersion equations for MC 1 and MC 2
separately [17]. If d2± = 0 in Eq. 2.6 for MC 2, the second layer is
an HF.
The main problem in the coupled wave approach is the
lack of definition of the coupling coefficient K and geometry of
the magnetic structures. Moreover, it is necessary to take into
account the multimode coupling between the transverse width
modes of each finite-width magnetic waveguide [18]. Thus the
micromagnetic numerical simulations reveal the properties
of modes coupling and can be used for geometry design of the
planar and layered directional multimode SW coupler. Using the
finite element method (FEM) [19] the spectra of eigenmodes of
the coupled magnetic structures and the coupling parameter K
can be calculated, whereas both the time- and space-dependent
magnetization evolution and SW transmission can be numerically
simulated by means of the finite-difference method [20].

2.3 Spin Waves in Coupled Magnetic Stripes

The coupling of MSSWs propagating in a layered sandwich
structure [21, 22], where two magnetic films are located in
parallel with a small gap between them, can be used to fabricate
a directional coupler. In another way, the conventional planar
topology should be used for implementation in the magnonic
architecture due to tunable frequency filtering and frequency
demultiplexing characteristics of the coupled waveguiding
structures [22–24]. Therefore side-coupled magnetic waveguides
offer a range of further opportunities in planar magnonics [25, 26].
During the last three decades, the BLS technique has been
used extensively to study multilayered magnetic structures.
Nowadays high-resolution BLS spectroscopy [10, 11] opens up
the possibility of dynamic magnetization study in planar side-
coupled magnetic stripes. Thus a single-crystalline ferrimagnetic
yttrium iron garnet (Y3Fe5O12 (111)) (YIG) film with saturation
magnetization M0 = 139 G was used for fabrication of side-coupled
waveguides using ytterbium fiber laser [27]. The sketch of the
52 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

fabricated structure is shown in Fig. 2.1a. The exactly identical

stripes with a width w = 200 µm and a thickness of 10 µm
were formed on a 500 µm thick gadolinium gallium garnet
(Gd3Ga5O12 (111)) substrate to provide the efficient coupling of
the propagating SWs. Magnetic stripes have a trapezoidal form
in order to minimize the reflection of SWs, propagating along the
y axis, and are separated from each other by a gap d = 40 µm.
The short base of the first trapezoid (stripe a) was Sa = 8 mm
and for the second trapezoid (stripe b) was Sb = 4 mm.
Microwave transducers with a width of 30 µm and a length of
~2 mm are used for SW excitation and detection. The input and
output transducers are attached to the magnetic stripe a at a
distance of 8 mm from each other. A uniform static magnetic field
H0 = 600 Oe was applied in the plane of the waveguides along
the x direction. In this case the MSSW was effectively excited
[12, 28].

Figure 2.1 (a) Schematic of the experiment. (b) Profile of the static
internal magnetic field Hint along the x axis.

To understand how the guided power of SWs may be

interchanged between side-coupled magnetic stripes, we calculate
the dispersion characteristics of the coupled waveguides using
FEM [19]. It should be noted that the spectra of eigenmodes
of two identical waveguides consist of a symmetric and an
antisymmetric transverse mode. The symmetric mode in the
x direction corresponds to the case when the amplitudes of
the magnetic potentials in two YIG films have the same phase
(Fig. 2.2e,g), and in the antisymmetric mode they are out of
phase by 180° (Fig. 2.2f,h). The lateral confinement of the each YIG
stripe leads to the reduction of the internal magnetic field in the
 Spin Waves in Coupled Magnetic Stripes 53

MSSW configuration. Figure 2.1b shows the calculated distribution

of static internal magnetic field across the x direction. The internal
field at the center of the waveguide is Hi = 550 Oe. This leads to
the approximate shift of the lower cutoff frequency [29] of
the MSSW, f0 = g Hi ( Hi + 4 pM0 ), where g = 2.8 MHz/Oe is the
electronic gyromagnetic ratio for YIG. The dispersion
characteristics, shown in Fig. 2.2a, were calculated using FEM
and taking into account the non-uniform internal magnetic field
profile. We consider nth-order transverse modes of coupled
stripes: symmetric (wavenumber is kns) and antisymmetric (knas ). )
It can be seen that the lower cutoff frequency for the lowest-
order symmetric modes is higher than that of the other modes.
This cutoff frequency defines the beginning of the frequency
range of effective dipolar coupling of SWs. The dispersion for
nth-order transverse modes of the single magnetic stripe is
depicted with dotted curves, denoted by kn in Fig. 2.2a. Figure
2.2b shows the frequency dependence of the modulus of the
transmission coefficient of coupled magnetic stripes, which was
measured using a VNA. Three well-pronounced stop-band dips,
denoted with numbers and arrows in Fig. 2.2b, correspond to
the frequencies at which the power of SWs does not effectively
returns to the stripe a. This regime is possible while the output
transducer is placed to the end of the stripe a; thus the laterally
coupled stripes can demonstrate the frequency filtering regime,
like in Ref. [22]. The transmission characteristic in Fig. 2.2b is
plotted with the calculated curves. The dashed line shows the
results of calculation of the transmission spectrum, taking into
account only the first mode, while the dotted line shows the
transmission of the superposition of the first, second, and third
modes. It is worth noting that the frequencies of the first and
second dips (denoted by arrows) in the experimental curve are in
good correspondence with single-mode simulation. The frequency
value of the third dip can be predicted by numerical simulation
with all the first three modes of the coupled structure. This leads
to the necessity of the multimode dispersion calculation for the
design of coupled magnetic stripes. The distance for which
maximum guided power is transferred from one waveguide to other
is called the coupling length. In particular, for coupled magnetic
stripes, the length necessary to fully transfer the power of the
nth mode from one waveguide to the other can be written
54 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

as Ln = p /|kns – knas|. Figure 2.2c demonstrates the frequency

dependence of the coupling length for first three width modes.
Coupling length increases with the increase of the frequency and
the transverse mode order. Variation of the lateral gap d between
the stripes leads to the tuning of Ln (Fig. 2.2d). The dotted
line denotes the value d/w = 0.2, corresponding to the coupled
YIG stripes in our experiments. Thus the coupling lengths are
longer when operating in the multimode regime than in a
single-mode regime. We note that the coupling length becomes
shorter as the separation distance between the waveguides is
shortened. To show this, we analyzed the mode profiles of first
three modes corresponding to the eigenmodes of the coupled
magnetic waveguides (Fig. 2.2e–h). The coupling length is longer
for high-order modes because of the reduced overlap area of
modes profiles for higher mode orders. In particular, using
this configuration of modes profiles, we are able to do mode
decomposition from the SW intensity (BLS map). Using BLS [30]
we can estimate the effects of the coupling of the transverse width
modes of the magnetic stripes that are difficult to estimate with
alternative experimental methods. The BLS technique allows us
to map SW intensity across the sample with the spatial resolution
of 25 µm. The BLS intensity is directly proportional to the
dynamic magnetization squared. Figure 2.3a demonstrates the
coupling between two waveguides at the excitation frequency
of f1 = 3.125 GHz. It can be seen that the guided power is
transferred from one guide to the other in a periodic manner.
The mode beating effect in the confined magnetic stripes leads to
the strong spatial modulation of the SW intensity. To prove the
concept of the transverse mode coupling we perform FEM and
micromagnetic simulation of a multimode magnonic coupler.
The map of SW intensity in coupled stripes can be represented as
the superposition of the symmetric and antisymmetric modes.
The beating of the transverse symmetric and antisymmetric
modes results in guided power exchanges between two magnetic
waveguides. Figure 2.3b is introduced to demonstrate the map of
the squared SW amplitude calculated using FEM. Using
micromagnetic simulation [20] of SW propagation in dipolar
coupled waveguides we also can estimate the coupling length.
The map of the mz component of magnetization is shown in
 Spin Waves in Coupled Magnetic Stripes 55

Fig. 2.3c after a transient process (after a time of 200 ns since

the excitation source is turned on). As it seen from Fig. 2.3a–c,
the coupling length is the same in FEM, in micromagnetic simulation,
and in BLS data. To prove the validity of the calculated frequency
dependence of the coupling length, we show in Fig. 2.2c the value
of coupling length calculated from micromagnetic simulation
results (diamonds) and from experimental BLS data (open squares).
We hope that using nanometer-thickness YIG films will make
possible the fabrication of the nanoscale magnetic coupler in the
near future. A further study is pointed to SW propagation in an
array of coupled magnetic waveguides that can be used as a
frequency multiplexer or a multidirectional multimode magnonic
coupler. Thus coupled magnetic stripes can act both as a magnonic
splitter and a multimode directional coupler, which might be
employed in integrated planar magnonic systems as important
building blocks.

Figure 2.2 (a) Dispersion characteristics for first three symmetric (solid
lines) and antisymmetric (dashed lines) modes. (b) Transmission
characteristics measured with a signal network analyzer (solid line)
and calculated with only first symmetric and antisymmetric modes
(dashed lines): the results of the calculation for first and third modes
are plotted with a dotted line. (c) Frequency dependence of the coupling
length obtained with FEM (solid lines), micromagnetic simulation
(closed circles), and BLS technique (open squares). (d) Coupling length
versus dimensionless ratio d/w at a frequency of 3.125 GHz.
(e–h) Profiles for first (n = 1) and second (n = 2) transverse symmetric
and antisymmetric modes.
56 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

Figure 2.3 (a) Normalized color-coded BLS intensity map. (b) Calculated
intensity (FEM) obtained by taking into account first three symmetric
and antisymmetric modes. (c) Micromagnetic simulation of SW amplitude.

2.4 Nonlinear Spin Wave Coupling in Magnonic

Crystals
The magnon transport from SW sources to magnonic circuits is
central to any all-magnonic or integrated magnonic systems [2–5].
Over the last few years, periodic magnetic structures, MCs, have
become a subject of striking interest in the scientific community
because of the possibility of fabrication of predefined SW
transmission properties. The coupling of periodic waveguiding
structures opens up a new possibility of dispersion and
transmission control, for example, due to multiple bandgap (BG)
formation.
The coupled stripes could operate in the nonlinear regime,
where predominantly the power exchange ratio between the stripes
is defined by the intensity of the input signal [31–33]. The idea of
using a side-coupled MC in nonlinear application is associated
with the intensity-dependent nonlinear shift of the magnonic
forbidden (rejection) band [17] in each adjacent MC. The schematic
 Nonlinear Spin Wave Coupling in Magnonic Crystals 57

of the experimental layout is shown in Fig. 2.4a [33]. The coupled

magnetic stripes of width w = 720 µm and edge-to-edge spacing
d = 40 µm were fabricated from 10 µm a thick monocrystalline
ferrimagnetic YIG film. The length of the first magnonic stripe
is 9 mm and of the second is 5.0 mm. The periodic sequences
of the grooves with period D = 200 µm were fabricated on the
surface of both magnonic stripes using precise ion-beam etching.
Both MCs had a length of 20 periods in the direction parallel
to the long axis of the stripes. Excitation of SWs in the first
magnetic stripe is performed with the 50 ohm–matched microstrip
transmission line. It is convenient to denote the input of the
microwave signal as port C0 and the output of the first MC as
port C1, while the output of the second MC is port C2 (Fig. 2.4a).
The uniform static magnetic field H0 = 1300 Oe was applied in
the plane of the waveguide along the z direction for the effective
excitation of the guided MSSW [12, 28]. The BLS technique in
the backscattering configuration was used to measure the 2D
5 × 1.5 mm2 spatial maps of the SW intensity and to demonstrate
the efficient coupling of MCs. Figure 2.4b,c presents the BLS map
of the dynamic magnetization squared at a frequency above and
below the frequency of ferromagnetic resonance, respectively.
As expected, the SW power transfers from one guide to the other
in a periodic manner. Transmission and dispersion of MSSWs
were measured using a VNA. The solid blue line in Fig. 2.5a shows
the transmission response (absolute value of S21) for MSSWs.
A well-pronounced rejection band, where SWs are not allowed
to propagate, is clearly observed at a frequency of f2 = 5.608 GHz.
The frequency width of the forbidden zone is DfB = 0.03 GHz at
the level of 35 dB. To verify that the frequency f2 is the central
frequency of the magnonic forbidden gap we acquire the
dispersion characteristics by means of the measurement of
the phase frequency response of the microstrip line with the
coupled MCs (see the red dashed-dotted curve in Fig. 2.5a).
The frequency f2 corresponds to the Bragg wavenumber
kB = p/D = 157 cm–1. The noticeable dips at the transmission
response, denoted by I, II, and III, are typical for the side-coupled
magnonic stripes [19] (see Fig. 2.2b). The nature of these dips
is revealed from the BLS experiments. Figure 2.5b shows the
frequency dependence of the intensity of the BLS signal I(z, x) at
the x position, which corresponds to the position of ports C1 and C2.
58 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

At the frequency region in the magnonic forbidden gap signal,

attenuation in both ports is visible. The striking difference
between the frequency response of MC 1 and MC 2 is the
inequality of the forbidden zone edge shifts due to the power
increase. The transmission coefficient (power exchange coefficient)
T21(P0, f ) = P2(P0, f )/P1(P0, f ) defines the ratio between the
power transmitted in port C2 from MC 1 and is plotted in
Fig. 2.5c as a function of frequency detuning df = f – fc from the
center of the magnonic forbidden zone, fc = 5.615 GHz. The shift
of the forbidden gap for MC 1 occurs at a power level lower than
that for MC 2. In particular, this leads to a dramatic increase of T21
with an input power increase at frequencies near the lower cutoff
frequency of the forbidden gap.

Figure 2.4 (a) Schematic of the experimental layout with side-coupled

magnonic crystals, (b) normalized color-coded BLS intensity map of
magnetization squared for the excitation frequencies f = 5.58 GHz (b) and
f = 5.48 GHz (c).
 Nonlinear Spin Wave Coupling in Magnonic Crystals 59

Figure 2.5 (a) Transmission (blue solid curve) and dispersion (red
dash-dotted curve) characteristics, measured with the VNA. Calculated
transmission is shown with the dashed green curve; (b) shows the dynamic
magnetization along the z-coordinate of ports C1 and C2 as a function of
frequency. Yellow area is the guide for the eye to show the frequency and
wavenumber region of the magnonic forbidden zone; vertical dashed-
dotted line shows the central frequency of magnonic forbidden gap.
(c) Power exchange coefficient as a function of frequency detuning from
the center of magnonic forbidden zone. The dotted curve shows the
numerical results. Open circles, squares, and triangles show the
experimental data for power levels 26, 10, and−10 dBm, respectively.
Vertical dashed lines show the frequency detuning at frequencies f1, f2
and f3.

Numerical modeling of the MSSW coupling in two side-coupled

MCs was performed by using a direct numerical integration of
60 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

the four coupled nonlinear Schrodinger equations [17], which

were obtained from the Landau–Lifshitz equation for the
magnetization dynamics, taking into account Kerr-type nonlinearity
at the frequencies in the vicinity of the first Brillouin zone.
Therefore, the decrease of the effective saturation magnetization
with an increase of the amplitude of the magnetization dynamic
part was taken into account. Numerical simulation (dotted
curve in Fig. 2.5c) provides a good qualitative description of the
observed phenomena. The parameters for numerical simulation
were chosen to fit the nonequal shift of the low-frequency edges
of both MCs. Due to more pronounced shift of the low-frequency
edge of the magnonic forbidden gap, the simulation results are
in good accordance for df < 0.
The technology of side coupling of MCs described here
represents an important step toward experiments with nonlinear
magnonics. We emphasize that the coupling length is almost
constant with input power increase, even to the highest value of
30 dBm. Only the nonlinear shift of the magnonic forbidden gap
for each MC opens up the possibility of a coupled periodic magnonic
structure to operate as a nonlinear switching device. The main
strategy to utilize the nonlinear effect is to use the coupling of
identical periodic structures and tuning the magnetic field for
choosing the operating regime near the magnonic forbidden
gap frequency. The nonlinear mechanism of the dynamic BG shift
can induce intensity-dependent SW transmission.

2.5 Multilayer Magnonic Crystals

The control of the characteristics of the BGs in the spectrum
of propagating waves should expand the functionality of MC
waveguides. It was shown that coupled waveguides with the
control parameter as the coupling between the layers are used
in microwave electronics [1, 9] and in optics [34]. In particular,
coupling of two waveguides leads to the existence of two normal
waves in the structure—fast and slow waves. These waves
propagate with different phase and group velocities, which can
be controlled by variation of the coupling parameter in linear
[1, 13, 14, 35] and nonlinear [16, 36] cases. It is expected that in
 Multilayer Magnonic Crystals 61

the case of coupled periodic structures based on MCs, the coupling

will play an important role in the mechanisms of BG formation.
Here we present the results of theoretical and experimental
studies of layered periodic structures in the form of MCs
separated by a dielectric layer. We consider the influence of the
coupling between the layers and the asymmetry of the structure
on the mechanisms of BG formation. A layered structure consisting
of two MCs separated by a dielectric layer with thickness D is
shown in Fig. 2.6. The dispersion relation Eq. 2.6 was used to study
the features of BG formation of MSSWs in this structure and the
MC-HF. The results of the calculation of dispersion characteristics
based on Eq. 2.6 for the two MCs with the same groove thicknesses
and different shifts of MCs are shown in Fig. 2.7a–c with solid
lines. The horizontal axis in Fig. 2.7 shows the wavenumber
value k = Re (k0). The inset in Fig. 2.7a shows the dispersion
characteristic corresponding to a single MC (D  ∞, К = 0) (black
solid lines). In this case, only one BG is formed (G-MC, shaded
gray) at the frequency of the first Bragg resonance at k = kB and
f = fMC because of the interaction of the incident wave (black
dashed line 1) and the reflected wave (black dashed line 1¢).

Figure 2.6 Scheme of the ferromagnetic structure in the form of two

one-dimensional magnonic crystals separated by a dielectric layer.

As it is well known [1, 9], the dispersion curve for the MSSW
splits into two normal modes, which correspond to fast and
slow waves in coupled HFs (dd1,2 =0 and K ≠ 0). Dispersion
characteristics for these waves are shown as dashed lines in
62 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

Fig. 2.7a–c: red lines 2 for the fast incident wave and blue
lines 3 for the slow incident wave. Corresponding dispersion
characteristics of the reflected waves are denoted by lines 2¢ and
3¢. Interaction between the waves of four described types leads
to the formation of BGs (shaded region in Fig. 2.7) at frequencies
of the phase synchronism. As can be seen from Fig. 2.7а, in the
symmetric structure at y = 0 the two BGs G-1 and G-2 at k = kB can
be formed. BG G-1 is observed at frequencies higher than the
frequency of the Bragg resonance for a single MC, fMC (red region
in Fig. 2.7a). BG G-1 is formed because of the interaction of
the incident and reflected fast waves (red dashed lines 2
and 2¢ in Fig. 2.7a). BG G-2 is observed at Re(k) = kB and at
frequencies lower than the frequency of the Bragg resonance for
a single MC, fMC (blue region in Fig. 2.7a). BG G-2 is formed by the
interaction of the incident and reflected slow waves (blue
dashed lines 3 and 3 in Fig. 2.7a). The presence of only two BGs
in Fig. 2.7a is a symmetric degenerate case when the structure
consists of two identical MCs placed symmetrically.

Figure 2.7 Dispersion characteristics of MSSWs in the structure MC-MC

with the shift: (a) y = 0, (b) y = 0.6 p, and (c) y = p. (d) Dependence of
the transmission and reflection coefficients for the fast wave and the
slow wave on the frequency of the input signal at y = 0.6 p.

When y = 0.6 p (see. Fig. 2.7c) three BGs (G-1, G-2, G-3) within
the dispersion curve are visible. An additional band G-3 (green
 Multilayer Magnonic Crystals 63

region in Fig. 2.7c) is formed by the interaction of incident fast

and reflected slow waves and incident slow and reflected fast
waves. If y = p (periodic structures are shifted relative to each
other by half of the period), only one BG (G-3) is visible (green
region in Fig. 2.7d).
The dependencies of the transmission coefficients for a fast
wave T+ (solid red curve) and a slow wave T– (solid blue curve) and
reflection coefficients for a fast wave R+ (dashed red curve) and a
slow wave R– (dashed blue curve) on the frequency of the input
signal, calculated on the basis of Eq. 2.5 at y = 0.6 p, are shown
in Fig. 2.7d. Three minimums of coefficients T± at different
frequencies that correspond to the three BGs in such a structure
(G-1, G-2, G-3) are observed. In this case two minimums
correspond to the each curve T±, and the average minimum
G-3 corresponds to the transmission coefficients of both T+ and
T–. This is consistent with the mechanism of BG formation (see
Fig. 2.7c).
Dependence of the widths and positions of the BGs on the
parameter y are shown in Fig. 2.8a. It is seen that at y = 0 and
y = 2p there are two BGs (G-1 and G-2). When y = p there exists one
BG (G-3). When 0 < y < p and p < y < 2p all three BGs can be
formed in the system (G-1, G-2, G-3). Thus, by changing the
phase shift between the MCs, one can effectively control
the characteristics of the BGs (their number and width).
In the case of a structure consisting of two MCs with
different geometric dimensions the mechanism of BG formation
is similar to the case presented in Fig. 2.2b. In this case also three
BGs are formed. As it follows from the presented results, the third
BG, G-3, is formed due to violation of symmetry in the geometry
of the structure relatively to the axis along the direction of wave
propagation.
The influence of the coupling coefficient K on the
characteristics of BGs is shown in Fig. 2.8b in the structure MC-HF.
The dashed curves in Fig. 2.8b show the shift of the central
frequencies of the BGs, depending on K. It is seen that if K
increases, the central frequency of the gap G-1 shifts up (red area
G-1 in Fig. 2.8b), the central frequency of the gap G-2 shifts
down and the BG G-2 narrows (blue area G-2), and the central
frequency of the gap G-3 shifts down and the BG G-3 narrows
64 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

(green area G-3). Note that a similar situation exists for the
structure based on MCs with a shift.

Figure 2.8 (a) Dependence of the width and position of bandgaps from
the phase shift between MCs. (b) Dependence of the width of bandgaps
(G-1, G-2, G-3) (shaded areas) and central frequencies (dashed lines) on
values of coupling K for the structure MC-HF.

For an experimental study of wave propagation in periodic

structures, a YIG film with thickness d = 12 µm was used. The
schematic of the experimental layout is shown in the inset in
Fig. 2.9a. On the surface of the film a periodic system of
grooves with period L = 200 µm; width a = 100 µm; and depth
Dd1 = Dd2 = 1 µm was developed. On the top surface of one of the
MCs a dielectric mica plate with a thickness of D = 25 µm was
placed. A second MC with the same parameters or a homogeneous
YIG film was placed on top of the dielectric plate. The length of
the second MC (or HF) was smaller than the length of the first
MC and was equal to 4 mm. For excitation and detection of the
magnetostatic SW in an MC microstrip transducers were used.
The region of overlap of the first MC and the second MC (or HF)
was 4 mm, or 20 periods of MCs. A magnetic field H0 = 300 Oe was
 Multilayer Magnonic Crystals 65

applied to the film parallel to transducers; thus the MSSW was

excited.

Figure 2.9 Normalized color-coded BLS intensity map of magnetization

squared, demonstrating the coupling in a layered structure MC-HF.
(b) Transmission characteristics of MSSWs in a single MC (black curve 1)
and in a structure MC-MC (blue curve 2).

In the first step, to confirm that the selected thickness of the

dielectric plate provides a sufficient value of coupling and the
layered structure behaves as a coupled system, the experimental
BLS technique was used. Figure 2.9a shows the map of the
scattered light intensity at a frequency of the BG for the layered
structure MC-HF. The focus of the optical system was tuned to
the layer of MCs. The observed picture is due to periodic power
exchange between MCs and HFs in a layered structure along the
direction of propagation.
66 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

In the second step, we investigated the transmission response

for the studied structures (Fig. 2.9b). In the transmission response
of a single MC (black curve 1) one BG, G-MC, is clearly observed,
which corresponds to the first Bragg resonance. For a symmetric
structure MC-MC at y = 0 the formation of two BGs in the region of
the first Bragg resonance, G-1 and G-2, can be seen (blue curve 2).
Figure 2.10 shows the results of an experimental study of BG
formation in the structure MC-HF. From the results in Fig. 2.10a
it follows that in such a structure three BGs in the region of the
first Bragg resonance are formed. To compare theoretical and
experimental results we plot the dispersion characteristics of
MSSWs (blue curve 1, experiment; red curve 2, calculation based
on the analytical model) in Fig. 2.10b. It can be seen that three
BGs in such a structure are formed.

Figure 2.10 (a) Transmission characteristic of MSSWs in a single MC

(black curve 1) and in an MC-HF (blue curve 2). (b) Experimental (blue
curve 1) and theoretical (red curve 2) dispersion characteristics of
MSSWs in an MC-HF.

We consider the layered structure consisting of two coupled

MCs. It is shown that in the case of symmetry breaking (in contrast
to the symmetric structures in which two BGs can be formed) in
an asymmetric structure, three BGs near the first Bragg resonance
are formed. Symmetry breaking can be caused by a change of the
shift between the MCs, the geometrical parameters of one of the
MCs, in the structure MC-HF. The frequency interval between
zones is determined by the coupling coefficient between the MCs,
which depends on the distance between the MCs and asymmetric
properties.
 Frequency-Selective Tunable Spin Wave Channeling 67

2.6 Frequency-Selective Tunable Spin Wave

Channeling
The control over the dispersion of SWs can be achieved, for
example, by the periodic patterning of thin magnetic films. MCs
can demonstrate a complicated magnonic band structure with
strong dispersion and anisotropy. The control of the BG
characteristics of MCs can be performed by the fabrication of
defects in the periodic structures. There are two main types of
defects, a local defect and a line defect (LD). The first type of defect
is constructed within some region of a periodic structure, and its
size is comparable with the MC spatial period. The LD is a
homogeneous region located within a periodic structure in the
direction of SW propagation. The sizes of such type defects are
much greater than the MC spatial period. The absence of a BG
in SW spectra of 2D periodic structures with the LD [37] leads to
the necessity of 1D MC fabrication, which supports both SW
propagation and BG formation. Here we demonstrate the realization
of BG control in a 1D MC with an LD by variation of the defect’s
geometry.
Figure 2.11a shows a 1D MC with an LD. The MC is formed
on the surface of a 7.7 μm thick and 2.2 mm wide YIG film.
The periodic copper stripes with a period of L = 300 μm form the
periodic boundary conditions on one surface of YIG. The bias
static magnetic field H0 = 370 Oe is applied in the film plane.
Figure 2.11b demonstrates that the first BG of the 1D MC does
not disappear when an LD is present within the periodic system.
Moreover, the dependence of the BG frequency shift on the LD
width has a complicated form. To explain experimental results we
consider an LD magnonic waveguide as a structure consisting of
two identical regions with periodic metal stripes of width d,
separated by a region between them with an HF of width D.
Such structure can be considered as two periodic regions with
the value of coupling K. In Section 2.2 we obtained the dispersion
relation for waves in such a structure [35]. Figure 2.12a shows
the dispersion characteristics for an MC with an LD (blue curve 1)
and without an LD (black dashed curve 2). BGs are formed in
SW spectra in MCs with LDs and in MCs without LDs (shaded
areas). According to the theoretical model, the variation of the
68 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

value of D leads to the BG of the MC with an LD shift (shaded

blue G-LD MC in Fig. 2.12a) relative to the BG position for the
MC without an LD (shaded gray G-MC in Fig. 2.12a).

Figure 2.11 (a) Scheme of a 1D MC with a line defect. (b) Transmission

responses of an MC measured at various values of the line defect width:
D = 0 (solid line), D = 0.2 mm (dotted line), and D = 1 mm (dashed line).

Figure 2.12 (a) Theoretical dispersion characteristics of SWs in an LD

magnonic waveguide. (b) Central frequency of a G-LDMC as a function of
LD width.

Figure 2.12b shows the dependence of the central frequency

of the G-LD MC, f (solid curve), on the value of D at w = const.
Circles in Fig. 2.12b denote the experimental values of the central
frequency of the BGs for samples with different D values. Here we
denote the BG central frequency at D = 0 by fMC (I in Fig. 2.12b).
With increasing D the values of f are shifted first up in frequency
and are greater than fMC (II), and then frequency is shifted
down and is below fMC (III). Thus, the fabrication of LDs in a 1D
MC allows control of the position of the BG in the SW spectrum.
 Frequency-Selective Tunable Spin Wave Channeling 69

The spatial and frequency filtering features of MCs have

straightforward advantages in magnonic applications. Magnetic
materials can be engineered to generate anisotropy and dispersion,
which open up the possibility of nondiffractive SW propagation
or self-collimation. The nondiffractive propagation of SWs is
possible in a magnonic crystal array (MCA) [38] that supports
self-collimation in the frequency range of a magnonic forbidden
gap. An MCA was fabricated from a single-crystalline ferrimagnetic
YIG film (Fig. 2.13a). A magnetic waveguide width wm = 3.5 mm
as produced using laser scribing [38]. An array of grooves with
period L = 200 µm was fabricated at the YIG surface using precise
ion-beam etching. The width of each groove was wg = 500 μm, the
groove depth was 1 μm, and the length was lg = L/2 = 100 μm.
The distance between grooves in the x direction was wd = 500 μm.
This structure forms three channels separated by 1D MCs.
The sample has a length of 30 periods in the y direction.

Figure 2.13 (a) Schematic of the experimental setup. (b) Transmission

characteristics measured with a VNA for an MC (blue curve) and an MCA
(red curve). Inset: Detailed frequency region of the magnonic forbidden
zone.
70 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

The only four periods in the x direction allow us to consider

this structure as the MCA with linear waveguide channels rather
than as a 2D square-lattice MC. As a reference, we fabricated a
conventional MC, which is similar to the structure with the array
of MCs but with the value of wd = 0. Input and output transducers
are attached to the YIG film at a distance of 8 mm from each
other. The uniform static magnetic field H0 = 1185 Oe was applied
in the plane of the waveguide along the x direction. The solid
blue line in Fig. 2.13b shows the measured MSSW intensity for
the MC. The frequency f0 = 5.222 GHz corresponds to the
ferromagnetic resonance. A well-pronounced stop band where
SWs are not allowed to propagate is clearly observed for
the frequency f2 = 5.333 GHz. The frequency width of the first BG
is DfB = 0.05 GHz at the level of −35 dB. The frequency f2 = 5.333 GHz
corresponds to the Bragg wavenumber kB = p/L = 157 rad/cm.
The microwave measurements of the fabricated MCA show
that the first forbidden frequency band is clearly distinguishable
at the transmission response (see red curve in Fig. 2.13b). To
demonstrate the distribution of the dynamic magnetization in the
MCA, the BLS technique in the backscattering configuration was
used. Figure 2.14a–c represents the results of 2D 4 × 3.5 mm2
mapping of the sample area. At the frequency f1 = 5.3 GHz the spatial
profile of the BLS map corresponds to the typical result of width
modes beating [11, 18, 28] (Fig. 2.14a). The estimated half-period
of the beating of the first and third transverse modes is about
3.5 mm in the frequency range of f1 < f < f2. This is in good
accordance with the BLS map, where the transverse size of the
SW beam [30] is decreased at y = 3 mm. Distribution of the
magnetization squared is almost not affected by the array of MCs
on the surface of YIG. Distribution of SW intensity changes as the
frequency reaches the forbidden band. At frequency f2 the spatial
map of magnetization, shown in Fig. 2.14b, demonstrates the
channeling of SWs. Confinement of SWs in the x direction in each
channel is clearly seen. In the central channel, denoted by CH2
in Fig. 2.14a, the SW beam propagates almost nondivergently over
a distance of 3 mm, while in two adjacent channels (along the
lines x = 0.7 mm [CH1] and x = 2.8 mm [CH3]) SW collimation
allows the beam to propagate over a distance of about 2 mm.
Collimation allows for a wave to travel in a medium along one
 Frequency-Selective Tunable Spin Wave Channeling 71

particular dimension without a significant diffraction in any

orthogonal dimensions. To show that the frequency-selective
collimation of SWs is associated with the frequency range
of the first forbidden zone, we performed spatially resolved
measurements of SW intensity along the line y = 4.0 mm in the
frequency range from 5.15 GHz to 5.5 GHz. The results of these
measurements are shown in Fig. 2.14d. In the frequency range
f0 < f < (f2 – DfB)/2 the intensity of SWs is allocated in the center
of the MCA structure. As the frequency reaches the frequency
range of BG (f2 – DfB)/2 < f < (f2 + DfB)/2, three SW beams are
observed in three channels inside the MCA. As the frequency
increases the confinement of SWs vanishes. Since the self-
collimation in the MCA structure manifests itself in the frequency
range corresponding to the frequencies inside the BG, the MCA
can exhibit the spatial-frequency-selective regimes for SWs.

Figure 2.14 Normalized color-coded BLS intensity map at f = 0° for

frequencies: f1 = 5.3 GHz (a), f2 = 5.33 GHz (b), and at f = 15° for frequency
f2 (c). (d) Map of the BLS intensity as a function of frequency.
Gray horizontal dotted lines depict the edges of the adjacent waveguides.
The vertical dashed line is a guide for the eye to show the central
frequency of the first magnonic forbidden zone of the MC. The frequency
f0 is depicted with the vertical dashed-dotted line.

By variation of the orientation of the applied direct current

(DC) magnetic field (angle f), the control over the SW propagation
length in magnonic channels is possible. Figure 2.14c shows
the SW distribution when a magnetic field is applied at f = 15°.
72 Coupled Spin Waves in Magnonic Waveguides

The propagation length of the collimated SW beam in channel

CH1 is considerably larger than in CH2 and CH3. We analyze
and verify the angular dependencies of SW transmission with
the micromagnetic simulation technique [20] by calculation the
integral value of SW intensity in the nth channel Cn at different
values of f (Fig. 2.15c). Rotating the magnetic field enables
controllable manipulation of SW propagation over the magnonic
channels.

Figure 2.15 Dependencies of spin wave transmission on the in-plane

magnetic field angle orientation. Open symbols denote the simulation
results, and closed symbols correspond to the experimental data.

2.7 Conclusions
In this chapter we considered the concept of SW coupling in
lateral and vertical magnonic structures. We showed that the
functionalities of simple magnetic stripes can be extended by
lateral or vertical coupling with adjacent stripes or MCs. We
demonstrated nonlinear SW switching in two side-coupled MCs.
We showed that in a fabricated 2D MCA the control over a
propagation distance in SW channels can be implemented by the
orientation of an external magnetic field. Collimated SW beams can
be used as signal carriers in the magnonic platform for applications
such as signal multiplexing. Thus, coupled magnonic stripes and
crystals can act both as a magnonic splitter and a multimode
 References 73

directional coupler, which might be employed in the integrated

planar and vertical magnonic networks as important building
blocks.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported, in part, by the grant from the Russian
Science Foundation (Project No. 16-19-10283, 14-19-00760), the
Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Project No. 15-07-05901),
and the grant from the president of the Russian Federation (No. MK-
5837.2016.9).

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Chapter 3

Tuning of the Spin Wave Band

Structure in Nanostructured
Iron/Permalloy Nanowire Arrays

G. Gubbiotti,a S. Tacchi,a R. Silvani,a,b M. Madami,b G. Carlotti,b

A. O. Adeyeye,c and M. Kostylevd
aIstitutoOfficina dei Materiali, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche,
Sede Secondaria di Perugia, Via A. Pascoli, Perugia 06123, Italy
bDipartimento di Fisica e Geologia, Università di Perugia,

Via A. Pascoli, Perugia I-06123, Italy

cInformation Storage Materials Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer

Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576, Singapore

dSchool of Physics, University of Western Australia, Crawley 6009, WA, Australia

[email protected]

In the developing field of magnonics, based on the utilization

of spin waves in magnetic microstructures for information
processing and computation, it is very important to understand
and tune the spin wave band structure. In this chapter, we
present the results of a combined experimental and theoretical
investigation of the spin wave band structure in bilayered iron/
permalloy (Fe/Py) nanowires (NWs) with either “rectangular” cross
section (bottom and upper layers of equal width) or “L-shaped”
cross section (upper layer of half width). The results of Brillouin

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
78 Tuning of the Spin Wave Band Structure in Nanostructured Iron/Permalloy NW Arrays

light scattering (BLS) experiments, performed while sweeping

the wave vector perpendicularly to the NW length over three
Brillouin zones of the reciprocal space, have been interpreted
thanks to micromagnetic simulations based on a GPU-based
software. For the rectangular Fe(10 nm)/Py(10 nm) NWs, the
lowest-frequency fundamental mode exhibits a sizable and
periodic frequency dispersion. A similar dispersive mode is also
present in L-shaped NWs, but the mode amplitude is concentrated
in the Py NW portion not covered by Fe. An overall blue shift in
frequency of the entire band structure is observed on increasing
the Fe NW thickness from 2 to 20 nm and corresponds to a
localization of the mode in the Py NW portion not covered by the
Fe NW. Moreover, for the L-shaped NWs it is shown that there
is at least another dispersive mode, at higher frequency, whose
amplitude is large in the thick side of the NW.

3.1 Introduction
Magnonic crystals (MCs) consist of periodically modulated
magnetic material and make use of fundamental properties of
waves, such as scattering and interference, to create “bandgaps”—
ranges of wavelength (or frequency) within which spin waves
(SWs) cannot propagate through the structure. The concept of
MCs followed by two decades the analogous concept of photonic
crystals for the propagation of electromagnetic waves [1, 2]
where the band gap is caused by a periodic variation in the
refractive index of an artificially structured material. In this
respect, MCs offer opportunities to tailor-made novel properties
for SW propagation such as high group velocity [3], magnetic
field tunability, and controllable bandgap opening [4–15].
Interesting phenomena such as anisotropic damping [16], Bragg
diffraction [17, 18], and SW mode conversion [19] have also
been demonstrated. Besides, bi-component MCs (BMCs), consisting
of two different periodically arranged magnetic materials, have
additional degrees of freedom thanks to the contrasting properties
of the ferromagnetic (FM) materials [20–22].
The progress in the field of MCs goes in parallel with the
capability to realize magnetic nanostructures over a large area by
 Introduction 79

using interference [23, 24] and nanosphere [25, 26] lithographic

techniques. However, these techniques are limited in the types
of geometry of the nanostructure that can be fabricated and it
is only recently that synthesizing of large area MCs consisting
of one or two different ferromagnetic materials with dimension
control, resolution, size, and shape homogeneity became possible
[27–30].
In one dimension (1D), BMCs have been experimentally
demonstrated, in the form of periodic arrays of alternating
contacting cobalt (Co) and permalloy (Py) nanowires (NWs).
The SW dispersion relations were mapped for both the parallel
[31, 32] and the antiparallel [33, 34] configurations, studying the
dependence of the bandgap position and width on the external
magnetic field. Due to the rather different resonance frequency
of the two materials, the main dispersive mode is formed on
the basis of standing wave oscillations in uncoupled Py NWs.
For such excitations, the Co NWs act as amplifiers of dipole
coupling between the Py NWs. These studies also suggested
that there is a strong direct exchange coupling across the Co–Py
interface, which influences the pinning of the dynamical
magnetization at the interface [10, 35]. Furthermore, experimental
studies on 2D BMCs revealed that their band structure is very
rich because of the large density of modes and their consequent
hybridization [36–38]. Here, additional complexity with respect
to the 1D case derives from the pronounced non-uniformity of
the internal static field, which induces the formation of channels
for spin wave propagation in the direction perpendicular to that
of the applied magnetic field [2, 7, 10, 30–41].
In the recent past, a new class of magnonic materials
constituted by closely packed Py NWs with step-modulated
thickness has been proposed, showing that this nonplanar
array supports the propagation of collective spin waves in the
periodicity direction [42]. These results indicated that vertically
layered MCs, where ferromagnetic materials are placed in
direct contact or separated by a nonmagnetic material, can be
exploited to add new functionalities to control the in-plane
propagation of collective SWs [43]. The advantage of vertically
modulated NWs over 2D systems is that they have all the benefits
of BMCs without the complexity of the inhomogeneity of the
80 Tuning of the Spin Wave Band Structure in Nanostructured Iron/Permalloy NW Arrays

internal magnetic field, since when the NWs are longitudinally

magnetized the internal field is uniform and equal to the magnetic
applied field value.
The intent of this chapter is to review recent results relative
to the spin wave band structure of longitudinally magnetized
bilayered (Fe–Py) NW arrays characterized by either a rectangular
or a L-shaped cross section [43, 44]. Our investigation has been
carried out by means of Brillouin light scattering (BLS) from
thermally excited spin waves and GPU-based micromagnetic
simulations. All the samples have fixed width (w2) of the Py
NWs and differ by the width of the Fe (w1) ones. For NWs with
“rectangular” cross section the bottom Py and upper Fe layers
are of equal width w1 = w2 = 340 nm, while for “L-shaped” NWs
w1 = 170 nm and w2 = 340 nm. BLS spectra were recorded by
sweeping the wave vector perpendicularly to the wire length
over three BZs of the reciprocal space. Remarkably, for all the
investigated NWs, the fundamental mode, lying at the lowest
frequency, shows the largest frequency dispersion. Moreover, for
the L-shaped cross-section NWs, it is shown that there is also
another, higher-order, mode with a sizable dispersion.
Quantitatively, the experimental results of the spin wave band
structure have been successfully reproduced my means of
micromagnetic simulations performed with the GPU-based
software MUMAX3. This approach also enabled us to calculate
the spatial profile of the dynamical magnetization corresponding
to each of the detected eigenmodes, showing that those modes
which exhibit a sizable dispersion are characterized by the
absence of nodes across the NW width.

3.2 Sample Fabrication and Brillouin Light

Scattering Measurements
Seven NWs arrays, whose geometrical and magnetic parameters
are summarized in Table 3.1, have been studied. NWs arrays were
fabricated over a large area (4 × 4 mm2) on silicon substrates
by using deep ultraviolet lithography in combination with tilted
shadow deposition technique. Differently from the multilevel
electron beam lithographic process, this recently developed
method does not require the alignment between the two FM layers
 Sample Fabrication and Brillouin Light Scattering Measurements 81

and the deposition of the two materials can be performed without

breaking the vacuum in the same process step, thus ensuring high
quality of the interface between the two FM materials.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.1 (a) Scanning electron microscope images of Samples #3 and

#6 with L1 = L2 = 10 nm, together with the coordinate axes and the
direction of the external applied magnetic field (H) and wave vector k.
(b) Schematic representation of the NW with either rectangular and
L-shaped cross section.

In all the samples, the lower NWs, formed by permalloy

(Ni80Fe20, Py), have a fixed width w2 = 340 nm and thickness
L2 = 10 nm. The Py NWs were capped with Fe NWs having a either
a width w1 = 340 nm and a thickness L1 = 10 nm (“rectangular”
cross-section, sample #3) or w1 = 170 nm (“L-shaped” cross section)
and L1 = 2, 5, 10, or 20 nm (sample #4 to #7). Single-layer NWs of
either Py (w2 = 340 nm, L2 = 10 nm, sample #1) or Fe (w1 = 340 nm,
L1 = 10 nm, sample #2) were also fabricated and used as reference
samples. For all the arrays, the inter-wire edge-to edge distance
was d = 100 nm (as measured at the level of Py layers) and the
array periodicity a = (w2 + d) = 440 nm, resulting in the boundary
82 Tuning of the Spin Wave Band Structure in Nanostructured Iron/Permalloy NW Arrays

of the first BZ located at p/a = 0.71 × 107 rad × m–1. Scanning

electron micrographs of the “rectangular” (sample #3) and
“L-shaped” (sample #6) cross-section NWs are shown in Fig. 3.1,
while the geometric parameters of the investigated NW arrays
are listed in the third and fourth columns of Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Geometric and magnetic parameters for the single- and bilayered
NWs

Sample Number of Layer width Layer thickness

label layers w1, w2 (nm) L1–L2 (nm) 4pMs
1 1,Py 340 10 7000
2 1,Fe 340 10 12500
3 2,Fe–Py 340–340 10–10 16500–10000
4 2,Fe–Py 170–340 2–10 12500–7500
5 2,Fe–Py 170–340 5–10 16500–8500
6 2,Fe–Py 170–340 10–10 18500–9000
7 2,Fe–Py 170–340 20–10 18000–7500

The same set of NW array has been studied by ferromagnetic

resonance (FMR) [45]. However, with the above technique, it
is not possible to sweep the wave vector of measured excitations
in order to map the SW frequency dispersion across the whole
first BZ. FMR allows accessing the G point of the first
BZ only. In other words, with FMR one probes only spin
waves with the Block wave vector k = 0, and only modes for
which the magnetization dynamics represents a family of
in-plane standing spin waves with a nonvanishing net magnetic
moment.
For recording the BLS spectra, about 200 mW of
p-polarized monochromatic light from a solid state laser l = 532 nm
was focused onto the sample surface and the s-polarized
backscattered light was analyzed with a (3+3) tandem Fabry–Pérot
interferometer [46]. A magnetic field of H = 500 Oe was applied
along the NWs length ( y direction) and spectra were recorded for
different incidence angles of light (qi). The incident plane of light
was orthogonal to the direction of H (Damon–Eshbach
geometry). This corresponds to sweep the in-plane wave vector
k in the orthogonal direction (x direction) [47]. Thanks to the
 Micromagnetic Simulations 83

conservation of the in-plane component of the wave vector in

the scattering process, these two quantities are related by the
following relation k = (4p/l) × sin q i.

3.3 Micromagnetic Simulations

In order to reproduce the dispersion of collective SW excitations
and the cross-sectional profiles of the modes, we used the MUMAX3
GPU-based micromagnetic simulator [48]. Periodic boundary
conditions were used in the array plane to reproduce the periodic
nature of an artificial MC. A magnetic field H = 500 Oe was
assumed along the NWs length, while a sinc-shaped field pulse

sin[2pf0 (t – t 0 )]
h(t )= h0
2pf0 (t – t 0 )

directed perpendicularly with respect to the sample plane (i.e.,

along the z axis), with the maximum amplitude h0 = 30 Oe and
frequency f0 = 30 GHz, was used to excite the NW placed in the
center of the simulated area. The pulse deflects the magnetization
vector from its equilibrium direction. The precession is
spatially uniform along each individual NW (y direction) but is
non-uniform across the NW cross section (x direction), owing
to the effect of confinement in the cross-section plane. The
dynamic stray field of individual NWs is strong and long-ranging
enough to dynamically couple the NWs and produce collective
magnetization dynamics on the array in the form of a Bloch
spin wave propagating along x, i.e., along the array’s periodicity
direction. The dispersion relation was calculated by performing
a Fourier transform of the out-of-plane component of the
magnetization both in space and time. The spatial profile of the
spin wave modes has been calculated at the center of the first BZ
(k = 0). The spatial profiles for the two layers were extracted
separately, by first Fourier-transforming the out-of-plane component
of the magnetization vector in time, for each simulation cell,
and then plotting the spectral amplitude at a given frequency for
each cell. Further information on the micromagnetic simulations
can be found in Gubbiotti et al. [44] and Silvani et al. [49].
The material parameters used in the simulations are as follows:
84 Tuning of the Spin Wave Band Structure in Nanostructured Iron/Permalloy NW Arrays

gyromagnetic ratio gPy = 2.90 GHz/kOe and gFe = 3.05 GHz/kOe,

exchange stiffness constant AFe = 2 × 10–6 erg/cm and
APy = 1 × 10–6 erg/cm. Regarding the interlayer exchange field,
MUMAX code uses a built-in model assuming the interface-
effective exchange field equal to the average of the exchange fields
of the two ferromagnetic materials.
The geometric parameters and the saturation magnetization
values assumed in the simulations are summarized in Table 3.1.
It can be seen that the saturation magnetization values
vary from sample to sample and are significantly smaller
than the corresponding values of bulk Fe and Py. This is
because the extracted values correspond to the “effective”
saturation magnetizations—i.e., they include the effect of surface
perpendicular uniaxial anisotropy, as well as the presence of
dead magnetic layers.

3.4 Results and Discussion

3.4.1 Spin Wave Band Structure and Mode Spatial

Profiles for the NWs with Rectangular Cross
Section
In Fig. 3.2, we show BLS spectra measured at k = 0 and p/a for
NW arrays with rectangular cross section (samples #1 to #3).
Spectra have a very good signal-to-noise ratio and are
characterized by the presence of several well-resolved peaks.
It can be seen that the lowest-frequency mode has the largest
intensity and exhibits a remarkable frequency evolution with
k, while the modes at higher frequency are much less dispersive,
in agreement with previous investigations of SW in arrays of
interacting stripes [50].
The evolution of the frequency as a function of the k vector
for these modes is plotted in Fig. 3.3 together with the simulated
dispersion that is periodic with a number of BZs in agreement
with the artificial periodicity of the stripes array. The periodicity
of the frequency oscillation (width of the Brillouin zone) is
independent of the thickness of the layers, since all the investigated
NWs arrays have the same lattice period a.
 Results and Discussion 85

Figure 3.2 BLS spectra for sample #1 to #3 measured for H = 500 Oe

applied along NW length ( y axis) at k = 0 and k = p/a. To avoid overlapping,
spectra measured at k = p/a are vertically shifted with respect to
those at k = 0. The drawings (not to scale) give a schematic representation
of the NW layering structure where black represents Py and grey is for Fe.

Figure 3.3 Measured (points) and simulated (intensity plot) frequency

dispersion of the collective SW modes for the different NWs with
rectangular cross section (sample #1 to #3). The external magnetic field,
H = 500 Oe, is applied along the length of NWs, while the wave vector is
in the direction perpendicular to the NWs length.
86 Tuning of the Spin Wave Band Structure in Nanostructured Iron/Permalloy NW Arrays

Concerning the position of the center of the magnonic band,

one sees that it shifts up passing from sample #1 to #3, i.e., from
the single-layer Py NWs to the single Fe layer and finally to the
bilayered NWs. In addition, also the width of the magnonic
band (frequency variation between k = 0 and p/a) is more
pronounced for bilayered NWs than for single-layer ones. In all
the cases, an overall good agreement of the experimental data
with the results of the micromagnetic calculations is achieved.
This is particularly true for the lowest frequency mode of each
sample, while for the high-order modes the simulated frequencies
are slightly overestimated. Note, however, that such a small
quantitative disagreement between experiment and simulations
originates from the fact that we did not perform a real best-fit
procedure of the experimental data to the calculated curves.
From the calculations, one can also obtain the spatial profiles
of the dynamic magnetization amplitude for the different modes
of each sample, as shown in Fig. 3.4. The profiles are calculated
at k = 0; the dynamic magnetization distributions have been
averaged over the thicknesses of the respective layers. The spatial
profiles for the Py and Fe NWs arrays are practically the same: the
profile of the fundamental (quasi-uniform) mode without nodal
plane corresponds to the lowest-frequency dispersion branch.
Because of a large net dynamic magnetic moment associated
with this fundamental type of profile, this mode creates a large
dynamic dipolar field which efficiently couples each NW with its
neighbors, resulting in a sizable dispersion [51]. The modes at
higher frequencies are characterized by a nonvanishing number
of nodes, whose number increases with the mode frequency.
Modes having an odd number of nodes are plotted as dashed lines
and their net magnetic moment vanishes for symmetry reasons.
This results in a negligible contribution of these modes to the
BLS cross section at k = 0 [52].
Note that for all the modes recorded for the bilayered
NWs (sample #3) the precession is in-phase in the two layers
(“acoustic” oscillation), with a similar amplitude in the Fe layer
than in the Py. In addition, the strong exchange interaction pushes
the frequency of the optic mode (out-of-phase precession) of the
bilayer structure beyond the highest frequency detected in the
experiment (24 GHz). This is different from what was previously
observed for isolated (non-interacting) Py/Cu/Py NWs where
 Results and Discussion 87

the exchange interaction at the interface is suppressed by the Cu

spacer so that dipolar coupling leads to the appearance of
stationary modes of both acoustic (in-phase) and optic (antiphase)
types at relatively low frequencies [53]. Moreover, in the case
of different thicknesses or different materials for the top and
bottom NWs, one could achieve reprogrammable functionalities
thanks their different coercivity [54].

Figure 3.4 Calculated profiles of the dynamic magnetization through the

NW width for the lowest five collective modes. Black (grey) curves are
for Py (Fe) layers. The frequency values indicated in the plots are the
mode frequency at the center of the BZ (k = 0).

The magnetic field dependence of both the width and

the center of the magnonic band corresponding to the lowest
frequency mode has been investigated by Gubbiotti et al.
[43], showing that the frequency of the band center (width)
monotonically increases (decreases) with the intensity of the
applied magnetic field. This is because the band center frequency
is larger for larger saturation magnetization and thickness, while
the band width depends on the strength of the inter-NW dipole
coupling (that also increases with magnetization and thickness).
88 Tuning of the Spin Wave Band Structure in Nanostructured Iron/Permalloy NW Arrays

3.4.2 Spin Wave Band Structure and Mode Spatial

Profiles for the NWs with L-Shaped Cross Section
Figure 3.5 presents spectra measured for the NWs with L-shaped
cross section measured at k = 0 and p/a. We notice that these
spectra are richer in terms of number of peaks with respect to
those plotted in Fig. 3.2 for the NWs with rectangular cross
section. In all the cases, the lowest frequency mode is the most
intense one.

#4 #5 #6 #7

k =Sa k =Sa k =Sa k =Sa

k= k= k= 0 k= 0

-10 -5 0 5 10 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15

Frequency shift (GHz) Frequency shift (GHz) Frequency shift (GHz) Frequency shift (GHz)

Figure 3.5 BLS spectra measured for L-shaped NWs (samples #4 to #7)
at k = 0 and p/a. A magnetic field H = 500 Oe is applied along the NW
length ( y direction).

Let us now consider the frequency dispersion for the

L-shaped cross-section NWs. The comparison between the
experimental and calculated frequency dispersion for samples #4
to #7 is shown in Fig. 3.6. One sees that several peaks have been
detected by BLS, whose number increases and whose frequencies
are upshifted on increasing the thickness of the Fe NWs.
Interestingly, the lowest-frequency mode exists in a frequency
range which increases on increasing the Fe thickness (see Fig. 3.5).
In addition, there is at least a second mode, at a higher frequency,
which exhibits a sizable periodic frequency dispersion as a
function of the Bloch wave vector k. The oscillation amplitude
of this dispersive mode increases on increasing the Fe thickness
until it reaches about 0.5 GHz for sample #7. The presence of
the two dispersive modes suggests a strong dynamic dipole
 Results and Discussion 89

coupling of individual NWs. This is different from the case of the

non-interacting stripes where, as a consequence of lateral

confinement, stationary and dispersionless quantized spin waves

have been observed [55, 56].


#1 #4 #5 #6 #7



Figure 3.6 Measured (points) and calculated (grey scale) dispersion
curves for spin waves propagating perpendicularly to the NWs length
(x direction) for H = 500 Oe applied along the NW length for

sample #4 to #7. The dispersion of sample #1 is here repeated for the

sake of comparison.

In order to understand the nature of the observed spin

wave spectra and their dependence on the Fe NW thickness, it is
instructive to look at the simulated spatial profiles of the modes,
which are shown in Fig. 3.7. The dynamic magnetization
distributions have been averaged over the thicknesses of the
respective layers. Similar to the case of rectangular cross-sectional
NW, the magnetization precession for both layers is in phase for
0 < x < 170 nm. Secondly, one sees that on increasing the Fe
thickness, the modal profiles become more complex with an
increasing number of nodes.
To understand the details of the formation of the modal
profiles of Fig. 3.7, it is useful to exploit some similarity of the
L-shaped NW geometry to the case of bi-component ferromagnetic
MCs consisting of two stripes made of different materials
alternated to form a periodic array [34]. In this respect, one may
represent the L-shaped NW as two effective 170 nm-wide NWs:
we refer to the region (0 < x < 170 nm) as the THICK portion of



90 Tuning of the Spin Wave Band Structure in Nanostructured Iron/Permalloy NW Arrays


 the L-shaped NW and to the region not covered by Fe

(170 < x < 340 nm) as the THIN portion. Of course, the THICK
 and THIN portions, being in lateral contact through a “virtual
interface” placed at x = 170 nm running across the Py layer, are

coupled by the exchange interaction and also by their dipole
 fields. One can easily see from the panels of Fig. 3.7 that in
samples #4 to #7 the spatial profiles of the THICK portion are
 qualitatively the same in the two layers.

#1 #4 #5 #6 #7

(e) 11.0 GHz (e) 9.1 GHz (e) 14.7 GHz (e) 16.7 GHz (e) 16.7 GHz

(d) 10.0 GHz (d) 12.3 GHz (d) 13.2 GHz (d) 14.9 GHz (d) 15.7 GHz
Amplitude (arb. units)

(c) 8.9 GHz (c) 11.4 GHz (c) 11.6 GHz (c) 13.7 GHz (c) 13.8 GHz

(d) 7.9 GHz (b) 10.2 GHz (b) 10.5 GHz (b) 11.7 GHz (b) 11.4 GHz

(a) 6.3 GHz (a) 7.1 GHz (a) 7.7 GHz (a) 8.3 GHz (a) 8.2 GHz

0 50 100 150 200 250 300


0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Width, x (nm) Width, x (nm) Width, x (nm) Width, x (nm) Width, x (nm)

Figure 3.7 Calculated out-of-plane (mz) dynamic magnetization as a

 function of distance along the NW width for the lowest five frequency
modes of the L-shaped samples. Black and grey curves refer to the
 spatial profile within the Py (0 < x < 340 nm) and Fe (0 < x < 170 nm) NW,
respectively. The frequency values indicated in the plots are the mode
 frequencies at the center of the BZ (k = 0). The profiles calculated for
sample #1 are repeated here for the sake of comparison.

Remarkably, one can notice that the dispersive modes, whose

calculated profiles are reported in Fig. 3.7 (for instance in panels
 (a) and (c) for samples #5 and #6, and panels (a) and (d) for
sample #7), correspond to the fundamental mode of either the
 THIN or the THICK portions of the NW. In the latter case the
frequency is considerably larger, due to the significantly larger
thickness and mean saturation magnetization of the THICK
portion. This mismatch of the fundamental mode frequencies
between the two sides also explains why for the low-frequency
fundamental mode of the THIN portion (panels (a) for sample #4
 Conclusions 91

to #7) there is no counterpart to couple in the THICK part.

Consequently, the magnetization precession in the latter region
is not resonant but represents a forced oscillation (decaying-
exponent-like) driven by the exchange coupling through the
virtual interface and by the long-range dipole field of the THIN
part. On the contrary, the fundamental mode of the THICK portion
couples to a much higher individual mode of the THIN one,
as seen in the panels (c) and (d) of Fig. 3.7. In particular, for the
lowest frequency fundamental mode, (panels (a) in Fig. 3.7),
one can see that the presence of a thin Fe overlayer noticeably
reduces the dynamic magnetization amplitude in the THICK part,
where the dynamic magnetization profile takes a form typical for
an evanescent wave especially for larger Fe thicknesses (samples
#6 and #7). In fact, the precession in the THICK region is
mainly driven through exchange interaction via the “virtual
interface” at x = 170 nm by the standing wave resonance taking
place in the part of the Py layer not covered by Fe. In addition to
the variation of the spatial profile, there is also a substantial
frequency evolution of this mode, as seen in Fig. 3.5: only 2 nm of
Fe on top of Py are sufficient to shift the mode frequency up
from about 6.3 to 7.1 GHz. As the wavelength of the standing
wave is large with respect to the exchange length, the rise in
frequency is due to the above-mentioned reduction in the
effective wavelength across the NW that leads to an increase in the
standing-wave dipole energy. We also notice that the amplitude
of dynamic magnetization is larger for the Fe layer that has a
larger saturation magnetization.
Regarding the field dependence of both the center and the
width of the magnonic of the lowest frequency mode, it is found
that results of the L-shaped samples are very similar to those of
the reference Py NWs (sample #1), reflecting the marked localization
of the lowest frequency mode in the THIN (Py) portion of the NW
side.

3.5 Conclusions
In this chapter, we analyzed the dispersion of collective spin waves
in arrays of iron/permalloy nanowires with either rectangular
92 Tuning of the Spin Wave Band Structure in Nanostructured Iron/Permalloy NW Arrays

or L-shaped cross section by using Brillouin light scattering

and numerical simulations. The measurements relative to the
frequency dispersion of the spin waves were satisfactorily
reproduced by micromagnetic simulations, which also allow us
to calculate the spatial profiles of the modes in the two layers.
For the rectangular nanowires, the fundamental mode lying at
the lowest frequency, characterized by an in-phase precession of
the magnetization in the two layers and maximum amplitude in
the center of the nanowire, exhibits the largest frequency oscillation
amplitude. Its frequency in the bilayer Py/Fe nanowires is
up-shifted with respect to that measured for single-layer Py and
Fe nanowires due to the increased thickness. For the case of the
nanowires with L-shaped cross section, two dispersive modes
with sizable magnonic band were observed. These are interpreted
as the fundamental modes of either the THICK or the THIN
portion of each nanowire. The effect of the Fe nanowire width
and thickness on the magnonic band amplitude and frequency
position was also explored. We believe that this work can stimulate
design, tailoring, and characterization of magnonic crystals where,
thanks to the presence of two contrasting ferromagnetic materials
and of interlayer exchange interaction at their interface, new
tailored functionalities can be achieved.

Acknowledgments
A. O. A. was supported by National Research Foundation, Prime
Minister’s Office, Singapore, under its Competitive Research
Programme (CRP Award No. NRF-CRP 10-2012-03).

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Chapter 4

Magnetization Dynamics of
Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

G. Shimon,a A. Haldar,a,b and A. O. Adeyeyea

aDepartment of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3,
Singapore 117576, Singapore
bDepartment of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad,

Kandi 502285, Telangana, India

[email protected]

This chapter discusses our recent works on magnetization

dynamics of reconfigurable 2D magnonic crystals. The chapter is
broadly divided into two parts. The first part begins by examining
the influence of neighboring dipolar interactions on a single
Ni80Fe20 (NiFe) disk using microfocused Brillouin light scattering
(µ-BLS) spectroscopy. Using pairs of identical NiFe disks of
reducing interdisk spacing, marked spectral and spatial shifts of
the resonant mode are observed because of increasing dipolar
interactions. Beyond a two-disk system, we found that by coupling
more disks as a cluster, a unique dynamic response can be realized
depending on the number of disks involved and their configuration.
The second part shows examples of design and fabrication
strategies for creating nanomagnet networks with reconfigurable

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
100 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

magnetic ground states. For instance, using rhomboid nano-

magnet (RNM) networks, a reliable reconfiguration between
ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and ferrimagnetic ground states
can be realized. The deterministic magnetic ground-state
configuration is achievable owing to the inherent shape anisotropy
that stabilizes the RNMs to a specific ground state upon field
initialization along their short axis. The reconfiguration is also
apparent in the magnetization dynamics, as systematically
investigated using broadband ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) and
µ-BLS spectroscopy techniques.

4.1 Introduction
Nanomagnet arrays and clusters are considered vital building
blocks for many technological applications such as ultrahigh-
density media [1–3], magnetic random access memory [4, 5], logic
[6–10], microwave signal processing devices [11–13], magnonics
[14–21], and spin torque nano-oscillators (STOs) [22–26]. Some
of these applications require nanomagnets to be packed more
closely together in order to achieve higher-areal-density devices.
Beyond the challenges for device fabrication and integration,
the strength of dipolar interactions between neighboring
nanomagnets is known to be significantly enhanced when
interelement spacing becomes much smaller than their lateral
dimensions. Such enhanced dipolar interaction has been found
to largely modify magnetization reversal [27–29], switching field
distribution [30–32], and dynamic magnetization reversal processes
[33–36]. Dipolar interaction can also be engineered to realize
functional magnetic systems. For example, magnetic quantum
cellular automata (MQCA) have been utilized to perform logic
operations and propagate magnetic information [6, 9, 37].
Similarly, artificial spin ice has been shown to produce localized
spin wave (SW) or selective SW propagation based on defects
or change of magnetization states [38–40]. Additionally, flavors
of tunable dynamic behaviors were made possible by exploiting
their dipolar interaction [11, 33–36].
Magnonic crystals (MCs), magnetic analogues of photonic
crystals [41, 42], hold the possibility to tailor SW propagation and
frequency on the basis of geometrical confinement and periodic
 Introduction 101

patterns. Such magnetic metamaterials are promising for further

miniaturization of microwave electronics and signal processing
[43]. As an information carrier, SW propagation promises faster
and greener computing than conventional electronics [44–47].
At the focal point of realizing reconfigurable 2D MCs is the
fundamental understanding of how dipolar interaction influences
the magnetization dynamics. The strength of dipolar interaction
between nanomagnets is a collective function of their shape, size,
and interelement spacing, lattice configuration, and coupling
orientation. To accurately quantify the effect of dipolar interaction
and predict the dynamic behavior, careful analysis of each of these
contributing factors must be made. Furthermore, to measure
the effect of neighboring dipolar interaction, it is important to
develop a reliable method to quantify the response from an
individual nanomagnet as a function of the changing energy
landscape of its surrounding because of dipolar interaction. This
is in contrast to measuring a collective behavior from an array
or clusters of nanomagnets. Reconfigurable dynamic responses
were demonstrated earlier by switching between magnetic
ground states that were obtained through precise minor loop
hysteresis [41, 42, 48, 49]. However, these methods are slow
and involve complex field initialization, which is not suitable for
device integration. It is critical that the initialization and
reconfiguration of 2D MCs be of low power, be rapid, and be
straightforward in its operation [43, 50].
This chapter is written to outline the effects of dipolar
interaction on the magnetization dynamics in coupled nanomagnets
and demonstrate its usefulness. The first part of this chapter is
devoted to systematically studying the effect of dipolar interaction
strength on the dynamic behavior of a single nanodisk as a function
of the separation distance and cluster configuration of its
neighboring nanodisks using the microfocused Brillouin light
scattering (µ-BLS) technique. Using a pair of nanodisks with
varying separation, we demonstrate that the resonant frequency
shift of the fundamental mode is proportional to the increase of
dipolar field strength and there are opposing trends of frequency
shift, depending on the relative orientation of the interdisk coupling
direction and the applied magnetic field (Happ). Imaging the
resonant mode profile reveals strong spatial shift of the resonant
area because of dipolar interaction, including an intensity ripple
102 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

in its strongest effect. When more disks are introduced in a cluster

of various configurations, a unique dynamic response emerges
for each configuration, in which the neighboring dipolar
interaction plays a key role.
In the second part of this chapter, a strategy for a
reconfigurable magnetization dynamic response with no standby
power [43, 50] is discussed. To date, experimental evidence of
this functionality is rare. One main hindrance is that the dipolar-
coupling-driven antiferromagnetic (AFM) ground state requires
a complex field initialization process and it is susceptible to
structural imperfections. As such, robust designs are desired
from a fabrication point of view so that they can be scaled into a
large-area pattern, particularly important for manufacturability.
We will demonstrate an example of reconfigurable MCs in 1D
and 2D using an RNM chain, cluster, and arrays. In particular,
we will highlight that reliable switching between ferromagnetic
(FM) and AFM remanent states can be achieved using RNMs with
a simple field initialization process. The resulting remanent state
is largely dependent on the direction of field initialization
rather than on the stray field from the nearest neighbors in an
array. A distinct magnetization dynamic response was obtained
because of different dipolar field distributions for different
remanent states.

4.2 Experiments and Simulations

4.2.1 Sample Fabrication
To investigate the dynamic behavior of patterned nanomagnets,
high-frequency excitation and detection in the microwave regime
is required. For this purpose, a conventional radio frequency (rf)
excitation through a coplanar waveguide (CPW) with ground-
signal-ground (GSG) configurations is used. The CPW is connected
to an external microwave source through the use of microwave
picoprobe(s). There are two main variations for which the CPW
is incorporated, namely by using the flip-chip technique or by
fabricating an integrated CPW. In the flip-chip technique, the
substrate with the nanomagnets is placed face down on the
preexisting CPW on a sample stage. The technique involving the
fabrication of an integrated CPW can be done either by integrating
 Experiments and Simulations 103

the CPW on top of already existing patterned nanomagnets

(usually chosen for characterizing a continuous film or
nanomagnet array) or by first fabricating the integrated CPW
and then following by patterned nanomagnets on top of it. The
last approach is usually chosen for a number of specific purposes
and limitations, for example, when surface characterization of
excited nanomagnets is required (such as through optical probing)
or when a special sample’s orientation or geometry is required.
In our experimental works, the last approach was chosen to
accommodate all of the aforementioned factors.
The integrated CPW having a nominal signal line width of
20 µm is made up of Cr (5 nm)/Pt (200 nm) fabricated on a
SiO2/Si substrate using the UV lithography and liftoff process.
The Cr adhesion layer was deposited using electron beam
evaporation at a rate of 0.2 Å/s, while the Pt layer was deposited
using sputter deposition at a rate of 0.39 Å/s. These were done
successively within a single deposition chamber (base pressure
of 4 × 10–8 Torr) without breaking its vacuum. Subsequently,
various nanomagnets were patterned on top of the existing
CPW’s signal line using electron beam lithography, followed
by deposition of Cr (5 nm)/NiFe (25 nm) using electron beam
evaporation at a rate of 0.2 Å/s and the liftoff process. Figure 4.1
depicts an example of how the integrated CPW and sample are
incorporated in the experimental setup.

Figure 4.1 Schematic of the vector network analyzer ferromagnetic

resonance (VNA-FMR) setup.
104 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

4.2.2 Ferromagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) spectroscopy is a common
technique for characterizing the dynamic properties of magnetic
materials. When an FM sample is placed under an orthogonal
Happ and an rf field (hrf ), the magnetization M will precess
according to the equation of motion: дM/дt = –g(M × Heff ),
where g is the electron gyromagnetic ratio and Heff is the
effective field. The FMR event occurs when the natural resonant
frequency of uniform mode in the magnetic sample matches that
of hrf and the applied rf energy will be strongly dissipated by the
magnetic sample. The detailed mechanism responsible for the
FMR absorption in FM materials was explained by Kittel [51, 52].
A generic formula for predicting the FMR frequency in
arbitrary sample geometry was derived by considering a general
ellipsoid magnet with three principal axes (x, y, z) with the Happ
applied along z and hrf applied along x. The demagnetization
field (Hdi) of an FM body was also considered through the use
of a demagnetization tensor Ni for each axis (i) according to
Hdi = –Ni Mi where Mi = M0eiwt. The generic formula, also widely
known as the Kittel formula, is shown below as Eq. 4.1.

g
f res = (Hz +( N y – N z)4 pMz ) (Hz +( N x – N z )4 pMz ) (4.1)
2p

FMR spectroscopy is mostly performed either by sweeping

the Happ at a fixed frequency or by sweeping the frequency
at a fixed Happ. In the former, the resonant condition will be
detected as a resonant field at a given frequency. In the latter, the
resonant condition will be detected at a resonant frequency (fres)
for a given Happ.
In our experiments, the frequency sweep approach was
used, and in particular we utilized a broadband vector network
analyzer (VNA)-based FMR spectroscopy technique. In this
method, hrf is generated by an rf microwave current applied using
a VNA.
A schematic of the experimental setup for FMR measurement
is shown in Fig. 4.1. The CPW geometry was designed to produce
a 50 W impedance matching to the VNA. The FMR absorption
signal is obtained by measuring the S21 scattering parameter, a
direct measure of the transmission characteristic (ports 1 and
 Experiments and Simulations 105

2 as the emitting and the receiving port, respectively). The S21

parameter is quoted as the power ratio between the two ends
in decibel units. When a resonant event occurs, the plot of the
S21 parameter against the excitation frequency will show a dip
(i.e., power loss) at fres, signifying a strong resonant absorption
of microwave power by the magnetic sample. The evolution of
resonant behavior can be traced in terms of fres versus Happ and
be correlated to the sample’s magnetization.

4.2.3 Microfocused Brillouin Light Scattering

Spectroscopy
Brillouin light scattering (BLS) is the inelastic scattering of a
photon because of its interaction with a magnetic sample at the
surface. The inelastic scattering event is categorized into Stokes
and anti-Stokes scattering. In the former, the incident photon
(ħwi, ħqi) loses some energy and momentum by emitting a
spin wave (SW) (ħwSW, ħqSW) and a scattered photon (ħwS =
ħ(wi – wSW) and ħqs – || = ħ(qi – || – qSW – ||). In the latter, it gains
some energy and momentum by absorbing SW energy into
the scattered photon ħws = ħ(wi + wSW) and ħqs – || = ħ(qi – || + qSW – ||).
The parallel (//) sign denotes that the momentum transfer
occurs with the SW traversing parallel to the sample’s surface.
During either of the scattering events, the total energy of the
system and the total wave momentum (ħq) at the sample’s
surface are conserved. Depending on the sample’s magnetization
direction and the SW’s wave vector orientation, various types of
SW modes in magnetic films can be detected using BLS [53].
BLS spectroscopy is designed on the basis of the observation
of frequency shift between the incoming and scattered photons
using an interferometry setup to resolve light intensity at
different frequencies using piezo-controlled multipass tandem
Fabry–Perot mirror construction. Using the interferometer setup
allows for low noise and precise detection of scattered photons.
A well-known commercial setup of such construction was
developed by Sandercock [54]. The typical spot size of the laser
beam in the conventional BLS setup is 50 µm, which is suitable
for measuring nanomagnetic arrays or magnetic thin films.
Using a microfocusing lens, the laser beam can be focused
down to ~250 nm spot size, which enables SW probing for
106 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

selective nanomagnets or localized spots. When coupled

with a piezo-controlled sample stage, it will facilitate the SW
characterization, with an added high-resolution spatial profile [55].
BLS spectroscopy offers a number of flexibilities and advantages
over FMR spectroscopy. BLS spectroscopy allows the collection
of SW dispersion characteristics, that is, fres against wave vector
(k), which is otherwise limited to only uniform dispersion (k = 0)
using FMR spectroscopy. BLS spectroscopy also allows the
investigation of thermally excited SWs and a time-resolved
measurement. Lastly using the µ-BLS setup, spatial resolution of
the resonant mode and the traveling SW can be obtained.

Figure 4.2 Schematic of the microfocused Brillouin light scattering setup.

Figure 4.2 shows the schematic diagram of a µ-BLS

spectrometer. A monochromatic laser of 532 nm wavelength is
passed through a polarizing beam splitter into the 100x objective
lens with numerical aperture (NA) = 0.75 and focused onto the
sample’s surface. The nanomagnets fabricated on the signal
line of a CPW are uniformly excited by hrf generated by
the microwave signal generator through a picoprobe. Note that
the CPW is shorted on one end to complete the rf current loop,
 Experiments and Simulations 107

unlike in FMR spectroscopy. The direction of hrf and Happ (or M)

is set to be perpendicular to each other, similar to that in the
VNA-FMR technique. The back-scattered light is projected back
through the lens and polarizing beam splitter and analyzed in
the interferometer. A typical BLS spectrum shows photon counts
as a function of frequency shift, and intensity peaks signify that
resonant has taken place. When a particular resonant mode is
selectively excited at its fres, its 2D spatial profile can be obtained
by performing a raster scan. The relative photon intensity
obtained will give information about the location in which the
resonant occurs most strongly.

4.2.4 Micromagnetic Simulations

In characterizing the dynamic behavior of nanomagnets,
micromagnetic simulations are often carried out to substantiate
the experimental observations. For this chapter, micromagnetic
simulations were performed using the Object Oriented
Micromagnetic Modeling Framework (OOMMF) [56]. The goal
of micromagnetic simulations is to minimize the total energy of
the system on the basis of micromagnetic models. The energy
minimization will drive the magnetic moments to reach the
equilibrium state with respect to Heff. In this process, the magnetic
moments will precess according to the modified equation of
dM a dM 
motion, which includes a damping term: = –| g | M × Heff + M × .
dt Ms  dt 
This is more commonly known as the Landau–Lifshitz–Gilbert
(LLG) equation [57]. The first and second terms of the LLG
equation correspond to the precessional and the damping
term, respectively. The parameter g is known as the gyromagnetic
 g 
ratio  = 2.8GHz/kOe, and a is known as the damping factor.
 2p 
It is worth noting that the LLG equation is based on an earlier
Landau–Lifshitz (LL) equation.
Typical magnetic parameters for NiFe are used in the
simulations. The saturation magnetization is taken as
Ms,NiFe = 800–860 emu . cm–3, exchange constant ANiFe = 13 × 10–7
erg . cm–1, and magnetocrystalline anisotropy K1,NiFe = 0. The
uniaxial anisotropy of NiFe is assumed to be negligible when
compared with the shape anisotropy of the patterned structures.
108 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

For realistic simulations, the sample volume must be discretized

into subsets of smaller unit cells. The unit cell size is chosen to be
 A 
less than the exchange length   lex = 2pM2   of a given material to
 S 

yield accurate results, for example, lex of NiFe is ~5.7 nm. Typically,
a unit cell size of 5 nm × 5 nm × 5 nm was chosen for our
simulations.
There are two common simulation routines used in our work.
First was the basic quasi-static simulation, which simulates the
steady-state response of magnetic samples to Heff. For quasi-static
simulation, a damping coefficient of a = 0.5 was chosen to obtain
rapid convergence. Second was the dynamic simulation that
simulates the dynamic response and quantifies the spatial
characteristics of the SW mode. Time-dependent simulations
are performed using a = 0.008 for NiFe. A time-varying sinc
sin(2pft )
wave excitation field hsinc = h0 is used to yield uniform
t
excitation in the frequency domain, where h0 is the initial
amplitude of the sinc wave (within the linear excitation regime,
typically up to few tens of oersteds). The dynamic simulation
results are analyzed in the frequency domain by performing fast
Fourier transform (FFT) processing.

4.3 Coupled Nanodisks

In this section, we study the influence of dipolar interaction
from nearby nanomagnets on the dynamic behavior of a single
nanomagnet using µ-BLS spectroscopy having microwave
excitation. We will consider the effect of interdisk separation
in a two-disk system. We will then investigate the effect of
configurational anisotropy by coupling more disks as a cluster
having various lattice arrangements. A simple method to precisely
quantify the strength and orientation of dipolar interaction will
be presented. For more details, readers are encouraged to study
the published works in the literatures [58, 59].

4.3.1 Effect of Interdisk Separations

The effect of interdisk separation has been investigated using a
simple two-disk system. NiFe disks were patterned directly on the
 Coupled Nanodisks 109

signal line of a shorted CPW using electron beam lithography. The

disks have a nominal diameter D = 500 nm, thickness t = 25 nm,
and varying interdisk separation s (s = 200, 150, 100, 50 nm). An
isolated disk from a disk array with s = 500 nm was also examined
as a reference.
Figure 4.3a–c shows representative top-down scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) images of the coupled nanodisks with
s = 500, 200, and 50 nm. The green arrow in each SEM image
labels the disk under the probe. Here, the two disks are coupled
along the x direction, parallel to the Happ direction. We also
examined the case where the two disks are coupled along the y
direction, perpendicular to Happ.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4.3 (a–c) SEM images of disks with s = 500, 200, and 50 nm.
(d) Normalized BLS spectra and (e) the corresponding simulated spectra
for different s and orientations. Plots with filled (open) symbols represent
the BLS spectra in parallel (perpendicular) orientations between
the interdisk coupling direction and Happ. Insets in (d): Schematic
diagram of stray field models for the disk pair in the parallel (left)
and perpendicular (right) orientations. Adapted with permission from
Shimon and Adeyeye [58]. Copyright 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA, Weinheim.

4.3.1.1 BLS spectra

Figure 4.3d shows the normalized BLS spectra measured at
Happ = 1 kOe for the different s and coupling orientations. Prior
to each measurement, the disks were saturated with Happ = 2 kOe.
At Happ = 1 kOe, the disks are in the quasi-saturated single-domain
110 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

state. For each s (except for s = 500 nm), there are two BLS spectra
plotted, representing parallel (filled symbols) and perpendicular
(open symbols) coupling orientations with respect to the Happ
direction. At Happ = 1 kOe, only one prominent mode was observed
in the disk for various s. We named the mode observed for the
isolated disk as mode C1, while those in the coupled disks were
modes C2A and C2B when their coupling orientation with respect
to the Happ direction is parallel and perpendicular, respectively.
For the isolated disk, the resonant frequency of mode C1 (fC1) was
detected at 9.2 GHz. As s is reduced, we observed a systematic
shift of fres with respect to that of the isolated disk. In addition,
we observed opposing trends of this fres shift, depending on the
coupling orientation (two dotted lines in Fig. 4.3d). For parallel
orientation, fC2A increases by 300 MHz as s is reduced from
200 nm to 50 nm. In contrast, for perpendicular orientation,
fC2B decreases by 300 MHz as s is reduced from 200 nm to 50 nm.
To understand the observed fres shift, we consider two stray
field models (see insets in Fig. 4.3d). The first model (right), for
coupling in parallel orientation, illustrates how a dipolar field
along +x (+Hdx, blue arrow) is exerted on the disk under the probe
by its neighbor from the left. Conversely, the second model (left),
for coupling in perpendicular orientation, shows how the
dipolar field along –x (–Hdx, red arrow) is exerted on the disk
under the probe by its neighbor from the top. On the basis of this
model, we analyze how additional Hd influences the fres of the
disk using the modified Kittel resonant formulation as Eq. 4.2:
g
f res = (H x +( N y – N x )4 pMx ) (H x +( N y – N x )4 pMx ) , (4.2)
2p
where Nx, Ny, and Nz are the demagnetization factors for x, y,
and thickness (z) directions, respectively; g is the gyromagnetic
ratio of the materials; and 4pMx and Hx are the magnetization
of the sample and the effective field along x, respectively.
In the parallel orientation, +Hd–x adds to Hx such that
Hx = Happ + Hd–x, and as a result fres will increase as compared
to the isolated case, where Hx = Happ. As a larger Hd–x is expected
with a reduction of s, Dfres will consequently increase. In the
perpendicular orientation, –Hd–x reduces Hx following
Hx = Happ – Hd–x and as a result fres will decrease with s (opposite
to that with parallel orientation). Note that the dipolar field along
 Coupled Nanodisks 111

y (perpendicular orientation) does not contribute to Hx variation

with s.
It is important to underline that dipolar interaction would
typically produce a resonance mode splitting, in-phase (acoustic)
and out-of-phase (optical) coupled modes, when measuring a
collective response of an array or pairs of magnetic elements
and/or using asymmetric excitation [60–63]. This is in contrast
to our measurement, in which the probing was done on a single
disk and not by measuring the collective response of the disk
pair. Furthermore, the uniform excitation field generated by the
signal line in our experiment cannot efficiently excite the optical
mode for the BLS detection [64].

4.3.1.2 Simulated spectra

To further verify our analyses, time-dependent (dynamic)
simulations were performed on the basis of the magnetization
state obtained at a given Happ to simulate the BLS response and
quantify the spatial characteristics of the SW mode. Figure 4.3e
plots the normalized simulated spectra for different s and coupling
orientations at Happ = 1 kOe. In agreement with the experimental
spectra, we found a single prominent mode in all the simulated
spectra. We also observed two opposite fres shift trends versus s
for the different coupling orientation. The simulated fC1 for
the isolated disk is observed at 9.18 GHz, close to 9.2 GHz
from experiments. In the parallel orientation, fC2A increases
by ~600 MHz when s is reduced from 200 nm to 50 nm, while in
perpendicular orientation, fC2B decreases by ~600 MHz. The fact
that |Dfres| in the simulations is about twice as large as |Δfres|
in the experiments indicates a stronger influence of dipolar
interaction in simulations in changing the dynamic magnetization
(partly due to the 0 K condition in simulations). It is important
to note that using the uniform sinc wave excitation in the
simulation could not efficiently excite the optical mode (hence
no mode splitting) [61], virtually mimicking our experimental
microwave excitation.

4.3.1.3 2D mode profiles

To provide direct evidence of dipolar interaction, a series of 2D
µ-BLS images were acquired as a function of s (Fig. 4.4a–d)
112 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

at their respective fres values. The crosshairs mark the center

position of each disk in the scanned image. For the isolated disk,
the fundamental resonant mode is located at the center of the disk.
As s is reduced, the resonant mode is gradually shifted toward
the gap region in the disk pair because of the influence of the
neighboring dipolar field. For s = 50 nm, the mode is strongly
2D ȝ-BLS
shifted toward the edge of the disk. The images Simulated
of profile
changing of the Mode Profiles at 1
resonant mode and the shift resonant mode at s1 kOe
of fres versus clearly highlight
(e) (j)

s=100 nm s=150 nm s=200 nm s=500 nm

the influence of the neighboring (a)

nm
dipolar field in modifying the

s=500 nm
Simulated Mode Profiles at 1 kOe (norm.)
dynamic behavior in a2D ȝ-BLS images of
disk.

s=500
resonant mode at 1 kOe
(e) (j) (k)

s=100 nm s=150 nm s=200 nm s=500 nm

(f)
2D ȝ-BLS images of (a) Simulated Mode Profiles at 1 kOe (norm.)
nm
s=500 nm

resonant mode at 1 kOe (b)

s=200 nm
s=500

(e) (j) (k)

s=100 nm s=150 nm s=200 nm s=500 nm

(a)
nm
s=500 nm

(f) (l)
(g)
s=500

(b) s = 200 nm
s=200 nm

(f)
(c) (l)
s=100 nm

(m)
(g)
(b)
s=200 nm

(h)
s = 200 nm
(l) (m)
(c) (g) s = 100 nm
s=100 nm

s = 200 nm (d) (h)

s=50 nm

(i) Y
s=50 nm

800 nm
1 μm

(c)
s=100 nm

s = 100 nm
(h) hrf
(d) s = 50 nm
s=50 nm

(i) Y
800 nms=50 nm

s = 100 nm
800 nm
1 μm

1.7 μm 1.5 μm +Happ

hrf Z
(d) X
s=50 nm

(i) s = 50 nm Y
s=50 nm
1 μm

+Happ
1.7 μm 1.5Z μm
s = 50 nm
X

1.7 μm 1.5 μm

Figure 4.4 (a–d) 2D μ-BLS images of fundamental resonant mode at

Happ = 1 kOe for interacting disks with varying s. (e) 2D μ-BLS images
of mode A at Happ = 1 kOe for an isolated disk. Color scale bar in
(e) represents the normalized BLS intensity of the mode profiles in (b–e).
(f–m) Corresponding simulated mode profiles with varying s and
orientations. Adapted with permission from Shimon and Adeyeye [58].
Copyright (2015) WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

The corresponding simulated mode profiles with varying s

and orientations (Fig. 4.4f–m) were extracted at fres values and
found to be in agreement with experiments. For s = 50 nm, in
addition to the strong shift of the center mode toward the disk’s
 Coupled Nanodisks 113

edge, we observed an intensity ripple toward the gap region

because of the strong dipolar interaction. The shifted mode
profile may have caused a stronger dynamic interaction and
produced an intensity ripple toward the gap region. In the
experiment, this intensity ripple may be difficult to resolve because
of limited resolution of the probing laser. In contrast, in
perpendicular orientation, the resonant mode is unaffected by
the reduction of s. The effect of reducing s is evident only for
s ≤ 100 nm (Fig. 4.4l–m), where the resonant mode is offset
along ±x. No edge mode is observed in our experiment and
simulation up to Happ = 2 kOe, which may not be favorable for
our disks’ dimension. Only by using a much larger Happ or by
measuring a smaller disk could we observe the edge mode [65, 66].

4.3.1.4 Dipolar field estimation

In this section, we describe a simple method to estimate the
neighboring dipolar field magnitude on a single disk from BLS
measurement. In the first step, BLS spectra were measured as a
function of Happ of the isolated disk (Fig. 4.5a) and the disk pair
with a particular s, for example, s = 50 nm (Fig. 4.5b,c) for the
Happ range where the fundamental resonant mode is observed,
that is, 2000 Oe ≤ Happ ≤ 500 Oe (quasi-saturated single-domain
state). Next, we fitted the peak fres versus Happ of the isolated disk
using Eq. 4.2 to obtain the demagnetization factors of the disk.
For the case of the isolated disk, we assume that Hx = Happ
(negligible external dipolar field). For the fitting purpose,
various parameters and constraints were set as follows:
g
(i) = 2.8 GHz/kOe, (ii) Mx = 860 emu . cm–3, (iii) Nx = Ny
2p
(symmetric disk), (iv) Nx + Ny + Nz = 1, and (v) the fitting
precision of Nx, Ny, and Nz was set to be three significant figures.
The fitted demagnetization factors are Nx = 0.0390, Ny = 0.0390,
and Nz = 0.922.
In the final step, the dipolar field of the disk pair was
determined by fitting the measured BLS spectra within the same
Happ range but using a modified Hx = Happ + Hd–x expression (as
discussed earlier) into Eq. 4.2. The demagnetization factors
obtained earlier were used in the fitting. The fitted dipolar field
is Hd–x = 89 ± 2 Oe for s = 50 nm in parallel orientation, while for
s = 50 nm in perpendicular orientation, it is Hd–x = –46 ± 2 Oe.
114 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

The opposite sign of Hd–x confirms the accuracy of the model of

dipolar field orientation presented earlier. Furthermore, for disks
coupled in perpendicular orientation, the |Hd–x| value was found
to be smaller than disks coupled in parallel orientation. This
indicates a larger effective distance between magnetic poles of
neighboring disks in perpendicular orientation. The detection of
a subtle difference in the |Hd–x| value highlights the advantage
of using this method for quantifying the effect of dipolar field
interaction in coupled disks, whereby the whole range of 500 Oe
≤ Happ ≤ 2 kOe was taken into consideration. This is in contrast
to comparing D fres for s = 50 nm with different orientations at
Happ = 1 kOe, which results in the same D fres = 0.3 GHz (Fig. 4.3d).

Figure 4.5 (a–c) Frequency versus Happ plot for (a) C1, (b) C2A, and
(c) C2B. Symbols are experimentally extracted fres values, lines are fitted
curves based on Eq. 4.2. Adapted with permission from Shimon and
Adeyeye [58]. Copyright (2015) WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim.

4.3.2 Configurational Anisotropy

In this section, the dynamic response of a single disk as a function
of its neighboring cluster configurations in two-, three-, and five-
 Coupled Nanodisks 115

disk clusters is presented. We will show how the neighboring

coupling configuration could significantly affect the resulting
dynamic behavior of the nanodisk under the probe. The first
three SEM images (Fig. 4.6a–c) are of the isolated disk (C1) and
the two-disk cluster (C2A and C2B), which have been described
earlier. Figure 4.6d–f shows the three-disk cluster (C3) and the
five-disk cluster (C5A and C5B).

(g) BLS Spectra (h) Simulations

(a) C1 (d) C3 8.79GHz 9.57GHz
8.9GHz 9.7GHz
Normalized Peak Intensity (arb. units)
C5B 10.35GHz
s

d=500 nm
C5A 9.8GHz 9.38GHz
(b) C2A s
8.98GHz 9.77GHz
(e) C5A 9GHz 9.5GHz
C3
s=50 nm 8.59GHz
C2B 8.9GHz
(c) C2B
9.5GHz 9.77GHz
s

C2A
(f) s C5B
1 9.2GHz 9.18GHz
y
G hrf C1
s

S 0
G
Happ 6 8 10 12 6 8 10 12
x 500 nm Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz) 

Figure 4.6 (a–f) SEM images of disks with various cluster configurations
(D = 500 nm, s = 50 nm). Green arrows in (a–f) label the disk under the
probe. (g) Measured BLS spectra and corresponding 2D mode profiles
of C1, C2A, C2B, C3, C5A, and C5B with Happ = 1 kOe. (h) Corresponding
simulated spectra and 2D mode profiles. Color scale bar in (g) represents
the normalized intensity of the resonant mode profile. Adapted with
permission from Shimon and Adeyeye [59]. Copyright (2016) American
Institute of Physics.

4.3.2.1 Resonant spectra and 2D mode profiles

We first recall the results from an isolated disk and from a coupled
two-disk cluster. The bottom three panels in Fig. 4.6g,h are the
measured and simulated resonant spectra and mode profiles of
the disk under the probe for C1, C2A, and C2B at Happ = 1 kOe, as
discussed earlier in Section 4.3.1.
We now consider the case of a three-disk cluster such as C3
(see Fig. 4.6d). In this configuration, we observed dual fres peaks
where the higher frequency is detected at fC3H = 9.5 GHz, while
116 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

the lower one is at fC3L = 9 GHz. Most interestingly, the 2D µ-BLS

mode profiles at fC3H and fC3L show that they are the resonant
modes coupled along the parallel and perpendicular orientations,
respectively, with respect to the Happ direction. Our 2D µ-BLS
mode profiles validate the earlier simulated profiles of the three-
disk cluster by Liu et al. [67]. These observations are further
substantiated by the simulated spectra and mode profiles for
the C3 configuration in Fig. 4.6h. We do not observe any edge
modes in our experiments. In agreement with the existing
literatures [66, 68–71], the observation of these modes is
only possible when the disks have an aspect ratio 2t/D larger
than a certain critical value, typically ≥0.17. Furthermore, the
confinement and hence the observation of edge modes become
limited as D is decreased <75 nm and thickness is reduced
<10 nm [72, 73].
By adding two more disks along the orthogonal axes in a
five-disk cluster such as C5B (see Fig. 4.6f), a dual fres peak
signature (similar to C3) is observed at fC5BH = 9.7 GHz and
fC5BL = 8.9 GHz. The 2D µ-BLS mode profiles at fC5BH and fC5BL
show that the resonant modes are two orthogonal orientations
coupled, similar to C3. The simulated spectrum of C5B (Fig. 4.6h)
confirms the dual fres peak at fC5BH = 9.57 GHz and fC5BL = 8.79 GHz
corresponding to the resonant modes along x and y, respectively.
The simulated spectrum for the C5B configuration reveals a weak
peak at 10.35 GHz, which comes from the edges between the
center disk and one of its neighboring disks as a result of
enhanced dipolar coupling (higher fres) due to local variation.
On the basis of the origin of this mode, we expect that it is
probably too weak to be detected in the experiment.
We now consider another five-disk cluster, C5A, in which
the neighboring disks are coupled along the diagonal directions
(Fig. 4.6e). In this configuration, the BLS spectrum shows one
strong peak at fC5A = 9.8 GHz. We note that when the coupling
direction is rotated by 45° from C5B to C5A, the dual fres peak
disappears and instead a huge increase of fres was detected with
Δfres ≈ 600 MHz with respect to fC1. The 2D µ-BLS mode profile at
fC5A (inset in Fig. 4.6g) reveals that the coupled resonant occurs
concurrently between the disk under the probe and the other
four neighboring disks. The simulated spectrum of the C5A
configuration confirms the presence of a strong resonant peak
 Coupled Nanodisks 117

at fC5A = 9.38 GHz, which comes from the coupled resonant of the
center disk with its four neighboring disks (inset of Fig. 4.6h).

4.3.2.2 Dipolar field models and estimation

The dipolar interaction in C3 can be understood on the basis of
the model in Fig. 4.7a. The dipolar interaction from the top disk
exerts a –Hd–x on the disk under the probe, while that from the
left disk exerts a +Hd–x. With respect to fC1, the former leads to a
reduction of fres by 200 MHz, while the latter results in an increase
of fres by 300 MHz in experiment.

14
(a) C3 (b) Higher f
Frequency (GHz)

12 Hd-x = +99 Oe

10
+Hd-x
-Hd-x 8 Lower f C3
Hd-x = -22 Oe
6
14
(c) C5A (d)
Frequency (GHz)

12
+Hd-x
10 Hd-x = +150 Oe
8
C5A
+Hd-x
6
14
(e) C5B (f)
Higher f
Frequency (GHz)

12 Hd-x = +132 Oe
+Hd-x 10
C5B
8
Lower f
-Hd-x 6
Hd-x = -22 Oe
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Field (kOe) 

Figure 4.7 Models of static dipolar interaction for (a) C3, (c) C5A, and
(e) C5B. Frequency versus Happ plot for (b) C3, (d) C2A, and (f) C2B.
Symbols are experimentally extracted fres values, and lines are fitted
curves based on Eq. 4.2. Adapted with permission from Shimon and
Adeyeye [59]. Copyright (2016) American Institute of Physics.

Using the same method for dipolar field estimation, as

discussed in Section 4.3.1.4, we will estimate the dipolar field in
118 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

the C3 configuration. We use the same demagnetization factors

Nx = 0.0390, Ny = 0.0390, and Nz = 0.922, which were fitted earlier
for the isolated disk. For the C3 configuration, two series of
fres values verus Happ were extracted, that is, fC3H and fC3L, and the
Hd–x values were fitted individually for each mode. We obtained
the fitted dipolar field values for fC3H and fC3L to be Hd–x = 99 ± 3 Oe
and Hd–x = –22 ± 2 Oe, respectively. Interestingly, compared to C2A
and C2B, we observed a reduction in the reduction of the –Hd–x
magnitude. This may be related to the diminished dipolar
interaction from the top disk because of the presence of an
additional neighboring disk along x.
Next, we examine the origin of the positive shift of fC5A with
respect to fC1 by considering the stray field model in Fig. 4.7c.
In our model, we postulated that the four neighboring disks
collectively impose an additional +Hd–x along the x direction on
the disk under the probe, which increases Hx = Happ + Hd–x and
shifts fres positively by 700 MHz with respect to fC1. Performing
fres fitting on the basis of the modified Hx = Happ + Hd–x in Eq. 4.2
for the C5A configuration yields a fitted Hd–x = 150 ± 4 Oe (Fig. 4.7d).
A significant increase of estimated Hd–x is observed (>50 Oe) in
this configuration compared to C2A and C3.
Finally, we consider the dual fres peak for the C5B
configuration based on the stray field model shown in Fig. 4.7e.
Here, the model for the C5B configuration is quite similar to that
for the C3 configuration but with an extra disk along each
orthogonal direction. Using the same fitting method, the Hd–x
values obtained for fC5BH and fC5BL are Hd–x = 132 ± 3 Oe and
Hd–x = –22 ± 2 Oe, respectively. In comparison to the C3
configuration, the additional neighboring disk coupled along the
x direction in C5B leads to an increase of the +Hd–x magnitude by
~30 Oe. On the contrary, the additional disk coupled along
the y direction in the C5B configuration does not affect the
effective dipolar interaction on the center disk as is evident in
the similar value of –Hd–x = –22 Oe as compared to C3.

4.4 Reconfigurable Magnetization Dynamics

In the previous section, we showed an example of how dipolar
interaction between closely spaced nanodisks can play a key role in
 Reconfigurable Magnetization Dynamics 119

modifying the individual dynamic response. We outlined the effect

of decreasing interdisk spacing and coupling configuration
on fres and its mode profile, depending on the orientation of
interdisk coupling with respect to Happ. We also presented a
simple method to directly quantify the effective Hd exerted from
neighboring nanodisks on an individual nanodisk on the basis
of experimental data.
In this section, we will discuss a simple approach to stabilize
different remanent magnetic (FM, AFM, and ferrimagnetic [FiM])
states over a very large area using bistable nanomagnetic networks
made from RNMs. Reconfigurable microwave properties will be
demonstrated using RNMs [74, 75]. Shape-induced magnetic
anisotropy from the RNM was used to achieve deterministic
magnetic ground states. An RNM stabilizes into a unique magnetic
ground state after it is initialized along its geometrical short
axis irrespective of its coupled neighbors in the network [76].
Networks of two and three RNM networks are used to
demonstrate control of FM and AFM ground states of different
types with distinct dynamic responses for the different networks.
Two-dimensional AFM MCs were designed by selectively placing
an RNM in two in-plane directions. FiM MCs were realized by
varying the width of the RNM in the 2D array.
This section will also demonstrate how dipolar interaction
between adjacent RNMs can be utilized to realize a reliable
reconfiguration of nanomagnet networks based on switching
between their magnetic ground states. Such ability holds
a crucial key for many potential applications. For instance,
deterministic tunability of magnetic ground states can be used for
programmable spin logic [10, 14, 74, 77, 78]. More recently,
functional SW gating has been demonstrated using an RNM chain
network [37] for low-power SW-based information transport and
processing.

4.4.1 Rhomboid Nanomagnets

We utilize two types of RNMs to construct different magnetic
ground states with a high degree of reliability. Figure 4.8a illustrates
two RNMs that are called P- and Q-type RNMs, along with a
rectangular nanomagnet (R type) for reference. Note that the Q
120 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

magnet is a mirror image of the P magnet. The dimensions of the

RNM were set to 300 nm × 130 nm × 25 nm (u × w × t), where
u and w are the sides of the RNM and t is the thickness. The angle
of the slanted edge, q, for the RNM was 32°. Identical parameters
were used for the R magnet. For the coordinate system x, y, and
z axes were chosen to be along the short, long, and out-of-plane
(thickness) directions of the nanomagnet, respectively.

Figure 4.8 (a) Remanence state of P-, Q-, and R-type nanomagnets
after field initialization, HI: 2000 Oe  0 along the x axis. (b) Energy
landscape illustrating shift in energy minima and maxima in P magnets
as compared to R magnets. (c, d) Hysteresis loops in P and R magnets
along geometrical short and long axis, respectively. (e, f) SEM images
of isolated PQ and reference R magnet array. (g, h) MFM contrasts for
isolated PQ and R magnet array after initialization with HI: 2000 Oe  0
along the short axis. Adapted with permission from Haldar and Adeyeye
[74]. Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society.
 Reconfigurable Magnetization Dynamics 121

Simulated magnetization distributions in these isolated

magnets are shown after initializing them with a field, HI: 2000
Oe  0 along the geometrical short axis (i.e. x axis). At remanence,
magnetization always points upward () in P magnets and
downward () in Q magnets. In comparison, a multidomain
magnetization with arbitrary net magnetization ( or ) was
observed in R magnets. Figure 4.8b illustrates that unlike R
magnets, the energy maxima (hard) and minima (easy) of the
RNM does not lie along the geometrical short and long axis,
respectively. We found a deviation (Dj) of about 10° between the
magnetic hard and the geometrical short axis. As a consequence,
a favorable magnetization direction at remanence occurs in the
RNM for field initialization along the geometrical short axis.
The full magnetic hysteresis loops of P and R magnets were
compared in Fig. 4.8c,d for a field applied along the short and
the long axis, respectively. The RNMs tend to orient into well-
defined ground states at Happ ≈ ±1000 Oe, while reducing the field
applied along the x axis (Fig. 4.8c). On the other hand a larger
coercive field for the RNM was observed for a field applied along
the long axis (Fig. 4.8d).
Figure 4.8e,f shows SEM images for arrays of isolated PQ
and R magnets. Samples are made from NiFe with the above-
mentioned dimensions. To investigate the ground states of the
nanomagnets we have used the magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
imaging technique in conventional lift mode using a commercial
CoCr-coated low-moment tip at a constant height (40 nm). Prior
to MFM measurements shown in Fig. 4.8g,h, the samples were
initialized with HI: 2000 Oe  0 along the short axis. P and
Q magnets have  and  magnetization, respectively, in the
isolated PQ array. The MFM image for the R nanomagnets shows that
the magnetizations mostly point upward, with few nanomagnets
in the multidomain ground states.

4.4.2 Two- or Three-Coupled Rhomboid Nanomagnets

To manipulate the effective internal field, we designed different
dipolar coupled networks according to the desired operation.
Figure 4.9a–c shows such networks that consist of PQ, PQP, and
PPQ magnets. The gap (d) between two neighboring nanomagnets
was 50 nm.
122 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

Figure 4.9 (a–c) SEM images of PQ, PQP, and PPQ networks. (d–f) MFM
contrasts for all the samples mentioned before after initialization with
HI: 2000 Oe  0 along the short axis. (g) Easy axis MOKE hysteresis
loops for all the above-mentioned samples. The results are shown for
d = 100 nm for the coupled networks. (h) Simulated magnetic hysteresis
loops for PQ network (d = 100 nm). Simulated spin configurations for the
hard axis loop at field points (i to vi) are shown on the right. Adapted
with permission from Haldar and Adeyeye [74]. Copyright (2016)
American Chemical Society.

We performed MFM imaging on the RNM shown in Fig. 4.9d–f.

Prior to MFM measurements, the samples were initialized with
HI: 2000 Oe  0 along a certain axis. The FM ground states
(not shown) were obtained using HI (2000 Oe  0) applied
along the long axis (i.e., y axis). On the other hand, when HI
(2000 Oe  0) was applied along the short axis, PQ networks
 Reconfigurable Magnetization Dynamics 123

show sharp alternate bright and dark MFM contrasts in each

network. This implies all the PQ networks have antiparallel
magnetization: . In the PQP network, the up-down-up ()
magnetization state can be observed, whereas the up-up-down
() magnetization state was obtained in the PPQ network.
As observed earlier, P and Q magnets have  and  magnetization,
respectively, in the isolated PQ array. These observations
confirm that it is the shape anisotropy that defines the magnetic
ground state, not the stray field of the nearest neighbor.
The collective magnetization reversal mechanism of the
samples was studied using the magneto-optical Kerr effect
(MOKE) setup in longitudinal MOKE configuration with an angle of
incidence of 45° and a laser (635 nm) spot size of about 5 μm.
The normalized easy axis hysteresis loops are shown in Fig. 4.9g
for all the samples (d = 100 nm for the coupled networks). The
coercive field (HC) values vary from 823 Oe for the PQ network
and isolated PQ array to 860 Oe for PQP and PPQ networks.
It can be seen that HC is larger in samples made from P and Q
magnets as compared to HC = 602 Oe for the reference R magnet.
This is in agreement with the simulated results, as shown in
Fig. 4.8d. We note that the values of the coercive field do not
vary significantly with d in the coupled networks (not shown).
We simulated the reversal process when the field was applied
along the short and the long axis for the PQ network (d = 100 nm),
as shown in Fig. 4.8h. Magnetic configurations at different
field locations are shown for the hard axis loop on the right side.
At zero field, an AFM ground state ( or ) can be observed,
as also confirmed with MFM measurements (Fig. 4.8d).
To assess the performance of a single network, we used
µ-BLS spectroscopy to probe our RNM by fabricating PQ networks
(d = 50 nm) on top of a shorted CPW, as shown in Fig. 4.10a. The
BLS spectra for the two magnetic ground states (FM and AFM)
are shown in Fig. 4.10b. FM ( and ) and AFM ( and )
ground states were obtained by applying HI along the long and
the short axis, respectively. We noticed that the prominent
resonant modes appear at 6.9 GHz and 7.3 GHz for the FM and
AFM states, respectively. This is in good agreement with the
FMR spectra, as shown for logic operations. It should be noted
that a nanomagnet in a network experiences different effective
fields, depending on the magnetic orientations of its coupled
124 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

neighbors. It is expected that the internal field increases in the

AFM cases except for the PPQ network, where the stray field
effect is almost cancelled. In the FM ground states, the stray field
direction is always in the opposite direction of magnetization,
leading to a reduction of the internal field.

Figure 4.10 (a) Experimental geometry for µ-BLS spectroscopy. (b)

BLS spectra at FM and AFM ground states. Reprinted with permission
from Haldar and Adeyeye [74]. Copyright (2016) American Chemical
Society.

4.4.3 2D Magnonic Crystals

In the context of realizing 2D MCs, there are three fundamental
magnetic ground states, namely FM, AFM, and FiM states. In this
section, we discuss 2D metamaterials with multiple magnetic
ground states that are reconfigurable using a simple one-step
field initialization method [75]. The metamaterials are made of
dipolar coupled RNMs where the magnetic states are governed
by the shape-induced magnetic anisotropy of the RNMs. In the
following two subsections, strategies for obtaining AFM or FiM
states and their functionalities based on reconfigurable FMR
responses are discussed.

4.4.3.1 Synthetic antiferromagnets

We have designed AFM states with five different types of unit
cells, S1–S5, and the SEM images are shown in Fig. 4.11a. The
interelement separations along the x axis (dx) and the y axis (dy)
are 110 nm and 75 nm for all the samples except for S3, where dy
is 120 nm. Note that dy indicates the shortest distance between
 Reconfigurable Magnetization Dynamics 125

the nanoelements. The area of the arrays is 135 μm × 15 μm,

which contains more than 19,000 nanoelements. The choice of
dx and dy was intended to ensure sufficient dipolar coupling
between the nanoelements. We have estimated the dipolar field
from an isolated RNM using the micromagnetic method.
The y compoment of the dipolar field (Hd–y), that is, the stray
field along the easy axis, decays rapidly away from the RNM.
For dx = 110 nm, we obtain Hd–y of about 40 Oe at the center of
the nearest-neighbor RNM. For dy = 75 nm, this value is about
25 Oe.
To confirm the magnetic ground states experimentally, MFM
imaging was performed. Prior to MFM imaging, the samples
were initialized and subsequently the MFM images were
recorded at remanence. To obtain the FM ground state, an
initialization field along the y axis was applied and then
removed: HIy:1000 Oe  0. Corresponding MFM images are
shown in Fig. 4.11b for samples S1–S5. In all the samples,
magnetizations point in the same directions showing FM ordering.
Next, to configure into AFM states, we initialized the arrays
along the x axis: HIx:1000 Oe  0 and the corresponding MFM
images at remanence are shown in Fig. 4.11c. The magnetic
configuration of one unit cell is indicated by dotted boxes in these
MFM images. Remarkably, the AFM configuration is uniform
throughout the array for all the samples. Note that unlike the
dipolar-field-driven ground states, the AFM ground states in
samples S1–S5 are governed by the shape-induced magnetic
anisotropy of the RNM and different AFM states are obtained due
to predefined RNM configurations. These results present direct
experimental evidence that implies that different types of AFM
states with complex magnetic configurations can be reliably
achieved. Furthermore, a simple one-step field initialization
process is demonstrated in comparison to the requirement of a
complex clocking field in dipolar-coupling-driven ground states [50].
Shown in Fig. 4.11d are the easy axis MOKE hysteresis loops
obtained by sweeping Happ applied along the y axis The coercive
field (HC) is about 840 Oe for all the samples. Experimental
results were validated by simulated magnetic hysteresis loops
(with a 2D periodic boundary condition), as shown in Fig. 4.11e.
The simulated HC values are 832 Oe, 770 Oe, 872 Oe, 830 Oe,
and 795 Oe for samples S1–S5, respectively, which are close to
126 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

the experiments. For comparisons, a hard axis magnetic

hysteresis loop was also simulated and is shown in Fig. 4.11e for
sample S2. In this case, the M/MS value at remanence is about 0.2,
which indicates an AFM-type ordering.

Figure 4.11 (a) SEM images for five different types of metamaterials
denoted by S1–S5. One unit cell of these crystals is indicated by a
dotted box. MFM images for S1–S5 MCs in (b) AFM and (c) FM magnetic
ground states. AFM and FM states were obtained by field initialization
(HI: 1000 Oe  0) along the x axis and the y axis, respectively.
(d) MOKE and (e) simulated hysteresis loops for samples S1–S5 when
the field was applied along the y axis, that is, the easy axis of the RNM.
In addition, a simulated hysteresis loop for S2 is shown when the field
was applied along the x axis, that is, the hard axis of the RNM. Adapted
with permission from Haldar and Adeyeye [75]. Copyright (2016)
American Institute of Physics.

4.4.3.2 Synthetic ferrimagnets

An FiM configuration has an unequal opposing magnetization at
the ground state. The strategy we have used to realize this
magnetic state is to design RNMs of two different widths, hence
having different magnetic moments. Such RNMs were placed
 Reconfigurable Magnetization Dynamics 127

closely in an array to enable dipolar interaction. An SEM image

of a synthetic ferrimagnetic (SFiM) crystal is shown in Fig. 4.12a.
A zoomed-in view of one unit cell of the SFiM is shown on the
right of Fig. 4.12a. An SFiM crystal consists of RNMs of two
different widths (W ). The dimensions of the RNMs are (L × W × θ) =
(300 nm × 170 nm × 32°) and (300 nm × 110 nm × 32°) for wider
and narrower RNMs, respectively, where L is the length, W is
the width, and q is the angle of the slanted edge of the RNMs.
The interelement separations along the x and y directions are
denoted by dx and dy and are set to 85 nm and 75 nm, respectively.

Figure 4.12 (a) SEM images of a synthetic ferrimagnetic sample. MFM

images at remanence at (b) ferromagnetic and (c) ferrimagnetic states.
(d) MOKE and (e) simulated hysteresis loops with the field along the
long and short axes of the nanomagnets.
128 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

We used MFM imaging at remanence to experimentally

demonstrate these two different magnetic ground states, as shown
in Fig. 4.12b,c. FM and FiM states were obtained by applying
HI: 1000 Oe  0 along the long and short axes, respectively.
In Fig. 4.12b, all the magnets point in the same direction. On the
other hand, magnetic orientations are opposite to each other in
Fig. 4.12c. The magnetization directions of a unit cell are
illustrated next to the MFM images.
Shown in Fig. 4.12d are the MOKE hysteresis loops with
the field applied along the long (y axis) and short (x axis) axes of
the nanomagnets. Single-step reversal is observed for the
applied field along the magnetic easy axes. On the other hand, a
clear two-step magnetization reversal can be observed when the
field applied along the short axes of the nanomagnets. From
simulations (Fig. 4.12e), the two-step reversal process occurred
for the two different RNMs because of different switching fields.
Simulated spin configurations for easy and hard axes loops also
indicate that the SFiM sample has an FM ground state after easy
axis initialization and an FiM state after hard axis initialization.
Experimental and simulated FMR absorption spectra for FM
and FiM states are shown in Fig. 4.13a,b at remanence. From
these results, we found that the mode frequencies are slightly
increased for the FiM state as compared to the FM state. The FiM
ground state produces a stray field contribution, which adds to
the internal field within the unit cell and leads to an increase in
the fres. This is consistent with the results for the RNM networks.
To obtain a deeper insight into the five prominent modes,
we have analyzed the spatial mode profiles using micromagnetic
simulations, as shown in Fig. 4.13c. The mode intensities are
stronger in the larger nanomagnets in the array. Mode f2 is found
to be concentrated at the center of the nanomagnets, whereas
other modes have nodal lines across the RNM, except for f4, which
is located near the edge of the RNM. It should be noted that
the number of modes and mode locations are different when
these results are compared to the synthetic AFM crystal shown
earlier.
Reprogrammable magnetic ground states and microwave
properties would have immediate implications for miniaturized
microwave electronics [43]. Our approach has several advantages
over previous methods. Thanks to the RNM’s geometry, RNM-
 Summary 129

based networks are suitable for obtaining arbitrary ground states

over a very large area, which were elusive in dipolar-coupling-
driven architecture. Periodic variation of magnetic properties
in one, two, or all three spatial directions can now be achieved
using combinations of such RNM nanomagnets, which will
enable advanced control on magnonic bands [48, 50]. The simple
switching mechanism of the two magnetic ground states and its
distinct dynamic responses are appealing for the development
of magnetic logic gates and tunable rf/microwave devices and
waveguides that can be operated without the use of a bias magnetic
field [47].

Figure 4.13 (a) Experimental and (b) simulated FMR responses at the FM
and FiM ground states. (c) Simulated spatial profiles of the SW modes
for f1 to f5.

4.5 Summary
In the first part of this chapter, we used the µ-BLS spectroscopy
technique to investigate the dynamic response of a single magnetic
disk as a function of the neighboring disks’ separation and
coupling configurations. A simple method has been developed to
130 Magnetization Dynamics of Reconfigurable 2D Magnonic Crystals

estimate the strength of dipolar interaction based on experimental

data fitting. We found that the dynamic behavior of the disk
under the probe can be largely modified by the neighboring
disks’ separation and coupling configuration. In a two-disk
cluster, the fres of the disk will either increase or decrease
depending on whether the neighboring disk is coupled parallelly
or perpendicularly to the Happ direction, respectively.
Combining the two coupling modes to form a three-disk
cluster results in a dual resonant peak, with each resonant
peak corresponding to the dipolar interaction along each of the
orthogonal axes. Similarly, adding more disks along these two
orthogonal axes in a five-disk cluster produces dual resonant
peaks with an enhancement of dipolar interaction along the Happ
direction. By rotating this coupling configuration by 45° in a five-
disk cluster, the dual resonant peak disappears and causes a
large shift in fres because of the changing coupling anisotropy.
These results will be useful for further technological developments
incorporating high-density nanoscale magnetic elements.
In the second part, we demonstrated reconfigurable
microwave properties by deterministically switching between
ground states of FM, AFM and FiM configurations. We utilized
shape-induced magnetic anisotropy from RNMs to achieve
deterministic magnetic ground states and control of dynamic
responses. Moreover, the ground state of an RNM is not affected
by its coupled neighbor, which is an important attribute also for
biasing operations and as a fixed layer in spin-valve devices.
This method of deterministic control of magnetic ground states
provide an unprecedented advantage for obtaining periodic
magnetic properties in three spatial directions over a large area,
which is appealing for programmable logic, storage, and SW
waveguides with large areal density and low power operation.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation,
Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore, under its Competitive Research
Programme (CRP Award No. NRF-CRP 10-2012-03), SMF-NUS
New Horizon Awards, and Ministry of Education, Singapore, AcRF
Tier 2 (Grant No. R-263-000-A19-112). A.O.A is a member of
the Singapore Spintronics Consortium (SG-SPIN).
 References 131

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Chapter 5

Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

Ryszard Gieniusz,a Andrzej Maziewski,a Urszula Guzowska,a

Paweł Gruszecki,b Jarosław Kłos,b Maciej Krawczyk,b
and Alexander Stognijc
aFaculty of Physics, University of Bialystok, Ciołkowskiego 1L,

Białystok 15-240, Poland

bFaculty of Physics, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan, Umultowska 85,

Poznań 61-614, Poland

cScientific and Practical Materials Research Centre,

National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, P. Brovki 19, Minsk 220072, Belarus

[email protected]

We present different effects (such as reflection, refraction, focusing,

diffraction, interference, Goos–Hänchen shift) of spin wave (SW)
optics in patterned thin garnet samples. Both experimental
(based on Brillouin light-scattering spectrometry techniques)
and theoretical studies of SW interaction with single antidot and
the line of antidots, on micrometers thick yttrium iron garnet
(YIG) films, were performed. Special attention was paid to the
investigation of SW caustic beams described using the classical
iso-frequency lines approach. The SW refraction phenomenon
induced by demagnetization field inhomogeneity was also proposed
as an explanation of the phenomenon of total nonreflection effect

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
140 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

of SWs on the antidots line. This effect was used to demonstrate

a strong SW beam 180° switcher. SWs in patterned nanometers
thick YIG films were also modeled—both Goos–Hänchen effect and
molding of SW refraction in 2D antidots lattice.

5.1 Introduction
There are different types of excitations in solid state resulting in
propagation of mechanical waves (phonons) [1], electromagnetic
waves (photons) [2], free electron gas density oscillations
(plasmons) [3] or collective oscillations of the magnetization,
and spin waves (SWs) (magnons) [4, 5], which can be utilized for
practical applications. The wavelength of SWs is a few ranges of
amplitude smaller than that of electromagnetic waves for the
same frequency. Moreover, they are easy tunable by a magnetic
field [6]. This makes SWs interesting for application, especially
for microwave and electronic devices [7, 8].
Monocrystalline yttrium iron garnet, Y3Fe5O12 (YIG), mainly
in the form of micrometer-thick films, has been the leading
material for SW studies since the 1960s [9–11]. YIG has extremely
low damping, enabling SW propagation over a centimeter range.
Recent fabrication of YIG films with nanometer thickness [12–15]
has opened new frontiers for magnetic studies and made new
applications possible because of both the discovery of new effects,
such as current–spin wave conversion, or the spin-Seebeck
effect [16–20], and possibilities for high-quality patterning in
the submicrometer range, enabling research on SWs of short
wavelengths [21–23].
The rapid progress in studies of SW dynamics observed
recently was possible not only because of development of
fabrication technology but also because of the progress in
measurement techniques. New SW visualization spectroscopic
techniques such as Brillouin light scattering (BLS) allow the
investigation of phenomena related to SWs (such as diffraction,
focusing, reflection or Goos–Hänchen shift), being similar to the
effects known in classical optics [24, 25]. In this chapter, we focus
on the optical effects of SWs in micrometer YIG films, investigated
experimentally with the aid of the BLS technique and simulated
numerically, and in nanometer films, investigated theoretically
 Introduction 141

with the aid of micromagnetic simulations. Interpretation of the

measured and simulated results is based on theoretical analysis
of the dispersion relation of SWs.
The SWs’ dynamic in YIG films is well described by the
Landau–Lifshitz (LL) equation, which allows to find temporal
and spatial dependence of magnetization vector M(r, t) [26]:

dM a dM(r , t ) , (5.1)
= –| g | m0M × Heff +  M(r , t )×
dt MS dt  

where g (we assume g = 176 GHz/T) and m0 are the gyromagnetic

ratio and the permeability of vacuum, respectively. MS is the
saturation magnetization. The first term on the right-hand
side describes a torque responsible for the precession of the
magnetization vector M(r, t) around the direction of the effective
magnetic field Heff. The second term expresses energy dissipation
with the damping torque pointed to the direction of Heff (a is
a damping constant). Effective magnetic field can be derived
directly from the free energy E, which can contain all
contributions, including exchange energy, magnetostatic energy,
and magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy [27]:
E
Heff = –10m . (5.2)
M
The LL equation, in linear approximation, has a wave solution
which can be found analytically for some special cases, e.g., for
thin homogeneous ferromagnetic films. An analytical theory
of SWs in ferromagnetic films, which takes into account dipole
and exchange interactions, was developed by Kalinikos and
Slavin [28]. Following their approach, we consider a homogeneous
magnetically saturated film of a thickness t, with the static
magnetization vector MS parallel to the static component of the
internal magnetic field Heff,0. Magnetization direction (and Heff,0)
is defined by the external magnetic field H and magnetic
anisotropy consisting different terms like shape anisotropy
related to the static components of the demagnetizing field,
magnetocrystalline anisotropy of bulk or surface origin. A SW
with a frequency f and a wavevector k propagates in the plane
of the film at an angle j with respect to the direction of the
Heff,0 projected onto the film plane. The vectors Heff,0 and MS form
142 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

an angle J with the normal to the film plane. In the linear

approximation, the dispersion relation takes the form

gm0
f= 2 2
[( Heff,0 + MS lex 2 2
k )( Heff,0 + MS lex k + MS F ( j, J ))]1/2 . (5.3)
2p

The function F(j, J) is defined as

  P(1 – P )sin2 ( j) ,

F ( j, J )= P + sin2 ( J )1 – P1 + cos2 ( j)+ MS 2

  H0 + MS lex 
where

1 – e – kt .
P =1–
kt

The contribution of the dipolar interactions to the SWs

dynamics is expressed by F(j, J). The effect of exchange
interactions is represented in Eq. 5.3 by the terms proportional
to k2, where lex2
= 2 A /( m0 MS2 ) is the exchange length, and A is the
exchange stiffness constant.
In the infinitely extended films, neglecting contributions
from the magnetocrystalline anisotropy, the static component of
the effective magnetic field includes the external static magnetic
field H and the static demagnetizing field. For the in- and
out-of-plane orientation of the external magnetic field, it reads
Heff,0 = H – MS, and Heff,0 = H, respectively. Equation 5.3 was
obtained for the unpinned magnetization dynamics on the
surfaces of the film and the excitation amplitude is uniform across
the film thickness.
Equation 5.3 was used to calculate the dispersion relation
of the SWs for a YIG film (MS = 0.139 × 106 A/m and A = 0.4 ×
10­–11 J/m) of thickness t = 4.5 μm and 5 nm with the static
magnetization vector MS parallel to external magnetic field H
(1000 Oe) oriented along the y axis (see Fig. 5.1a). These
dispersions are shown in the surface plots of Fig. 5.1c,d,
respectively, in the two ranges of wavevectors up to ±3 × 105 m–1
(c) and up to ±5 × 107 m–1 (d). Below the surface plots there
are curves of constant energy, i.e., iso-frequency dispersion
relation lines (IFDRLs).
 Introduction 143

Figure 5.1 (a) Geometry of the YIG film. (b) Dispersion relation for
SWs propagating in two perpendicular in-plane directions (perpendicular
(DE) and parallel (BVMW) to the direction of the H) for thick and
thin YIG film. The inset at left side shows the relation with enlarged
small k region. (c, d) Surface plots of the SWs’ dispersion in YIG film
of 4.5 μm and 5 nm thickness, respectively. The in-plane magnetic field
was assumed to be 1000 Oe.

For small k (at long SW wavelength limit) the dispersion of

SWs is determined by magnetostatic interactions. It is anisotropic
with saddle point at k = 0. For waves propagating along the
direction perpendicular to the direction of the magnetization
(j = 90ο in Fig. 5.1b) and for angles j  = (90ο – jC, 90° + jC)
where jC = tan–1 gm0 H [29], the positive slope of the dispersion
curve is observed with non-zero SW group velocity (дf/дk ≠ 0)
near k = 0. This is a magnetostatic surface spin wave (MSSW),
also called Damon–Eshbach (DE) wave, mostly studied
experimentally. The MSSW amplitude is localized at the top or
bottom surface in dependence on the direction of propagation (in
Fig. 5.1a on top (bottom) surface of the film for a wave propagating
in the +x (–x) direction) [6]. Bulk magnetostatic SWs with
negative group velocity at long wavelengths exist for SWs
propagating along magnetization direction (j = 0ο in Fig. 5.1b)
and for j  (–jC, jC). Due to the negative slope of the dispersion
relation, they are called backward volume magnetostatic spin
waves (BVSWs). With increasing frequency, the dispersion relation
becomes influenced by the exchange interactions and acquires a
parabolic shape (Fig. 5.1b).
144 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

With decreasing thickness of the YIG film, the magnetostatic

interactions are suppressed, as well as their influence on the
dispersion (see inset in Fig. 5.1b). The parabolic dispersion
relation is present already at low frequencies and IFDLRs become
elliptic. With increasing f, the IFDLRs approach a circular shape
(Fig. 5.1d).
In the next sections, discussing SW interactions with different
geometrical objects, we will use rules known from optics which
are based on the analysis of IFDRLs. In micrometer-thick YIG
films, the anisotropic IFDRLs and non-monotonic dispersion
relations will be used to analyze SW interactions with the single
antidot and the line of antidots (see Sections 5.2.2 and 5.2.3,
respectively). In Section 5.2.4, special attention is paid to the
total nonreflection effect modeling. This effect of the application
to strong SW beam switching will be discussed in Section 5.2.5.
For large wavevectors (and high frequencies), the dispersion
relation is parabolic and the SWs have almost isotropic IFDRLs.
In this range, the Goos–Hänchen effect for SWs and the use of 2D
lattice of antidots for control and angular filtering SWs in thin
films will be exploited in the Sections 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 for
nanometer-thick YIG films.

5.2 Spin Waves in Patterned YIG Micrometer

Films
5.2.1 Experimental Methods and Samples Details
The samples under study were rectangular (5 mm × 10 mm)
monocrystalline YIG films of thickness t = 4.5 µm, which were
epitaxially grown along the (111) crystallographic axis on
transparent gadolinium gallium garnet substrates. Two main
structures were patterned in these films by chemical etching:
(i) the single circular antidot of diameter d = 50 µm [30], and
(ii) the line of antidots, with round or square shapes and 50 µm
size [31]. Magnetostatic surface SWs were excited with a
microwave antenna 50 μm in width located at some distance from
the antidot or the line of antidots in the sample YIG (see the
sketches in Figs. 5.2 and 5.5). The antenna (inclined by j angle from
the y axis or by F angle from the line of antidots) generated
 Spin Waves in Patterned YIG Micrometer Films 145

excitations with frequencies between 3 and 12 GHz, with low

enough power to avoid nonlinear effects. The applied constant
magnetic field H (=Hyey) with the amplitude from the range 600
to 2000 Oe was selected.
Visualization of the images of MSSW interaction with the
single antidot and the line of antidots was taken by space-
resolved BLS spectrometry in both the transmission-forward
scattering [32] and micro-focus (microBLS) in the reflection [33]
configurations. The probe laser beam was scanned across an area
with lateral dimensions of 1 mm × 1 mm covering the area of
the patterned YIG sample, and the BLS intensity, which is
proportional to the square of the dynamic magnetization
amplitude, was recorded at various points. This technique allows
2D mapping of the spatial distributions of the SW dynamics with
step sizes of 20 µm and 0.25 µm for the BLS and the microBLS
configuration, respectively.

5.2.2 Spin Waves Interaction with a Single Antidot in

YIG Micrometer-Thick Films
Here, we present combined experimental and theoretical studies
of MSSW interaction with isolated antidot in YIG micrometer
films. The relation between the spin wavelength l and the
diameter d of the antidot was considered.

Figure 5.2 Sketch of the sample (with definitions of angles j and q),
overlaid by an exemplary BLS intensity 2D map representing SW
interaction with a single antidot.
146 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

The SW interaction with an antidot was investigated as a

function of the excitation frequency, the strength of the static
magnetic field H, and as a function of the in-plane j angle
between the antenna and the magnetic field. SWs with
reasonable amplitude frequency range, from 4.59 to 4.98 GHz (for
H = 970 Oe and j = 0), were chosen after the amplitude–frequency
characteristic measurement. According to Eq. 5.3, the SWs with
the wavelength from l = 900 to 50 µm are excited in this range.
Figure 5.3 presents exemplary BLS intensity I(x, y) 2D maps of
the SWs interacting with the antidot at two characteristic
excitation frequencies, f = 4.62 and 4.73 GHz. q, the angle
between the x axis and the diffracted SW beam, was defined in
Fig. 5.2.

Figure 5.3 SW interaction with an antidot: measured BLS intensity maps

(a–b) and calculated maps (c–d). Images (a, c) and (b, d) correspond to
frequencies 4.62 and 4.73 GHz, respectively. The static magnetic field
H = 970 Oe was applied along the y axis (j = 0).

In the investigated frequency range, the ratio of the

wavelength to the diameter of the antidot, l/d, varies from 18
 Spin Waves in Patterned YIG Micrometer Films 147

to 1. One can distinguish on these maps different effects such as

SW diffraction, reflection, focusing, and interference. The results
for the two selected frequencies are as follows:
(1) For the frequency of f = 4.62 GHz (l/d = 9.6), two focused
beams are reflected from the antidot to the antenna.
Behind the antidot, in the same direction as the reflected
wave, extinction rays (shadows) are observed (Fig. 5.3a).
(2) At the frequency f = 4.73 GHz (l/d = 3.4), weaker reflections
as a standing wave (as a result of interference of SWs
reflected and generated by the antenna) are created
between the antenna and the antidot. Behind the antidot,
two self-focusing high-intensity SW beams (called also as
caustic lines) were observed for this frequency. The
direction of these SW beams was defined by the angle q in
Fig. 5.2. At the region between the antenna and antidot,
the formation of standing waves with wavelength ls was
more visible for frequencies higher than 4.73 GHz. From
the BLS map, one can determine the value of the standing
wave, ls. As an example, ls = 90 ± 10 µm was measured for
f = 4.85 GHz. This value agrees well with 90 µm SW
wavelength calculated from Eq. 5.3 for f = 4.85 GHz.
Analyzing BLS maps of the region behind the antidot, one
can see that the diffraction beam angle q increases
linearly with increasing frequency; see Fig. 5.4a, where
open dots were determined from BLS maps.
To explain experimentally determined BLS intensity maps
for different frequencies, numerical calculations [30] of SW
interaction with an antidot were performed by applying SW
theory [28] and using Huygens’s principle [34]. Each point on
the boundary of the antidot was a point source, which oscillates
with the same frequency and phase determined by the incoming
SWs.
Let us consider the simplest case: point-like SWs scattering
with a form factor r = 1. Caustic beams were determined using
IFDRL (see Fig. 5.4b) with IFDRL drown for exemplary frequencies
(4.6, 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9 GHz) calculated at an external magnetic
field H = 970 Oe. Caustic beam directions are determined by
SWs’ group velocities (shown by arrows) at points where the
IFDRL curvature becomes negligible (see Fig. 5.4b). The angle q
148 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

is marked in Fig. 5.4b for f = 4.9 GHz. With increasing frequency,

the anisotropy of the SWs dispersion leads to an increase of
dkx/dky, resulting in an increase of the angle q (see the dashed
line in Fig. 5.4a). The experimentally determined q dependence
(open circles in Fig. 5.4a) has the same increasing trend, however,
with significantly smaller q angles.

Figure 5.4 (a) Dependence of diffraction beam angle q on excitation

frequency f. The circles show the experimental values. The dashed and
solid lines show the results of calculations for the iso-frequency curves
from Fig. 5.4b and when taking a form factor r(k) into account,
respectively. (b) IFDRL for frequencies f in the range 4.6–4.9 GHz.
Arrows indicate group velocity directions, and q is the angle between
the direction normal to the magnetic field H and the direction of
the group velocity. (c) The form factor r(k) used in the theoretical
model, together with the IFDRL for f = 4.9 GHz.

To eliminate this discrepancy between experiment and

calculations we incorporated a form factor r = J1(|k – k0|r0) (see
Fig. 5.4c), where J1 is the spherical Bessel function, r0 the radius
of an antidot, and k0 the wavevector of the initially excited SWs
at frequency f0. The form factor weights the contribution of
different wavevectors originating from the iso-frequency curve.
Because dkx/dky is in this region smaller than further away
from k0, the caustic angle q becomes smaller. The experimental
results (open circles in Fig. 5.4a) are in good agreement with
theoretical calculations (solid line in Fig. 5.4a).
In Fig. 5.3c,d, the bottom row presents the numerically
calculated SW diffraction patterns. Comparing the top and
bottom rows of Fig. 5.3 demonstrates good agreement between
the experimental and theoretical data. SWs interaction with an
antidot was also studied by changing the angle j between the
antenna and external magnetic field (see Fig. 5.2). The angle q
was independent of the angle j when the antenna was rotated.
 Spin Waves in Patterned YIG Micrometer Films 149

This is due to the fact that for SWs the direction of the group
velocity defines energy propagation, generally as not parallel to
the wavevector k. Rotation of the antenna and thus the change in
the direction of wavevector k does not influence the vectors of
group velocity, because the caustic beam forms only by linear
regions of the iso-frequency dependence.
The problem of SWs’ self-focusing was studied in some
papers [35, 36]. It was theoretically predicted that for the
observation of self-focusing caustic SWs, it is necessary to have
some kind of SW point source and linear regions of the
iso-frequency curve [35]. On the basis of this idea, so-called
SW active sources of the formation of caustic SWs have been
observed [34, 36] driving SWs a sample from a waveguide region
to the semi-plane one. SW self-focusing based on antidot geometry
as a “passive source” seems to be simpler than one based on
an “active source.”

5.2.3 Spin Wave Interaction with a Line of Antidots in

YIG Micrometer Films
Let us now consider SW interaction with more complicated
pattern: the line of antidots in homogeneous YIG micrometers
films (see Fig. 5.5). A static magnetic field H was applied along
the y axis parallel to the microwave antenna, creating an angle
F with the line of antidots. BLS intensity I(x, y) maps were
recorded as a function of the excitation frequency, the amplitude
of the external magnetic field H, and the in-plane angle F.
Figure 5.6 shows 2D maps of the MSSW interactions with
the line of square antidots with a period a = 150 µm for two angles
F = 0° and 43°. A uniform magnetic field of H = 1020 Oe was
applied, and the excitation frequency was set at f = 4.8 GHz.
At F = 0° (see Fig. 5.6a) behind the antidots line, a diffraction
pattern in the BLS intensity map was observed. A similar effect
was reported on micro-size antidots grating in a permalloy
sample [37]. From Fig. 5.6a, the creation of a standing SW
between the antenna and the line of antidots was observed.
The wavelength of this standing wave estimated from the BLS
intensity map is lS = 340 ± 30 µm, and matches the wavelength
of 360 µm that was calculated from the dispersion characteristics
(Eq. 5.3).
150 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

Figure 5.5 Schematic view of the sample, with gray scale of BLS intensity
I(x, y) of SWs traveling along the line of antidots at the critical angle Fcrit
for total nonreflection, and with definitions of angle F.

Figure 5.6 SW interaction with the square antidots line inclined by the
angle F = 0° and 43° from antenna for (a, c) and (b, d), respectively.
The static magnetic field, H = 1020 Oe, was applied along the y axis.
The gray-scale SW intensity distributions measured by BLS (a, b). SWs
were excited at the sample on the right side and then were propagated
along the x direction. SWs incidence kin and reflection kout vectors
constructions with iso-frequency lines for F = 0° (c) and 43° (d) antidots
line (marked by dashed lines) orientations. Dotted lines are the projection
of the k vectors on the line of antidots.
 Spin Waves in Patterned YIG Micrometer Films 151

While increasing the angle F, both reflected SWs and refracted

SWs were observed. A highly intense beam of SWs traveling
along the line of antidots was found approaching so-called
critical angle Fcrit. It is named “total non-reflection” effect [31],
similar to the one theoretically predicted for SWs moving along
the edge of a magnetic film [10]. Figure 5.6b illustrates SW
propagation for F = Fcrit = 43°. SWs both reflected and refracted
were again propagated for the angles F > Fcrit.
The shape of the SW beam moving along the antidots line
for Fcrit was also determined by the geometry of the experimental
setup (see Fig. 5.6b), where the antenna was located at the right
side of the sample. The SWs excited by the lower part of the
antenna reached the antidots first and then transformed into a
beam and traveled along the antidots line. This process took place
later at the other part of the antenna, which is closer to the top
side of the sample. SWs generated by different parts of the
antenna couple resulted in the nonreflected beam propagated
along the antidots line with an increase in both intensity and
width. To compare the effect of the total nonreflection of SWs
on the antidots line and on the edge of the magnetic sample, the
microBLS technique with high spatial and temporal resolution
was employed. The transverse amplitudes of the SW intensity
profiles were measured by scanning the BLS laser focus
perpendicular to the beams. Figure 5.7a shows spatial profiles of
normalized microBLS intensity measured at the same distances
from the antenna for traveling SW beams along a line of
antidots (circles) and along the edge of the YIG sample (squares).
The estimated widths of the two moving SWs beams are almost
equal. The shape of the spatial profile is determined by the
demagnetizing fields that are responsible for the strong decrease
in the effective field near the edge [38].
To explain the experimental results, it was assumed that
propagation of SWs in a magnetically ordered medium will obey
the laws of geometrical optics [39], and that the projections of
the incident and reflected wavevectors on the mirror plane are
equal. This condition was used with the dispersion equations
of the SWs for the incident and reflected waves to find the
directions of the reflected waves. The above dependence was
applied to the antidots line, which we consider to act as an
ideal mirror for SWs. This approach was used for analyzing
152 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

experimental results from Fig. 5.6. At F = 0° the wavevectors

kin and kout of the incident wave and the reflected wave exist and
have the same amplitudes and opposite components in the
direction perpendicular to the antidots line. Different reflected
and incident SW wavevector amplitudes are generally expected
while F ≠ Fcrit. For the critical angle Fcrit, no reflected SWs
beam can be observed—the projecting line of kin wavevector
(on the line of antidots) is parallel to the IFDRL drawn for
reflected beam (see Fig. 5.6d).

Figure 5.7 (a) Spatial profiles of the normalized microBLS intensity

maps taken perpendicular to the nonreflected beams traveling along
the line of antidots (gray open dots) and along the edge of the YIG
sample (black open diamonds). The edge position is at the distance of
0 μm (with accuracy of ±0.15 µm). (b) Examples of the dependence of
the critical angle Fcrit as a function of the normalized frequency
f/fFMR for external magnetic field values of H = 600, 1020, and 2600 Oe.
On the dashed curve for H = 1020 Oe, the gray circle indicates the
experimental value of Fcrit for the results given in Fig. 5.6.

Exemplary Fcrit dependence as a function of the normalized

frequency f/fFMR was calculated from the IFDRL for three values
of the external magnetic field (see Fig. 5.7b). Both the Fcrit angle
and the range of its occurrence increases while the magnetic
field H decreases. The gray circle on the dashed curve indicates the
experimental point determined for the field H = 1020 Oe and the
results presented in Fig. 5.6.

5.2.4 Modeling Spin Waves Total Nonreflection Effect

In the following part, we will examine the influence of the magnetic
(demagnetizing) field, neglected in the previous investigations
of total non-reflection of SWs [10, 40, 31]. In Fig. 5.8a one can
 Spin Waves in Patterned YIG Micrometer Films 153

see the calculated demagnetizing field appearing near all edges

of the ferromagnetic film, including edges of antidots, whenever
the magnetization vector crosses their edge [41, 42]. This field
locally decreases the internal magnetic field near the edges of
antidots, thus (see discussion in Section 5.3) near the edges of
antidots the incident SWs shall propagate through areas with
gradually increased refractive index. (Relative refractive index
between two media is defined by the phase velocities relation [43].
While decreasing magnetic field, wavevector length increases,
resulting in a phase velocity decrease.)

Figure 5.8 Modeling of SW interaction with the antidots line. (a) The
demagnetizing field in the YIG film (4.5 μm thickness) near the square
antidots row (of 70 μm size). The gray scale shows the demagnetizing
field component along the direction of the H oriented at angle 45° with
respect to the antidots line. (b) Iso-frequency dispersion relation lines
(obtained from Eq. 5.3) at 4.7 GHz in the homogeneous YIG film for
various internal magnetic field magnitudes in the range 950–980 Oe.
The IFDRLs for 980 Oe and 966 Oe are emphasized with the solid and
dash-dotted lines, respectively. The direction of antidots line is marked
as e||. The direction of the refracted SW group velocity is marked with
vg,out.

To elucidate the role of demagnetizing field on the total

nonreflection, let us assume that the internal magnetic field is
abruptly reduced to a certain value (we put 966 Oe) in a narrow
region close to the line of antidots and parallel to it. This value
can be considered as the average internal magnetic field value
in an area in which the demagnetizing field changes gradually,
over a distance comparable to (or smaller than) the wavelength
of the incident SWs (lin ≈ 225 μm, determined for H = 980 Oe
from Eq. 5.3).
154 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

Figure 5.8b shows IFDRLs plotted over the (kx, ky) plane
obtained from Eq. 5.3 for a frequency of 4.7 GHz with H equal
950, 966, and 980 Oe. The incident SWs are refracted at the
interface between the regions of lower and higher values of
the refractive index (higher and lower H, respectively) before
reaching the edge of the antidots line. The condition kin,|| = kout,||
(index || means the component of the wavevector which is
tangential to the interface) provides the wavevector kout,|| of
the refracted SWs and the direction of the group velocity vg at
the terminal point of kout, which is parallel to the direction of
antidote line, e||. Indeed, this was observed in experiment in
Fig. 5.6b.
Moreover, the direction of energy transfer is not very sensitive
to the assumed decrease in the internal magnetic field, as
indicated by the IFDRLs plotted for various field magnitudes H.
Another interesting conclusion from Fig. 5.8b is that |kout| > |kin|,
i.e., the wavelength of the refracted SWs is significantly shorter
than that of the incident SWs (at 966 Oe lout = 2p/kout = 65 μm).
This decrease is fully confirmed in MS in Fig. 5.9a. In Fig. 5.9,
the results of MS performed by means of Mumax3 [44] are
presented. They show the out-of-plane component of the
magnetization mz or averaged in time square mz (<(mz(t))2>T = 1/f)
proportional to the BLS intensity in a steady state (see Fig. 5.5a or
Fig. 5.5b–d, respectively. Our simulations well describe creation
of strong SWs beam experimentally observed (see Fig. 5.6b).
Furthermore, we simulated SW scattering with long rectangular
hole. The result of these simulations is shown in Fig. 5.9c, and it
clearly demonstrates almost the same features as we found in
Fig. 5.9b for the antiodots line. Thus, we conclude that the
crucial role in the experimentally observed effects is played by
the inhomogeneity of the internal magnetic field, rather than
the edge of the ferromagnetic film itself. Nevertheless, the edge
of the film is the source of the demagnetizing field there.
We have also checked numerically the influence of increasing
SW frequency on the refraction and the beam formation.
Exemplary result of the simulations at frequency 4.98 GHz is
shown in Fig. 5.9d. We clearly see the broadening of the SW
beam with respect to the beam of lower frequencies (compare
with Fig. 5.9c for 4.7 GHz) and the rotation of the beam
propagation direction. This agrees well with the IFDRL analysis
 Spin Waves in Patterned YIG Micrometer Films 155

for contours shown in Fig. 5.8b for SWs with increased

frequencies. The dependence was also confirmed experimentally
by increasing f to 5.2 GHz. This sensitivity of frequency adds
additional functionality, giving rise to the possibility of changing
the direction of the beam propagation with the change in
frequency or alternatively with the variation in the external bias
magnetic field magnitude, which shifts up or down dispersion
relation of SWs.

Figure 5.9 Results of MSs showing SWs’ interaction with (a, b) antidots
of side 70 μm line with period a = 100 μm at 4.7 GHz and (c, d), long
rectangular hole (70 μm width) at 4.7 GHz and 4.98 GHz, respectively.
Note that in (a) there is SW amplitude and in (b–d) SW intensity
presented. The SWs are excited by microstrip antenna located on the
right side of the antidots line (rectangular hole) and propagate on the
left side of the antenna. The static magnetic field 980 Oe for (a–d) was
oriented along the y axis.
156 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

The phenomenon of SW reflection at the edge of the sample

was analyzed in [10, 40]. From the theoretical considerations,
it was shown that the total internal reflection of the SWs appears
at the critical angle Fcrit, measured between the edge of the
reflection and the direction of the magnetic field H. Based on the
theory, it should be possible to observe a highly intense beam of
SWs propagating along this edge. The aim of this study was to
investigate whether, for the critical angle Fcrit, the line of antidots
can act as a reflective edge, and as a kind of magnetic “mirror”
directing SWs along the line. Our idea of strong focusing of SW
beams on only a few antidots in a plane homogeneous YIG film
seems to be useful for future applications.

5.2.5 Application of Total Nonreflection Effect for Spin

Wave Beam Switching
In this part we demonstrate an example of the application of the
ideas discussed above. We propose an SW switcher using total
nonreflection on a line of antidots to create a strong SW beam (see
discussion above and in Fig. 5.6) and nonreciprocal magnetostatic
spin waves excitation by a microwave strip antenna [45].
Possible realization of SWs switcher is presented in Fig. 5.10.
The antenna and the magnetic field H are set along the y
direction and the wavevector k of the SWs emitted by the
antenna is along the x direction with –k and +k for –H and +H,
respectively. This field amplitude H = 980 Oe was chosen to
obtain a critical angle Fcrit = 45° for total nonreflection.
Two-dimensional maps of the SWs intensity I(x, y)
distributions were collected with the BLS spectrometer. The
excitation frequency of 4.7 GHz was selected for a close to
maximum intensity of the amplitude–frequency characteristics.
Figure 5.10a,b illustrates BLS maps for the field directions –H
and +H, respectively. SWs were emitted on the left side of the
antenna and the strong beam of SWs was formed left-up along
the line of antidots for –H direction of the magnetic field (see
Fig. 5.10a). With reversed magnetic field to +H (see Fig. 5.10b),
SWs are emitted on the right side of the antenna and the high
intensity beam of SWs propagates right-down along the antidots
line. Thus, we have experimentally demonstrated the formation
 Optics of Spin Waves in Nanometer-Thick YIG Film 157

of a narrow SW beam from the SWs generated by the microwave

antenna and by changing the direction of the SW beams by 180°
with change of the magnetic field orientation. The relatively wide
range of the frequencies where the effect exists (approximately
0.3 GHz) suggests wide band functionality of a possible SW
switcher device.

Figure 5.10 Experimental demonstration of the strong SW beam

formation combined with changing SW propagation direction. Two-
dimensional mapping of the SW amplitude (detected with the BLS
spectrometer) registered for (a) –H and (b) +H. The SWs are generated by
the microwave antenna (red vertical bar). Square holes (50 µm size)
in YIG film with period a = 100 µm created the antidots line marked
by crosshatch.

5.3 Optics of Spin Waves in Nanometer-Thick

YIG Film
5.3.1 Reflection of Spin Waves from the Edge of the
YIG Thin Film: Goos–Hänchen Effect
Here, we study the properties related to the reflection of the SW
beams in a thin YIG film. The reflection can be described by a
complex reflection coefficient R = | R |eiy, where R2 is the reflectance
and y is the phase shift between the incident and reflected
SWs. The physical effects related to the phase shift is a lateral
shift between incident and reflected beam spots along the
interface, DX (see Fig. 5.11). This effect, called Goos–Hänchen shift
(GHS), was firstly observed for electromagnetic waves in the
158 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

1940s [46], and then for acoustic waves [47], electrons [48], and
neutron waves [49]. Recently, this phenomenon was investigated
theoretically also for the exchange or dipole-exchange SWs
[42, 50, 51]. The magnetic properties at the film edge were shown
to be crucial for a lateral shift of the SW beam.

Figure 5.11 Schematic plot of the thin YIG film geometry for consideration
of the GHS. The film has thickness t, which is much smaller than the
film’s lateral sizes, Lx and Ly. The (x,y,z) coordinating system defines
the structure with the film edge at y = 0 (hatched area). kin and kout are
wavevectors of incident and reflected SWs beams, respectively. DX is a
total shift of the SW beam reflected at the edge.

To show the GHS for SWs, let us analyze the dipole-exchange

SW beam of frequency f = 35 GHz reflected from the edge of a
thin YIG film (Fig. 5.11). The film has the edge at y = 0 and is
magnetically saturated by the in-plane static magnetic field
H = 7000 Oe, which is applied along the y axis, perpendicular to
the film’s edge. Let us focus on the magnetic properties at
the film’s edge, in particular surface anisotropy KS and its
contribution to the shift of the SW beam. The thickness of the
film, t = 5 nm, is much smaller than the lateral sizes of the film,
Lx and Ly used in micromagnetic simulations (MS) performed by
means of MuMax3 [44]. Propagation of the SWs is limited to the
film plane (x, y). Due to translational symmetry of the system
along the x axis and conservation of the x components of the
incident and reflected wavevector (kin,x = kout,x), the incidence
angle is equal to the reflection angle qin = qout.
To calculate the GHS we use the stationary phase method
developed for electromagnetic waves [52] and already used for
 Optics of Spin Waves in Nanometer-Thick YIG Film 159

the exchange SWs [50]. This method is based on the observation

that the reflected beam can exhibit a phase shift relative to the
phase of the incident light. If the incident SW is a wave packet of
a Gaussian shape with the x component of the wavevector
variation Dkx ≪ kx, the reflected beam will show a shift DX along
the x axis:

arg(R ) 2p tan q in
, (5.4)
DX = = 2
kx p +(k cos q in )2

where p =[t /2– 2K S /( m0 MS2 )]/ lex

2
, KS is surface anisotropy at the
film’s edge, and k is SW wavevector. The complex reflection
coefficient R used to obtain Eq. 5.4 was derived using boundary
conditions described in Ref. [42]. The DX dependence on KS
(Eq. 5.4) is very sensitive for the surface anisotropy value for
the range of the most typical values near KS = 0 (Fig. 5.12a). For
KS = 0, GHS takes a negative value, which we attributed to the
effective dipolar pinning at the thin film edge.
Comparison of the MSs and analytical results obtained for
KS = 0 at different angles of incidence shows quantitative
disagreement (see Fig. 5.12b). The values coming from the
simulations are characterized by much larger negative GHS than
those obtained from the model. The disagreement means that an
important factor has not been taken into account in the analytical
model. Indeed, due to the chosen magnetic configuration with
H oriented perpendicular to the film’s edge, in its vicinity a
gradual decrease in the static magnetic field Heff,0 is noticeable
(Fig. 5.12c). It is caused by the demagnetizing field. If the
nonuniformity of the internal magnetic field influences the
lateral shift, the total DX should depends on the saturation
magnetization of the sample. Additional simulations performed
for the permalloy Py film (which has much larger MS than YIG,
MS = 0.7 × 103 Gs, A = 1.1 × 10–6 erg/cm) confirms that prediction
(see Fig. 5.12b,c).
The additional lateral shift is coming from the SWs’ bending
and we can estimate this shift using IFDRL analysis for the
exchange dominating the SWs (as in Fig. 5.1d). A gradual decrease
in the effective magnetic field causes a gradual increase in the
refractive index of the SWs, as shown in Fig. 5.13a. The SW beam
propagating through the area of increased refractive index bends,
160 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

providing at the edge an additional lateral negative shift of the

SW beam, as shown schematically in Fig. 5.13b.

Figure 5.12 (a) The analytical results of the GHS in the reflection of the
SW beam from the edge of the thin YIG film calculated using Eq. 5.4 in
dependence on the magnetic surface anisotropy constant KS. The gray
square corresponds to the value of GHS for KS = 0. (b) The GHS in
dependence on the angle of incidence obtained from Eq. 5.4 (solid lines)
and MSs (dashed lines with symbols) for KS = 0 for YIG (solid) and Py
(dashed line). (c) Internal magnetic field for YIG (solid line) and Py
(dashed line).

Figure 5.13 (a) The refraction of the wave on the interface between
media with low refractive index (n-th slice, solid black line) and high
refractive index (n + 1 slice, gray dashed line) based on IFDRL analysis.
The conservation of the kx components in the refraction is required by
the translational symmetry along the x axis. (b) Example of two
refractions on the interfaces between n-th and n + 1, and between n + 1
and n + 2 slice corresponding to the different values of Heff,0, as it is
presented in the inset on the right side of (b). The beam shift
DXbending resulting from the bending is marked schematically.
(c) Results of the MSs (gray square points) obtained from the analytical
models presenting dependence of the SW beam shift on the surface
magnetic anisotropy constant in the YIG film in the external magnetic
field of 7 kOe. Solid black line corresponds to the basic analytical model
for GHS (Eq. 5.4) without including SW bending. Dashed gray line
presents results for the analytical model taking into account SW
bending (see details in [42]).
 Optics of Spin Waves in Nanometer-Thick YIG Film 161

To validate this approach, we compared results of the

GHS in dependence on the surface anisotropy (for the angle of
incidence 60°) obtained from the analytical model including
bending due to the demagnetizing field (dashed grey line) with
the MS results (gray squares) in Fig. 5.13c. The DX(KS)
dependence is now recovered; however, in order to obtain such
good agreement, the averaging procedure of the demagnetizing
field was required. Such approach was crucial due to the
significant changes in the demagnetizing field on the distance
shorter than the wavelength of the SWs near the edge, because
the analytical model of the SW bending is based on adiabatic
assumption (see details in Ref. [42]).

5.3.2 Molding of Spin Wave Refraction in

Two-Dimensional YIG Antidots Lattice
In this section we will focus our discussion on magnonic
crystals (MCs) [53, 54] based on two-dimensional antidots
lattice (ADL) in a thin (thickness 12 nm) YIG film. Similarly, as in
photonic crystals [55], the periodic modulation of the structural
or material parameters results in the dispersion relation folded
back into the first Brillouin zone. In MCs the SWs of the same
frequency, but propagating in different directions, can differ
significantly in wavelength, even if the material itself has an
isotropic dispersion relation, like for the exchange SWs (Fig. 5.14).
This anisotropic dispersion relation can lead to an unusual (i.e.,
not present in uniform medium) relation between direction of
phase and group velocity that, finally, is responsible for the
refractive properties of the system [56]. In thin-film magnonic
systems, operating in a long wavelength range, we observe also the
intrinsic anisotropy of SWs (see Section 5.1) resulting from
dipolar interaction. Figure 5.14 presents the two-dimensional
dispersion relation of the planar MC in the form of the square
ADL based on a thin YIG film. We can see that the lowest magnonic
band has a saddle-like form exhibiting two-fold symmetry
being the result of dominance of dipolar interactions. The
higher bands, located in the frequency range, where isotropic
exchange interaction overshadow the dipolar interactions, start
to manifest the four-fold symmetry of the lattice.
162 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

Figure 5.14 (a) The structure of the magnonic ADL based on the YIG film
of thickness 12 nm. The cylindrical antidots of the diameter 84.6 nm
are arranged in a square lattice (lattice constant 150 nm). (b) Dispersion
relation (band structure) in the first Brillouin zone for the structure
shown in (a) with the external magnetic field applied along the y direction
calculated using plane wave method.

Using the geometrical analysis of IFDRL we will discuss the

unusual refraction at the interface between the homogeneous
film (HF) of YIG and the patterned YIG film (MC in the form of the
square ADL). We will discuss the effects of (i) angular filtering,
where the beam of SWs can enter from one medium to the
other only if its incidence angle is limited to specific ranges, and
(ii) all-angle collimation [57], where the refracted wave always
propagates normal to the interface independently of the
incidence angle.

5.3.2.1 Angular filtering

The bottom of the lowest magnonic band for ADL presented in
Fig. 5.14 has a saddle-like shape with opposite signs of curvature
along the directions parallel and perpendicular to the external
magnetic field. As a result, the bottom of the dispersion relation
has two minima displaced from the center of the Brillouin zone
(see the two closed loops of the iso-frequency lines in Fig. 5.15
for ADL, marked in black). Due to the presence of air holes
(antidots) in the ADL, the bottom of this minima is shifted up in
the frequency scale in reference to the dispersion of HF. Therefore,
for selected frequency 7.67 GHz, the dispersion of HF is already
exchange dominated and the corresponding IFDRL is almost
circular (see grey loop in Fig. 5.15). We investigate the refraction
 Optics of Spin Waves in Nanometer-Thick YIG Film 163

of SWs incoming from HF and entering into ADL for two different
orientations of the magnetic field: perpendicular and parallel
to the HF/ADL interface. For the first case (see Fig. 5.15a),
we found the superprism effect, where a small change in the
incidence angle results in a large change in the refraction angle.
The system accepts the transmission at the direction normal
to the interface because both ADL and HF have magnonic
eigenstates with the tangential component of the wavevector
equal to zero at frequency 7.67 GHz. As a result, the superprism
effect leads to total internal reflection for the incidence angle
exceeding a small critical value. The system in this configuration
works as a low-pass angular filter transmitting through the
HF/ALD interface only those SWs that come in at the incidence
angle lower than some threshold value (we marked this range in
Fig. 5.15 by a bright grey circular sector). The structure considered
can also work in the other operational mode, high-pass angular
filtering. We can switch between these modes by rotating the
external field (or the structure) by 90°. In the mode presented in
Fig. 5.15b, the field is normal to the HF/ALD interface and the
system does not transmit, through the interface, the SWs of
incidence angles lower than a specific critical value.

Figure 5.15 The IFDRLs for ADL (black contours) and homogeneous YIG
film (gray contour) for frequency 7.67 GHz located close to the bottom of
the first magnonic band in ADL in Fig. 5.14. The arrows show the
directions and the magnitudes (in arbitrary units) of the group velocity
(arrows normal to IFDRLs) and phase velocity (arrows attached at the
center of Brillouin zone). The gray (black) arrows refer to the group
and phase velocities in HF (ADL). The dotted squares mark the edges of
the first Brillouin zone. (a) Low-pass angular filtering and (b) high-
pass angular filtering. ADL and HF are made of YIG and have structural
and material parameters as described in Fig. 5.14.
164 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

5.3.2.2 All-angle collimation

In films, the SWs propagate with a larger group velocity in the
direction perpendicular to the external magnetic field than along
the magnetic field direction. This effect is even more noticeable
for ADLs at the crossover of the dipolar-exchange regime, where
the competition between the dipolar contribution (in backward
configuration) and exchange contribution leads to flattening the
dispersion relation. In ADL, the additional factors come from
the profile of the demagnetizing field, where the trenches of
internal fields are induced perpendicularly to the direction of the
magnetic field [58].
This effect is also visible in the dispersion relation in Fig. 5.14,
where the slope (and group velocity) of the lowest magnonic bands
is higher in the direction perpendicular to the external magnetic
field. The top of the first band and the bottom of the second
band have a peculiar shape, i.e., the dispersion is almost
independent of the component of the wavevector parallel to the
magnetic field. This means that the group velocity, being the
gradient of the dispersion relation, is directed almost exactly
perpendicular to the field direction, independently of the
direction of the corresponding wavevector (phase velocity).
The SWs of different wavevectors will then propagate mostly
in the direction perpendicular to magnetic field, enabling
collimation, as demonstrated schematically in Fig. 5.16.

Figure 5.16 All-angle collimation effect. The IFDRLs in ADL and HF for
frequency 9.1 GHz (the bottom of second band in ADL). Due to the flat
IFDRLs in ADL, the divergent beam coming from HF is collimated in
ADL into the beam propagating in the direction normal to the ADL–HF
interface. The meaning of the lines and arrows is the same as in Fig. 5.14.
 Summary 165

5.4 Summary
In summary, we presented different optic-like effects of SWs
in patterned thin magnetic film YIG samples. Brillouin light
scattering technique was used for imagining SW interaction with
the single antidot and the line of antidots in YIG micrometer-thick
films. The SW wavelength was driven by the excitation frequency
or the external magnetic field amplitude. Discussion of the
results of SW interaction with single antidot studies was focused
on caustic SW beam diffraction, like SW reflection and interference.
Especially interesting was the SW total nonreflection effect
connected with the creation of a highly focused beam of SWs
propagating along a line of antidots and behind this line. We
showed that a physical phenomenon to obtain highly focused
beams originates from the refraction of SWs in an inhomogeneous
internal magnetic field (connected with the demagnetization
field) near the edge of the antidot line. In the theoretical analysis
of SWs in nanometer-thick magnetic films, we showed that a
Goos–Hänchen shift depends on both the local surface magnetic
anisotropy at the film edge and the variation of the internal
magnetic field. In patterned 2D antidots lattice nanometer
films, in specific ranges of frequency, we reported the effects of
low-pass and high-pass angular filtering and of all-angle
collimation.
The SW total nonreflection effect was used for the creation
of strong SW beams at the 180° switcher. The already available
technology of fabricating low-damping, very thin, nanometer-
thickness films and the various optic-like effects of SWs reported
have a promising potential for desirable miniaturization of SW
devices.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Science Centre, Poland,
through OPUS grant DEC-2013/09/B/ST3/02669 and Sonata-bis
grant UMO-2012/07/E/ST3/00538. The authors would like to
thank V. D. Bessonov and H. Ulrichs for their contributions to spin
wave studies in YIG micrometer-thick films.
166 Spin Wave Optics in Patterned Garnet

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55. Joannopoulos, J. D., Johnson, S. G., Winn, J. N., and Meade, R. D.

(2008). Photonic Crystals: Molding the Flow of Light (Princeton
Univ. Press, NJ, USA).
57. Kłos, J. W., Gruszecki, P., Serebryannikov, A. E., and Krawczyk, M.
(2015). All-angle collimation for spin waves, IEEE Magn. Lett., 6,
3500804.
58. Tacchi, S., Gruszecki, P., Madami, M., Carlotti, G., Kłos J., W., Krawczyk,
M., Adeyeye, A., and Gubbiotti, G. (2015). Universal dependence of
the spin wave band structure on the geometrical characteristics
of two-dimensional magnonic crystals, Sci. Rep., 5, 10367.
Chapter 6

Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains

of Discrete Magnetic Elements

Yu. N. Barabanenkov, S. A. Osokin, D. V. Kalyabin,

and S. A. Nikitov
Kotel’nikov Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics, Russian Academy
of Sciences, Moscow 125009, Russia
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141700, Russia
Laboratory “Metamaterials,” Saratov State University, 83 Astrakanskaya str.,
Saratov, 410012, Russia

[email protected]

6.1 Introduction
Investigations of magnetic micro- and nanostructures as potential
candidates for applications in spintronics and for magnetic logic
devices have become a hot topic recently [1–7]. In particular,
intensive studies of various magnetic structures are performed to
understand properties of perspective materials for above-mentioned
applications. This, in turn, requires investigation of important
physical phenomena related to spin wave dynamics in magnetic
materials and especially in micro- and nanostructured magnetic

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
172 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

films. Spin wave dynamics is very often related to properties of spin

waves propagation in confined magnetic structures or in arrays
of magnetic dots, stripes, etc. [8–11]. There are various types of
magnetic periodic structures, called magnonic crystals (MCs) [12,
13], which are suitable for investigation of spin waves propagating
in such structures promising information processing and concepts
of logic devices. These MCs can be represented, in particular, by
arrays of holes (antidots) etched in yttrium-iron-garnet (YIG) films
[14, 15], dynamic MCs [16], and other patterned films [17–19]. The
main manifestation of magnetic film patterning is the appearance
of a wave band structure within the wave spectrum. The spin wave
band structure can be very complicated and can be controlled by
variation of external parameters, for example, an external magnetic
field, and, particularly, by metallization of the structure [20, 21].
However, in many of the cited works, investigations of interaction of
waves with single inhomogeneity in periodic structures are usually
left behind consideration. Basically, only the collective influence of
the magnetic structure on the propagating wave properties is taken
into account. The problem of spin wave scattering by an infinite set of
magnetic or nonmagnetic inclusions (cylindrical pillars) embedded
in a ferromagnetic thin film (matrix) was considered recently [22].
It was shown that under certain conditions, spin wave edge modes
are excited around these inclusions, and moreover these modes a
nonreciprocal character of propagation with respect to the external
magnetic field saturating the ferromagnetic matrix and inclusions.
Furthermore, investigations of spin wave edge modes became very
popular because of the prediction of their existence in various
magnetic nanostructures, such as ferromagnetic islands and/or
circular magnetic thin rings or circular disks, or semi-infinite arrays
of dipolar-coupled magnetic nanopillars [23–27]. As mentioned,
investigations of spin wave propagation in MCs or other periodic
magnetic systems were performed considering these structures as
an infinite set of periodic perturbations located along the spin wave
propagation path. On the other hand, it is interesting to study and
important to understand how spin waves are scattered by a finite
array of perturbations located in a ferromagnetic matrix along
the propagation path. It is very important to notice that spin wave
propagation in magnetic film and scattering by a finite set of magnetic
perturbations differ considerably from the similar phenomena in
 Introduction 173

infinite periodic sets of inclusions. Spin wave scattering by infinite

sets of inhomogeneities can be described within the theoretical
approach of coupled wave equations based on the so-called Bloch
theorem. This approach is well known and can be applied for almost
any types of the waves, independently of their physical origin. The
problem of spin wave edge modes in a finite array of perturbations
as circular magnetic thin rings or circular disks is considered in Ref.
[28], treating the circular ring as a 1D chain of spins that are coupled
between them via long-range dipole-dipole interactions. Thus, the
important problem in spin wave theory is related to the scattering of
waves by differently arranged magnetic inhomogeneities.
In this chapter we describe a theoretical approach directly
aimed at solving this problem. First, we develop a general theory
of forward-volume magnetostatic spin wave (FVMSW) multiple
scattering by a finite 2D ensemble of cylindrical magnetic inclusions
in a ferromagnetic matrix [29] (Fig. 6.1). As it turned out, such finite
number of magnetic inclusions arranged periodically along a circle
can have spin wave eigenmodes and can be treated as a specific
micro–spin wave resonator with a high value of the quality factor.
This microresonator can be considered as an element of a magnonic
circuit device. The second problem that is intended to be solved is to
consider spin wave propagation through a linear finite array (chain)
of magnetic inclusions embedded in the ferromagnetic matrix [30]
(Fig. 6.2). This chain is an element of a magnonic circuit device, which
can play the role of a micro–spin wave waveguide. Our basic result
is proved by the optical theorem for the T-scattering operator, which
describes spin wave multiple scattering on magnetic inclusions,
and derives a theoretical formalism for a collective extinction cross
section of spin waves by finite circular and linear chains of inclusions.

Figure 6.1 Ferromagnetic film with ferromagnetic inclusions.

174 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

Figure 6.2 Ferromagnetic film with a linear chain of cylindrical ferromagnetic

inclusions.

6.2 Multiple-Scattering Method

We consider a ferromagnetic film (the matrix) of thickness d and
saturation magnetization M0s with embedded cylindrical inclusions
of another ferromagnetic material having the same thickness and the
value of the saturation magnetization as M1s . An external uniform
magnetic field Hext is applied normally to the matrix surfaces along
the z axis, allowing propagation of FVMSWs (see Fig. 6.1). Neglecting
crystalline and surface anisotropy and exchange effects, the effective
field inside the matrix and inclusion is written as H = Hext – Hdm,
where Hdm is a demagnetizing field. Further we use a simple model
for the demagnetizing field in the form 4pM0s and 4pM1s and got the
effective fields H0 and H1 inside the matrix and inclusion, respectively.
The antisymmetric μ tensor (dyadic) of magnetic susceptibility has
the form
È 0 i a 0˘
Í ˙
m = Í-i a 0 0˙ . (6.1)
ÍÎ 0 0 1˙˚

The tensor diagonal and off-diagonal components inside the

matrix,  00 and i  0a , and inclusions,  10 and i  1a , are found from
the solution of the Landau–Lifshitz equation (see Ref. [31]). Here
the indices t = 0 and t = 1 indicate the matrix and the inclusion,
respectively; the ferromagnetic resonance frequency wH = γH, with
γ being the gyromagnetic ratio; and the frequency wM = g4pMs. The
frequencies wt are defined by w t2 = w H2 + w Ht w Mt and restrict the
propagating spin wave frequency band from above.
 Multiple-Scattering Method 175

We start with Maxwell’s equations in the magnetostatic

approximation [31]  ◊ b = 0 and  ¥ h = 0 for magnetic induction b =
 ◊ h and magnetic field h vectors in the spin wave. The magnetic field
can be written in terms of the magnetostatic potential Y according
to h = – ◊ Y. The magnetic induction is detailed with the aid of
the diagonal dyadic  =  0 ( xˆ ƒ xˆ + yˆ ƒ yˆ ) + zˆ ƒ zˆ and the gyration
vector g = i ma zˆ , where xˆ , ŷ, and ẑ denote the unit vectors along the
x, y, and z axis and the symbol ⊗ denotes the tensor product, as
bt = - m0 ◊ —Y t + g ¥ —Y t , bzt = -∂ z Yt . (6.2)
Substituting this representation into the equation for magnetic
induction leads to the Walker equation

( )
m0t ∂2x + ∂2y Y t + ∂2zY t = 0 (6.3)
for the magnetostatic potential inside the ferromagnetic matrix and
inclusions.
As the next step of consideration we suppose that the matrix
surfaces z = 0 and z = d as well as the inclusion end parts z = 0 and
z = d (see Fig. 6.1) are metallized, following the known studies of a
cylindrical ferromagnetic resonator [31]. In this case one can put Yt
(x, y, z) = Yt(x, y) cos(kzz), where kz = np/d (n = 0, 1, 2,…) and

(∂2
x )
+ ∂2y Y t + krt 2Y t = 0. (6.4)
In the 2D Walker equation (Eq. 6.4) the components krt of
the wave vector along the (x, y) plane inside the matrix and the
inclusion are defined by krt = -1 / m0t k z . The desired form Yt(x, y,
z) of the magnetostatic potential satisfies the boundary conditions
bzt ( z = 0, d ) = 0 on the matrix surfaces and the end parts of an inclusion.
The first equation (Eq. 6.2) gives brt ( x , y , z brt (r , )cosk and
t t
hj ( x , y , z ) = hj (r ,j )cos k z z , where r and j are the local cylindrical
coordinates of a cylindrical inclusion (see Fig. 6.3). Solving the
2D Walker equation (Eq. 6.4) with boundary conditions, which
means the continuity of the magnetic induction normal component
and the magnetic field tangential component on each inclusion
lateral surface, and substituting the result into Yt(x, y, z) gives in
magnetostatic approximation the magnetic induction and magnetic
field inside the matrix with inclusions.
176 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

Figure 6.3 Sketch showing two ferromagnetic inclusions with their local
coordinate systems.

In considered case the set of cylindrical inclusions is irradiated

by a plane spin wave (incident wave) with magnetic field potential
Y inc (r ) = exp(ik 0r ◊ r ) . Each j th inclusion is related to its local
Cartesian coordinate system xj, yj, zj, with the center Rj that coincides
with the cylinder center and is evaluated relative to the laboratory
system x0, y0, z0. All local coordinate systems are obtained via parallel
translation of the laboratory system along its x0 axis. The wave
vector kr0 = k 0r xˆ of the incident spin wave (denoted by kx in Fig. 6.1)
is directed along the unit vector x. Writing r = Rj + rj where r = Rj
+ rj is a point position with respect to the local coordinate system,
and bearing in mind the well-known expansion (see, for example,
Ref. [32]) of the scalar plane wave through cylindrical functions, we
obtain
•

ÂA
imf j
Y inc (r j ,f j ) = 0
jm J m ( kr r j )e . (6.5)
m=-•
Here rj, fj are the local cylindrical coordinates of an observation
point and Jm(u) is the Bessel function, with m being a cylindrical
multipole index. The coefficients Ajm = ejim, where the phase factor
e j = exp(ik 0r ◊ R j ) is dependent on the position of the j th cylinder
center relative to the laboratory system. During the scattering
process scattered Yscat and transmitted Ytrans spin wave fields
appear around inclusions and inside them, respectively. They are
 Multiple-Scattering Method 177

ÂB
scat 0 i mf j
Y (r j , f j ) = jm Hm ( kr r j )e , (6.6)
m=-•
•

ÂX
trans 0 imf j
and Y (r j , f j ) = jm J m ( kr r j )e , (6.7)
m=-•

where Bjm and Xjm denote the scattering and transmission

coefficients, respectively, and Hm(u) is the Hankel function.
To write out the boundary conditions on an inclusion lateral
surface one needs to consider all fields outside the inclusion near
its surface. For example, the total field around the first inclusion
consists of three components
Y1scat + inc (r1 ,f1 ) = Y1scat (r1 ,f1 ) + Y1inc (r1 ,f1 ) + Y21
scat
(r2 ,f2 ). (6.8)
The first and the second terms on the right-hand side (RHS) of
this equality present the scattered (Eq. 6.6) and incident (Eq. 6.5)
fields, respectively. The third term of the RHS of Eq. 6.8 is the field
scattered by the second inclusion and irradiating the first inclusion.
This problem is solved with the aid of the addition theorem [32] for
cylindrical wave functions, which is taken in the form
•
einq2 Hn (kr0r2 ) = ( -1)n ÂH
l =-•
0 0
n+1 ( kr R12 ) J1 ( kr r1 )e
- ilq1
, (6.9)

where the angles q1 and q2 are defined in Fig. 6.3. We denote by Rjj¢
= Rj – Rj¢ the vector distance between the j th and the j¢ th inclusion
scat
centers, with Rjj¢ = |Rjj¢|. Bearing in mind that Y21 (r2 ,j2 ) is given
actually by Eq. 6.6, the application of the addition theorem in Eq. 6.9
provides
•
scat
Y21 (r2 ,f2 ) = ÂB
m=-•
0
21m J m ( kr r1 )e
imf1
, (6.10)

•
B21m = ÂB 2l e
i arg R12
(
Hl-m k r0R12 , ) (6.11)
l =-•
and the angle b again defined in Fig. 6.3. arg R12 = p + b denotes
the angle between the vector R12 and the unit vector x . Equation
6.11 can be called the invariant form of the addition theorem for
cylindrical wave functions and enables one to write out the total field
around the second inclusion immediately by simply interchanging
the indices 1 ´ 2 in Eqs. 6.8, 6.10, and 6.11.
178 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

Now we are ready to formulate in detail the boundary conditions

on the inner surfaces of both inclusions, which are the continuity of
the magnetic field tangential component and the magnetic induction
normal components on the surfaces. Dividing the two boundary
conditions on the inner surface of each inclusion permits one to get
some complete algebraic equations for the scattering coefficients Bim.
For example, one can obtain an algebraic equation for the scattering
(1)
coefficient Bm of the first single inclusion by putting B21 Æ 0.
Thus we have obtained one equation for the spin wave amplitudes
for multiple scattering in the case of two inclusions. The invariance
considerations make it not difficult to write out the set of equations
for spin wave multiple scattering by an ensemble of N = 2, 3, …
inclusions in the obvious form:
(1) • •
Bm
(1)
B jm = Bm +
A1m  ÂG jj'
m - l B j 'l , j = 1,2,º , (6.12)
j π j' =1l =-•

with the matrix kernel

( )
' i( l -m )arg R
Gmjj-l = e jj'
Hl-m k r0R jj’ , (6.13)
where arg Rjj¢ denotes the angle between the vector Rjj¢ and the unit
vector x̂ .
The ratio Tm( j ) = Bm
( j)
/ A jm that we meet in the RHS of Eq. 6.12
defines the scattering matrix Tm( j ) of the j th single inclusion, which
is dependent on the inclusion parameters only. In particular, the
scattering matrix of the first single inclusion is obtained from the
algebraic Eq. 6.12 and coincides with the expression found in Ref.
[22].
The derived set of Eq. 6.12 for multiple scattering of FVMSWs
provides a transparent physical interpretation that can be achieved
by an iterative solution of the set of equations. In this case the
incident spin wave is singly scattered by the jth inclusion and then
propagates along the ferromagnetic matrix to the jth inclusion to be
singly-scattered by it, and so on. The spin wave propagation along
the ferromagnetic matrix between the two inclusions is described
via the matrix kernel Eq. 6.12, the first factor of which takes into
account the wave phase shift; the second factor is a component of
the Green function for the 2D Walker equation (Eq. 6.4).
Let us note that Eq. 6.13 defines a difference kernel that makes
it favorable to apply the Bloch substitution for Eq. 6.12 in the form
 Multiple-Scattering Method 179

B jm = exp(iR j )B1m , where  is the Bloch wave vector, in the case

of 2D infinite MCs. A similar substitution may be done in the case
of spin wave propagation along the circular array of the inclusions.
Nevertheless, here we prefer to solve Eq. 6.12 iteratively and made
the following transformation:
•
B jm - Tm( j ) ÂB '
H
j'm 0 (k r
0
)
R jj¢ = B jm . (6.14)
j π j =1

The left-hand side (LHS) of this equation set contains the m th

multipole terms only. The RHS of Eq. 6.14 has the form
• •
B jm = Bm
( j)
+ Tm( j ) Â Â [B c
j( m ,d m ) cos(d m arg R jj' )
(6.15)
j π j ' =1d m=1

+ iB sj(m ,d m) sin(d m arg R jj' )]Hd m (kr0 R jj' )

where the cosine and sine coefficients are defined by
B cj(m ,d m) = B j(m+d m) + ( -1)d m B j(m-d m),
(6.16)
B sj(m ,d m) = B j(m+d m) - ( -1)d m B j(m-d m) .

As one can see, the RHS of Eq. 6.14 defined by Eqs. 6.15 and
( j)
6.16 describes the incident spin wave in the first term Bm and
contributions of all other multipoles m ± dm created at scattering.

6.2.1 Circular Arrays

Let us consider now Eq. 6.14 for spin wave multiple-scattering
partial coefficients Bjm by N cylindrical inclusions, with centers
placed periodically along a circuit of the radius r. We introduce
an eigenmode and eigenvalue problem in the one-multipole
approximation using Eq. 6.14:
N
U( j) - Âa ( m) ( j' )
jj'
U = l (jm)U ( j ) ; a(jjm' ) = Tm( j )H0 (kr0 R jj' ), (6.17)
j π j ' =1
( m)
where a jj' is a coupling matrix between inclusions that are assumed
to be identical in the following calculations. The eigenmodes U(j)
giving the solution to Eq. 6.17 can be written as N-component vectors
180 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

U ( j ) = (1, p j , p2j ,º , pNj -1 ),

Ê 2p j ˆ (6.18)
p j = exp Á i , j = 1, 2,º , N .
Ë N ˜¯
The eigenvalues l (jm) corresponding to eigenmodes in Eq. 6.18
are written for the case of an even number of inclusions N = 2n as
sums:
n
l (jm) = 1 - Ân
'
a(m)
jj' 11+ j'
,
j =1

p jj ' ' (6.19)

n jj' = 2cos , j = 1,º , n - 1
n
The distance R11+j¢ between the centers of the first and (1 + j¢)
th inclusions is defined by the expression R11+j¢ = 2r sin(j¢p/n). The
eigenvectors in Eq. 6.21 are orthogonal to each other ·U(j) |U(j¢)Ò =
Ndjj¢. Thereby Eq. 6.14 can be written in compact vector form as

1
N
U (jk )
B jm = Â
N k =1
B | U ( j ) (m) ,
lk
(6.20)

which gives, in particular, the solution to the problem of a bound-

mode excitation due to scattering of the propagating spin wave.
Note that in Eq. 6.20 the indices j and k denote the numbers of the
inclusion and mode, respectively, with U (jk ) being the j th component
of the k th eigenmode.
Equation Eq. 6.20 can be solved iteratively. Thus one can replace
in the first step B jm with Bm ( j)
, getting the first approximation B(1)jm
to Bjm. The first approximation B(1) jm is substituted in the RHS of Eq.
6.20 instead of B jm , getting the second approximation B(2) jm , and
so on. In the following section we use a simplified version of the
iteration process combining the first iteration and the two-multipole
approach. Actually we take in the inner sum in the RHS of Eq. 6.15
the terms with dm = 1 only and replace in the RHS of Eq. 6.16 the
( j)
quantities Bj(m + dm) with Bm ±d m .

6.2.2 Linear Chains

In this part we consider a problem of FVMSW propagation in a
ferromagnetic thin film (matrix) containing a finite 2D linear array
 Radiation Losses 181

of magnetic cylindrical inclusions. Centers of inclusions are placed

along the x̂ axis with equal distance R12 between each inclusion
(Fig. 6.2).
To solve the general equation (Eq. 6.15) for scattered amplitude
Bjm, we apply normalization B jm = Tm( j )Bˆ jm and obtain the following
equation:
N
Bˆ jm - Âa ( m) ˆ
= Aˆ jm , a(jjm' ) = H0 (kr0 R jj' )Tm( j ) .
'

jj'
B j 'm (6.21)
j π j ' =1

In Eq. 6.21 the quantity a(jjm' ) denotes the coupling parameter

of inclusions numbered j and j¢. The scattering matrix Tm( j ) of the
single inclusion is independent from the inclusion number j if all
inclusions have identical geometrical and material properties. To
solve Eq. 6.21 analytically, we apply the closest-neighbor interaction
approximation putting ajj¢ ª 0 if |j – j¢| > 1. Here it is considered that
the incident spin wave is propagating along the ŷ axis and only the
first inclusion j = 1 is irradiated by the incident spin wave A1m π 0.
With such approximation, the matrix of Eq. 6.21 set becomes the
Jacobi matrix and one can use the Rayleigh-like solution (the index
m is omitted)
 sin [( N + 1 - j )q ] 1
Bˆ j = 2( -1) j -1 cosq ,cosq = - . (6.22)
sin [( N + 1)q ] 2a12

6.3 Radiation Losses

The total amount of spin wave radiation scattered by inclusions
is considered in the case of a linear chain of inclusions. We solve
this problem with an extinction cross section [33] characterizing
the incident spin wave energy loss due to scattering and possible
absorption by the linear chain of inclusions. The first step is finding
the Green function of a spin wave in a homogeneous ferromagnetic
film; to do that the Walker equation (Eq. 6.3) is written in the form
LY = ∂ x ( m0∂ x Y ) + ∂ y ( m0∂ y Y )
. (6.23)
+i ÎÈ∂ x ( ma ∂ y Y ) - ∂ y ( ma ∂ x Y )˚˘ + ∂2z Y = 0
The operator L defined by Eq. 6.23 is the Hermitian operator
L+ = L on the function Y(x, y, z) inside the matrix with boundary
conditions ∂zY(x, y, z)|z=0d = 0 and a scalar product
182 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

d
( Y1 , Y 2 ) = ÚÚ Ú
dx dy dz Y1* ( x , y , z )Y2 ( x , y , z ).
0
(6.24)

Next we suppose that the magnetic susceptibility dyadic m(x, y)

has values m0 and m1 inside the matrix and inclusions, respectively,
denoting dm(x, y) = m(x, y) – m0 the subtraction of ferromagnetic matrix
magnetic susceptibility with inclusions by magnetic susceptibility
of the homogeneous matrix. We write the Walker operator as sum
L = L0 + L1 of the unperturbed operator L0 = L m Æ m 0 and perturbation
L1 = L|m Æ dm. The unperturbed operator describes the magnetostatic
spin wave propagation inside the homogeneous matrix, and for
perturbation one takes into account the spin wave scattering by
inclusions. We write (1 / m00 )L1 Y = -U( x , y )Y and call U(x, y) the
magnetostatic scattering operator of spin waves. This operator is
Hermitian U+ = U. Now the Walker equation (Eq. 6.23) takes the form
1
(∂2x + ∂2y )Y + ∂2z Y - U Y = j( x , y , z ), (6.25)
m00
where j(x, y, z) is a source term. Note that both the scattering operator
and the magnetic susceptibility deviation dm(x, y) have zero values
outside the inclusion volume.
We denote the Green function G0(r, r¢), where the vector r = (x,
y, z) is a point in 3D coordinate space. The Green function for the
unperturbed Walker equation (Eq. 6.25) satisfies
Ê 2 2 1 2ˆ
Á ∂ x + ∂ y + 0 ∂ z ˜ G0( r , r ¢ ) = d (r - r ¢ ).
Ë m0 ¯ (6.26)
∂ z G0(r , r ¢ ) z =0,d = 0.

The solution to the differential Walker equation (Eq. 6.25) is

reduced to the integral equation

Ú
Y( r ) = Y0( r ) + G0(r , r ¢ )U(r ¢ )Y(r ¢ )dr ¢ , (6.27)
where the inhomogeneous term on the RHS is the magnetic potential
of the incident spin wave

Ú
Y0( r ) = G0(r , r ¢ )j(r ¢ )dr ¢. (6.28)
The T-scattering operator T(r¢, r¢¢) for magnetostatic spin waves
is introduced by writing the solution to the integral Eq. 6.27 in the
form
 Radiation Losses 183

Ú
Y( r ) = Y0( r ) + G0(r , r ¢ )T ( r ¢ , r ¢¢ )Y0(r ¢¢ )dr ¢¢ (6.29)
and satisfies the integral Lippmann–Schwinger (LS) equation

Ú
T (r , r ¢ ) = U( r )d (r - r ¢ ) + U( r ) G0(r , r ¢¢ )T ( r ¢¢ , r ¢ )dr ¢¢. (6.30)
The operator T(r¢, r¢¢) depends on both of its arguments and has
non-zero values only inside the inclusions. On the basis of Eqs. 6.27
and 6.29 it is useful to introduce a quantity

Ú
P( r ) = U( r )Y( r ) = T (r , r ¢ )Y(r ¢ )d r ¢ , (6.31)
which has a physical meaning of dynamic magnetization displacement
current excited inside inclusions by spin wave scattering. In terms
of this current the magnetic field potential scattered by inclusions
Ysc(r¢) is written from Eqs. 6.27 and 6.29 as

Ú
Y sc ( r ) = G0(r , r ¢ )P(r ¢ )dr ¢. (6.32)
Because of the scattering potential U hermiticity one can derive
from the LS Eq. 6.30 the optical theorem for the T-scattering operator
in the form
T (r , r ¢ ) - T * ( r ¢ , r ) =
(6.33)
Údr ¢¢ Ú ÈÎG (r ¢¢ , r ¢¢¢) - G (r ¢¢¢ , r ¢¢)˘˚ ¥ T (r ¢¢ , r )T(r ¢¢¢ , r ¢)dr ¢¢¢.
* *
0 0

Now we consider vector r in cylindrical coordinates (r, z), by

translating 2D Cartesian coordinates (x, y) into polar coordinates
(, j). With this transformation we introduce a complete and
orthogonal set Gn(z),n = 0, 1, 2,… of homogeneous film (matrix)
transversal eigenmodes defined by
z 1 2
G n ( z ) = bn cos p n , b0 = , bn = , n = 1,2,º. (6.34)
d d d
One can verify that all quantities in Eqs. 6.26–6.33 can be easily
expanded along the set of transverse eigenmodes of Eq. 6.34. For
example, the 3D unperturbed Green function G0(r¢, r¢¢) satisfying the
differential Eq. 6.26 can be expanded as
•
G0(r , r ¢ ) = ÂG
n=0
(0)
n ( -  ¢ )G n ( z )G n (z ¢ ), (6.35)

where the 2D unperturbed Green function Gn(0)( r ) is evaluated

directly in the form
184 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

1 (1) 0
Gn(0)(  ) =
H (krn  ). (6.36)
4i 0
(1)
On the RHS of this equation Hm (u) denotes the Hankel function
of the first kind and order m = 0 and k 0rn = -1 / m00 (p n / d ) is a
component of the spin wave wave vector along the (x, y) plane inside
the homogeneous matrix for the n th transverse mode. Equation
6.32 for the magnetic field potential Ysc(r) scattered by inclusions
in terms of 2D quantities takes the form

Ú
Y scn (  ) = Gn(0)(  -  ¢ )Pn (  ¢ )d ¢ , (6.37)

where a 2D current Pn() is obtained by transformation of the second

equation from Eq. 6.31 and is written as

Ú
Pn (  ) = Tn (  ,  )Y0n (  )d ¢. (6.38)
On the RHS of Eq. 6.38 Tn(, ¢¢) denotes the 2D scattering
operator that is connected to the 3D scattering operator T(r¢, r¢¢)
by transformation similar to one in Eq. 6.35. The quantity Y0n(¢)
appears in expansion of the magnetic potential of the incident spin
wave in Eq. 6.28 along transverse eigenmodes. The application of this
expansion along transverse eigenmodes. The Fourier transformation
Tn(k, ¢) and a denotion of the 2D unit vector s to the optical theorem
Eq. 6.33 give
1 2
Im È Y0* n (  )Pn (  )d ˘ = -
Ú Ú
0
Pn (krn s ) d s. (6.39)
ÎÍ ˚˙ 8p
2p
The obtained relation is a basic optical theorem for magnetostatic
spin waves under consideration. It is useful to rewrite this relation
in the form
Cext = Csc (6.40)
where Cext and Csc are cross sections of extinction and scattering,
respectively, for spin wave scattering by inclusions. These values are
defined by the relations
1
Cext = - Im È Y0* n (  )Pn (  )d ˘ ,
Ú (6.41)
krn ÎÍ
0 ˚˙
1 2
Ú P (k
0
and C sc = 0 n rn s ) d s. (6.42)
8p krn
 Radiation Losses 185

To clarify the physical meaning of the optical theorem in Eqs.

6.32–6.42, one can consider the spin wave magnetic field potential
Yscn()(Eq. 6.37) scattered by single inclusion centered at the 2D
point R1 =0 (Fig. 6.3) for the observation point  placed in the far
wave zone of an inclusion.
Applying the asymptotics for the Hankel function with the big
argument’s value, we obtain
ip
- 2 0
Y scn (  )  Æ• ª e 4
0
ei krnr T ( s ),
p krn r (6.43)
1
T( s) = P (k 0 s ).
4i n rn
The quantity T(S) can be called the scattering amplitude in the
direction with unit vector s = /r Equations 6.41 and 6.42 can be
rewritten as
4 2
Ú
2
Cext = - 0
Re ÈÎ T ( s0 )˘˚ , C sc = 0 T ( s ) d s. (6.44)
krn p krn
2p

Consider the case of N inclusions centered in points with 2D

coordinates Rj (j = 1, 2,…) (Fig. 6.2). The 2D T-scattering operator for
an ensemble of N inclusions is evaluated with the help of the Watson
composition rule [34] as follows
N
Tn ( ,  ¢ ) = ÂT
j =1
( j)
n ( ,  ¢ ), (6.45)

where the self-consistent 2D T-scattering operators Tn( j )( ,  ¢ )

satisfy the set of equations
Tn( j )( ,  ¢ ) = Tn(0)(  - R j ,  ¢ - R j )

Ú Ú
+ d ¢¢ d ¢¢¢ Tn(0)(  - R j ,  ¢¢ - R j ) ¥ Gn(0)(  ¢¢ -  ¢¢¢ )
(6.46)
N
¥ ÂT (j ¢ )
n (  ¢¢¢ ,  ¢ ).
j π j' =1

On the RHS of this set Tn(0)( - R j ,  ¢ - R j ) denotes the 2D

T-scattering operator of a single inclusion centered in Rj . The Eq.
6.46 set shows, in particular, that a self-consistent 2D T-scattering
operator Tn( j )( ,  ¢ ) of a j th inclusion is confined in dependence on
186 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

its first argument  inside the j th inclusion. According to Eq. 6.38 the
2D current Pn() in the case of N inclusions takes the form of the sum
N
Pn (  ) = ÂP
j =1
( j)
n (  ),
(6.47)

Ú
Pn( j )(  ) = Tn( j )(  ,  ¢ )Y0n (  ¢ )d ¢ ,

where Pn( j )( ) is a self-consistent current excited inside a j th

inclusion. The scattered spin wave field in Eq. 6.37 takes the form
j)
of the sum of self-consistent fields Y(scn (  ) scattered by different
inclusions
N
Y scn (  ) = ÂY
j =1
( j)
scn (  ),
(6.48)

Ú
j)
Y(scn (  ) = Gn(0)( -  ¢ )Pn( j )( ¢ )d ¢.
Now the general optical theorem in Eqs. 6.40–6.42 is taken in
the case of incident plane spin wave scattering by an ensemble of
inclusions in the form similar to a single inclusion case in Eq. 6.44,
with
N
Ts ( s ) = ÂT
j =1
( j)
( s ). (6.49)

We consider propagation of the incident spin wave narrow beam

that irradiates only the first inclusion and is scattered by the linear
chain of inclusions. The geometry of this case is depicted in Fig. 6.2,
where the linear chain is located along the x̂ axis and the incident
wave is propagating along the direction of the unit vector s0 = ŷ of
the y axis irradiating the first inclusion j = 1 located in the R1 = 0
point of the film. Substituting this last evaluation in Eq. 6.41 gives for
a general definition of the extinction cross section
4
Cext ª - 0
T (1)( s0 ). (6.50)
krn Re
Here T(1)(S) is defined with Fourier transform Pˆn( j )(krn
0
s)
1
T ( j )( s ) = 0
exp( -ikrn s )Pˆn( j )(krn
0
s ), (6.51)
4i
and defines scattered potential in the far wave zone
 Results 187

ip
- 2 0
Y(j)
scn ( ) ªe 4
0
eikrnrT ( j )(s). (6.52)
 Æ• p krn r
With the general expression for scattered magnetostatic
potential, Eq. 6.6, we can show the extinction cross section in one-
multipole approximation using the partial scattered amplitude from
Eq. 6.22:
1 
Cext = - 0
Re(Tm Aˆ 1m Bˆ 1m ). (6.53)
krn
Defining the extinction cross section of a single inclusion as
0
C(1)ext = -(4 / krn )ReTm and putting Aˆ 1m ª 1 , we present the ratio
Cext / C(1)ext in the form

Cext ImTm
= ReFN - ImFN , (6.54)
C(1)ext ReTm
where the collective extinction factor FN is defined by

FN = Bˆ 1m . (6.55)
The major property of Eq. 6.50 is that the extinction cross section
of the linear chain in the case of an incident narrow spin wave beam
irradiating only the first inclusion formally coincides with the
extinction cross section in Eq. 6.44 for a single inclusion. Thus only
the irradiated inclusion makes a direct contribution in the collective
extinction cross section despite the fact that the total number of
inclusions in the linear chain that makes the direct summarized
contribution of all other inclusions in spin wave scattering almost
invisible; we call this dark mode.

6.4 Results
As is known, excitation of edge spin waves in different magnetic
structures is connected with reciprocity breaking at the spin
wave scattering by non-uniformity in the antisymmetric magnetic
susceptibility tensor. We give a simple interpretation of this
phenomenon as the effect of spatial phase modulation in the spin
wave scattered field, with the appearance of a helical component in
the scattered field.
188 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

In Fig. 6.4 we present the spatial distribution of the sum

4
Re Y scat = ÂY
j =1
scat
j (r j , f j ) for m = 1, –1 to show the spatial phase

modulation. The calculation results show that like in the case of

scattering by one inclusion, the helical line behavior is present for
the low value of the collective wave parameter kr0R12 = 1.2 < p in Fig.
6.4a. For big values of the collective wave parameter kr0R12 = 4.3 > p
in Fig. 6.4b, helical lines are absent and a distribution of the potential
with radial nodal lines is explained by Bragg diffraction. Here R12 is
the distance between the two closest inclusions in a circular array of
four inclusions (Fig. 6.1).

Figure 6.4 Helical lines in the distribution of the real part of the magnetic
field sum potentials scattered by two inclusions: the collective wave
parameter kr0R12 = 1.2 for case (a) and kr0R12 = 4.3 for case (b).

Further study shows that a given mode may have several

resonances, the positions of which in the frequency range and their
quality factors can strongly depend on the cluster radius at dense
and almost dense packing of inclusions inside the cluster. The
revealed resonance peculiarities cause the circular array of four
magnetic inclusions inside a ferromagnetic matrix to be a specific
Fabry–Perot interferometer of spin waves. We consider first the
resonance property of eigenmode U4 (Eq. 6.18) with eigenvalue l4(m)
(Eq. 6.19) and the dipole case m = –1. In Fig. 6.5a the dependence
(-1)
of Re(1 / l4 ) on the normalized frequency W = w / w H0 - 1 at
four closely packed cylindrical inclusions is plotted. One sees two
 Results 189

resonance peaks of different resonance frequencies, heights, and

widths related to two clusters with slightly different radii.

Figure 6.5 (a) Dependence of Re(1 / l4( -1) ) on the normalized frequency
W at four almost closely packed cylindrical inclusions with parameter R12 =
6.2 mm (the deeper and narrower peak) and R12 = 6.6 mm (the less deep and
wider peak), and inclusion radius R = 1.8 mm . (b) Dependence of quality
factor Q of peaks on the distance R12.

Now we consider the investigation of the distant transfer of spin

wave excitation along the linear chain of coupled magnetic inclusions.
The most important point appears to be the resonant case when the
¢ ¢¢
imaginary part of the coupling parameter a12 = a12 + ia12 takes a
zero value:
¢¢
a12 =0 (6.56)
As studies show [30], under this condition it is possible to
¢ ¢
determine separate cases of small 2| a12 |< 1 and big 2| a12 |≥ 1 values
¢
of the real part of the coupling parameter a12 in the dispersion (Eq.
6.22). In these two cases, solutions of the dispersion (Eq. 6.22) are
1 ¢
q ¢ = 0,coshq '' = ¢
''
, a12 = 0, - 1 < 2a12 < 0, (6.57)
2| a12 |
-1 ¢¢ ¢
q ¢¢ = 0, coshq ' = ¢
, a12 = 0, 2a12 < -1. (6.58)
2a12
According to Eq. 6.57 the imaginary part q¢¢ of the complex
variable q changes in a semi-infinite interval 0 £ q¢¢< •, and according
to Eq. 6.58 the value q¢ changes in an interval 0 £ q¢< p/2,. If resonant
¢¢ ¢
conditions a12 = 0 and a12 Æ -0.5 are matched, then both values
190 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

satisfy conditions q¢¢Æ 0 and q¢Æ 0 in both Eqs. 6.57 and 6.58.
Therefore, Eq. 6.22 leads to the limiting formula
 Ê j ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
Bˆ j Æ ( -1) j -1 2Á 1 - ˜ , FN Æ 2Á 1 - . (6.59)
Ë N +1 ¯ Ë N + 1 ˜¯
On the other hand, if the condition q¢¢π 0 or even q¢¢Æ • is
satisfied, then Eq. 6.22 gives

Bˆ j Æ ( -1) j -1 exp[-( j - 1)q ¢¢ ] , FN Æ 1. (6.60)
The limiting formulas of Eq. 6.59 describe the case of the distant
resonant transfer of spin wave excitation along the linear chain of
coupled inclusions at resonant value of the coupling parameter a12
Æ –0.5, which shows a linear dependence of excitation decrease on
the number of particles. The collective extinction factor according to
Eq. 6.59 is equal to approximately FN ª 2 for N ? 1; the fact that FN π
1 shows some indirect effect of the particles influence with numbers
j > 1 on the collective extinction factor via influence on the self-
consistent scattering amplitude B  1 in the first inclusion. Equation
6.59 describes a short transfer of spin wave excitation along the
chain, with exponential decrease of excitation, and the collective
extinction factor has a more physically understandable value FN Æ 1.
Another calculation result is that the case of distant transfer of
the spin wave is obtainable with resonant conditions 2a¢12 < -1 and
q¢¢Æ 0 (Eq. 6.57). Here the distribution of the scattered amplitude
̂
B j over inclusions will not be described by Eq. 6.59 or 6.60 but will
be described by the general expression Eq. 6.22.
In Fig. 6.6 we present dependencies of normalized resonance
frequency Wres = wres/wH on geometrical parameters R and R12 (Fig.
6.2) of the linear chain when resonance conditions in Eqs. 6.58 and
6.59 for the coupling parameter are satisfied. As usually, wH denotes
the ferromagnetic resonance frequency of the ferromagnetic film.
All curves in Fig. 6.6 are obtained by numerical solution of the
dispersion equation (Eq. 6.22) under the additional condition
q¢¢Æ 0 in accordance with the first Eq. 6.58. All calculations were
performed for the following material parameters: external magnetic
field Hext = 5 kOe, saturation magnetization of the film and inclusions
in ferromagnetic materials M0s = 1620 Oe and M1s = 1740 Oe , and
film thickness d = 10 mm.
 Results 191

The left boundary linear curve in Fig. 6.6 is related to the case
Eq. 6.59. Parameters presented by this curve can be approximately
described by the relation (Wres – 1)R12/R = const. Other data points
in Fig. 6.6 outside the curve, which represent data for linear decay
of scattering amplitudes, depict the case of distant transfer with
conditions from Eqs. 6.56 and 6.58. This case is represented by
the Fig. 6.7, where scattering amplitudes and collective extinction
factors are described by general equations (Eqs. 6.22 and 6.55).

Figure 6.6 Curves presenting the dependence of the resonant frequency on

¢¢ ¢
the inclusion radius R at a fixed ratio R12/R when a12 = 0 and a12 £ -0.5 .

The calculation for the resonant case with small coupling

¢ ¢¢
parameters 2| a12 |< 1 , a12 = 0 shows that the condition q¢¢Æ 0 for
the distant transfer cannot be satisfied. This means that partial
scattering amplitudes will decrease exponentially (Eq. 6.60), and the
signal will not transfer for a big distance.
Analyzing Fig. 6.7 we need to note that the collective extinction
factor value at N = 23,47 becomes as big as FN ª 103, which is caused
by a small value of the sine function in the denominator of the
ratio in Eq. 6.22 and consequently leads to big values of scattering
amplitudes according to Eq. 6.55. On the other hand, one can see at
N = 24, 48 (Fig. 6.7a), that the extinction factor can have values down
to FN ª 10–3 due to the same properties of Eqs. 6.22 and 6.55.
192 Spin Waves in Circular and Linear Chains of Discrete Magnetic Elements

̂
Figure 6.7 Illustrations of the behavior of scattering amplitudes B j of
inclusions, depending on the inclusion number j for the case N = 24 (a),
N = 23 (b), and collective extinction factor FN (c) of a linear chain under
condition of dark-mode filtering from radiation losses.

6.5 Conclusion
We presented the quantum-mechanical-type T-scattering operator
approach to study FVMSW multiple scattering by a finite ensemble
of cylindrical magnetic inclusions in a ferromagnetic film (matrix)
metallized from both sides. The substantial result consisted of
deriving an optical theorem for the T-scattering operator and as a
consequence deriving a new formula for the collective extinction cross
section of the inclusion ensemble in terms of the incident spin wave
influence on dynamic magnetization displacement currents excited
inside inclusions by spin wave scattering. An analogy to the known
quantum mechanics scattering theory, the Watson composition rule
for the T-scattering operators of particles is formulated in the case
of the magnetic inclusion ensemble. This composition rule was used
to derive the equation set for partial spin wave multiple-scattering
amplitudes. The general results of the T-scattering operator
approach were applied to study the Bloch-like spin wave eigenmodes
propagation along the inclusion circular array and the distant spin
wave excitation transfer along the finite linear array of inclusions.
By studying the Bloch-like spin wave eigenmodes we described
high-quality-factor-specific micro-spin wave resonator consisting
of four magnetic inclusions placed periodically along the circuit. In
connection with distant spin wave excitation transfer along a finite
linear array of inclusions, we concretized our new formula for the
collective extinction cross section of the inclusion ensemble in the
 References 193

case of only the first inclusion of the chain being irradiated by the
incident narrow spin wave beam. Such formula showed that directly
only the irradiated inclusion makes a contribution to the collective
extinction cross section despite the total number of inclusions being
big, which makes the direct summing contribution of all another
inclusions in spin wave scattering as unviewed (dark mode). We
found also a resonant mechanism of filtering the dark mode from
radiation losses, which makes the linear chain of magnetic inclusions
to be a micro–spin waveguide, which transfers distantly information
in the form of the above-mentioned dark mode without radiation
losses.

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Chapter 7

Magnonic Grating Coupler Effect and

Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for
Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

Haiming Yua and Dirk Grundlerb

aFert Beijing Research Institute, School of Electronic and Information Engineering,

BDBC, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China

bLaboratory of Nanoscale Magnetic Materials and Magnonics,

Institute of Materials and Institute of Microengineering, School of Engineering,

Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), STI-IMX-LMGN, Station 17,
Lausanne CH-1015, Switzerland
[email protected]; [email protected]

7.1 Introduction
Magnonic crystals (MCs) offer enhanced control of spin waves
(SWs) via their artificial SW band structures. Periodic magnetic
patterns with lattice constants on the order of the SW wavelength
l allow one to tailor eigenfrequencies w = 2pf and group
velocities dw/dk for a given wavevector k = 2p/l [1–5].
Bicomponent MCs, composed of two different ferromagnetic
materials, have showed backfolding of spin wave (magnon)
dispersion relations, formation of minibands, and opening of

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
198 Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

bandgaps at Brillouin zone boundaries (Fig. 7.1). Relevant SW

frequencies have been in the microwave regime and up to a few ten
gigahertz.


Figure 7.1 Two-dimensional bicomponent magnonic crystal (sketch on
the top right) consisting of two materials [5]. The lattice constant is a.
Measured (open circles) and simulated (dark gray) mode frequencies as a
function of the SW wavevector q in the plane of the MC perpendicular to
magnetic field H0 (see inset). There exist forbidden frequency gaps near
a Brillouin zone boundary (vertical line) due to the periodic modulation
of magnetic properties. On the right side at the bottom two characteristic
mode profiles are depicted for the two low-frequency modes: bright color
indicates large spin-precession amplitude. Adapted from Tacchi et al. [5].

The control of SWs is at the heart of magnonics [6] and

magnon spintronics [7–9]. SWs with small wavelengths are of
prime importance when one aims at, e.g., parallel processing in
magnetic cellular nonlinear networks (CNNs) [10]. The perspective
of novel non-charge-based interconnections with low power
consumption and logic devices based on SWs stimulate further
developments of spin-based electronics, which has entered
partly the international technology roadmap for semiconductors
already. However, it still remains a challenge to design on-chip
GHz components that act as emitters for short-wavelength
plane waves. Here we revisit the design and realization
of multidirectional microwave-to-magnon transducers that
allow one to emit short-wavelength SWs with relatively large
  

Introduction 199

intensity in different spatial directions from conventional GHz

antennas [11, 13].

Figure 7.2 Magnonic grating couplers. (Left) One-dimensional device

consisting of periodic Py nanowires (green) coated with CoFeB (blue).
(Right) 2D lattice consisting of periodic nanotroughs in Py (green).
Geometrical parameters such as lateral dimensions a and d as well as
thicknesses t1 to t3 are used to tailor the performance. Graphs extracted
from figure “Magnonic grating couplers provoking giantly enhanced
spin waves,” rearranged from Yu et al. [11], published under CC-BY-NC-SA.

For such microwave-to-magnon transducers, we have

fabricated ferromagnetic structures whose magnetic properties
are periodically modulated (Fig. 7.2). Short-wavelength SWs
are stimulated by an intrinsic magnonic grating coupler effect
experimentally evidenced in different periodically patterned
ferromagnetic material [11]. The wavelength and propagating
direction of the SWs are precisely determined by reciprocal lattice
vector G of the periodic structure. Compared to several of the
original modes excited by the microwave antenna, the signal
strengths of grating coupler–induced modes are largely enhanced.
The amplitude enhancement is crucially determined by
the magnetic materials, lattice constant of the artificial lattice
patterns, and the ferromagnetic resonance of the transducer
material [11, 13].
The following sections are organized as follows: in
Section 7.2 we outline relevant fabrication steps to realize a
magnonic grating coupler that is resonant and operated on yttrium
iron garnet (YIG) [13]. In Section 7.3 we highlight parameters for
microwave antennas. In Section 7.4 we describe the spectroscopy
technique and in Section 7.5 parameters that we evaluated
from corresponding spectra. In Section 7.6 we summarize
experiments on two different types of grating couplers, i.e.,
resonant and nonresonant couplers, before, in Section 7.7, we
conclude with a summary and outlook.
200 
Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

7.2 Mix-and-Match Lithography for Mesas with

Magnonic Grating Couplers
In what follows, we present the processing of a sample starting
from thin-film YIG grown by pulsed laser deposition [12].
The substrate consisting of (111) gadolinium gallium garnet was
covered by 20 nm thick YIG. To explore spin waves, first mesas
were etched from the YIG thin film (Fig. 7.3). For clarity, we focus
on the example of CoFeB nanodisks with a diameter of 350 nm
arranged as a square lattice with a lattice constant a = 800 nm on a
YIG thin film.

Figure 7.3 Process using photolithography and etching: (a) YIG (blue)
on the substrate (gray). (b) Photoresist (brown) covering the sample.
(c) After exposure. The exposed area (yellow) becomes soluble in the
developer. (d) After development. The mesa pattern and markers are
transferred to the resist layer. (e) After etching. The ferromagnetic layer has
been etched by argon ion milling. (f) After removal of the resist. Markers
and mesa remain.

7.2.1 Photolithography to Prepare a Film Mesa

Resist mesas are exposed and the YIG is etched in order to
confine spin excitations to a specific region (Fig. 7.3). At the same
time, markers are prepared on the sample to align precisely
the microwave-to-magnon transducers and coplanar waveguides
(CPWs) prepared via electron-beam lithography at a later stage
(mix-and-match lithography).
 Mix-and-Match Lithography for Mesas with Magnonic Grating Couplers 201

Before spinning resist on the YIG we heated the sample

to about 100°C to dry the surface and enhance the resist’s
adhesion. After exposure using a chromium mask and UV contact
lithography, we put the sample in the developer. Etching by an
argon ion plasma transferred the pattern from the photoresist
layer to the ferromagnetic YIG layer. The etching depth amounted
to about 40 nm. After removing the remaining resist, we washed
the sample with ethyl alcohol and dried it.

7.2.2 Electron-Beam Lithography and Lift-Off

Processing for Magnetic Nanostructures
We applied electron-beam lithography (EBL) to create nano-
structures with high spatial resolution on the YIG mesa. Here,
a focused electron beam locally modified a positive resist that
was put on the substrate. We generated a periodic array of holes
in the resist that we used for lift-off processing of subsequently
sputtered amorphous CoFeB [13].
The detailed process is as follows:
(1) Design of a resist layout with a periodic square lattice of
holes and markers. The diameter of the nanoholes is 350 nm
and the lattice constant of the square lattice is a = 800 nm.
(2) Deposition of a 10 nm thick aluminum layer on the surface.
This provides a conductive cover layer for the electron-
beam lithography process that follows, thereby preventing
charging effects that deteriorate the electron-beam exposure.
(3) Spin coating of a two-layer resist and baking. The
commercially available electron-beam resist AR-P 639.10
50k is spin-coated with spin speed of 6000 rpm for 120
seconds and baked at 160°C for 3 minutes. Then AR-P
679.04 950k is spin-coated on top and baked with the same
condition. The two-layer resist provides undercut for an
effective lift-off processing due to the 20% higher sensitivity
of the 50k resist compared to the 950k.
(4) Electron-beam lithography in that the focused electron
beam exposes the lattice of holes. Beforehand, the microscopy
mode is used to detect the markers and to align the
subsequently exposed pattern accordingly.
202 Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

(5) Development done by AR-600 56 for 60 seconds. Removing

the exposed resist produces a resist mask with a lattice
of holes. The sample is put into MF-26 for 45 seconds and
water for 30 seconds to remove the aluminum layer.
(6) Deposition of 15 nm thick amorphous CoFeB thin film using
magnetron sputtering.
(7) Lift-off processing done by using remover 1165f.
(8) Growth of a thin Al2O3 layer with a thickness of about
4 nm using atomic layer deposition (if isolation between
the metallic CPW and the sample is needed).

7.2.3 Integrated Coplanar Waveguide

The integration of CPWs [14] was achieved by electron-beam
lithography by making use of the same alignment markers and lift-
off processing of about 150 nm thick evaporated gold. To enhance
the adhesion, a Cr or Ti layer about 5 nm thin was deposited
beforehand in situ. Stitching of different write fields was avoided
to obtain straight edges and optimized microwave transmission
characteristics.

7.3 Antenna Design for Spin Wave Excitation

and Detection
We use CPWs to irradiate the magnetic samples with a
radiofrequency magnetic field hrf and detect the spin-precessional
motion via induction [15, 16]. The magnetic field accompanying
the microwave current that is applied by a microwave source
to the CPW’s signal (S) line (Fig. 7.4) excites the spins. At the
same time, precessing spins induce a voltage signal in the
metallic lead that is guided to a detector by the CPW. This
technique is called inductive detection [15, 16]. In the following
we highlight parameters that are relevant for the design of a CPW.

7.3.1 Coplanar Waveguide

The coplanar waveguide (CPW) consisting of three metallic lines
deposited on a substrate (Fig. 7.4) was first demonstrated by
 Antenna Design for Spin Wave Excitation and Detection 203


C. P. Wen in 1969. The signal (S) line of width ws is surrounded by

two ground (G) lines, each with a width wg. The gap width is given
by wgap.

Figure 7.4 Cross section of a CPW. The two ground lines with width wg and
the signal line with width ws are separated by a gap of width wgap. t is the
thickness of the dielectric substrate. Field lines of the oscillating magnetic
field surrounding the CPW leads are sketched.

Specifically designed CPWs allow for a small electromagnetic

crosstalk between two adjacent CPWs due to the shielding effect
of the intermediate ground lines. A small crosstalk is advantageous
if spin waves are excited at one CPW and detected at the
 neighboring CPW (Fig. 7.5). A parasitic direct electromagnetic
crosstalk can lead to unwanted interference effects between
the electromagnetic wave and the detected spin wave signal.

Figure 7.5 The top view of two neighboring CPWs with ground (G) and
signal (S) lines by which a spin wave transmission measurement is
performed. The parameter s denotes the center-to-center separation
between signal lines.
204 Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

Following [14] the characteristic impedance Zc of a CPW on a

dielectric substrate of finite thickness can be calculated by

30p K (d0 )
Zc = ,
eeff K (d0 )

where K is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind and the
effective permittivity eeff is given as

er –1 K (d0 ) K (d1 )
eeff = 1 + ,
2 K (d0 ) K (d1 )

where er is the relative permittivity and the values dr and dr

(r = 0, 1) are given by

ws
d0 = ; d0 = 1 – d02
ws + wgap
sinh( pws /4t )
d0 = ; d  = 1 – d12
sinh{[ p( ws + 2wgap )]/4t } 1

with t as the thickness of the dielectric substrate.

According to the formulas the impedance can be optimized
by an appropriate ratio of ws and wgap in the case of a given
substrate material and thickness of the metal. The width of a
CPW can be varied along its length while keeping the
characteristic impedance Zc adjusted to the source impedance
allowing for optimized microwave transmission characteristics.
In our case, ws = 2 μm and wgap = 1.6 μm in the transmission
region, and ws = 160 μm and wgap = 100 μm in the pad region.
We use wide metal leads in the pad region (Fig. 7.5) to allow
microwave probes to land on the CPWs. In the transmission
region in which spin waves are launched and detected we use
small widths to provide a locally confined field hrf as will be
explained below.

7.4 All-Electrical Spin Wave Spectroscopy

For the broadband detection of propagating spin waves, we use
an all-electrical spin-wave spectroscopy (AESWS) setup making
 All-Electrical Spin Wave Spectroscopy 205

use of a vector network analyzer (VNA). The VNA can apply and
detect microwave signals with different frequencies ranging from
10 MHz to 26.5 GHz. In conventional cavity-based ferromagnetic
resonance (FMR) experiments a small sized magnetic sample is
placed in the standing wave pattern of a microwave cavity of large
volume. Thereby a uniform excitation is possible. For our technique
based on integrated CPWs we intentionally excite the magnetic
sample only locally. Thereby spin waves of non-zero wavevector k
are excited. Depending on their damping (decay) length they can
propagate a certain distance and induce a voltage in a remotely
positioned detector CPW (Fig. 7.5). Using a two-port VNA we can
excite and phase-sensitively detect the propagating spin waves.
Due to the phase-sensitive detection it is possible to analyze the
real and imaginary part of the scattering parameter S12 as discussed
in the following.


Figure 7.6 Sketch of the AESWS setup with a pair of magnet coils
applying a field along the CPW. The VNA is connected via microwave
cables to tips which have a GSG geometry and connect the microwave
source and detector to the CPW. A sample might be mounted in flip-chip
configuration to a preexisting CPW or contain an integrated CPW.

The ports of the VNA are connected to semiflexible

impedance-matched microwave cables that end in commercial
microwave tips (Fig. 7.6). These tips have a ground-signal-ground
206 Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

(GSG) geometry which fits to the pad region of the CPW (Fig. 7.5)
and make electrical connections accordingly. The microwave tips
are held by x,y,z translational stages to ensure precise and rigid
positioning. The contacted CPWs plus sample are located between
magnet coils which generate an external magnetic field (Fig. 7.6).
The whole setup is on a vibration-cushioned table in a climate
controlled laboratory.

7.4.1 Scattering Parameters

The scattering parameters Sij are measured by the VNA for all
permutations of i and j, where i, j = 1, 2. Here, i stands for the
detecting port receiving voltage signal b and j is the excitation
port emitting signal a. The VNA data provide us with a 2 × 2 matrix

 b1   S11 S 21 a1 
   
 b2   S12 S 22 a2 

that relates emitted microwave signals ai at the two different

ports with detected voltage signals bj obtained in either reflection
or transmission configuration.

7.4.2 VNA Calibration

The microwave part of the AESWS setup is calibrated before
measurements. For this a commercial calibration kit is used
consisting of specifically designed microwave elements such as
through (T), open (O), short (S), and matching (M) impedance.
The TOSM calibration cancels out the mismatch of the used
cables and probe tips by shifting the reference plan to the end of
the tips. Via calibration the VNA evaluates errors and subtract
them from the measured signal. Using a well-designed CPW it
is possible to directly display detected spin wave resonances
on the VNA monitor. For an uncalibrated setup, the measured
spectrum would contain a series of parasitic resonance features
that arise from the microwave circuit and obscure the weak spin
wave signal.
 Spin Wave Properties Studied by Experiments 207

7.4.3 Measurement Configuration and Data Analysis

In the following we discuss spectra obtained for magnetic field
H applied in the plane of a thin-film sample. The orientation
of the field H is given by the angle q that is measured between H
and the normal direction of the signal line of the CPW.
Wavevectors kI, kII, … generated by the locally confined excitation
field of the CPW are orthogonal with respect to its signal line.
Accordingly, for q = 0° the wavevectors kI, kII, … are collinear
with H. If, at the same time, the magnetization M is parallel to
H, the CPW excites a spin wave in the so-called backward
volume magnetostatic spin-wave (BVMSW) configuration. For
q = 90° the so-called Damon–Eshbach (DE) mode configuration
is realized for which kI, kII, … are perpendicular to M.
To increase the signal-to-noise ratio and cancel remaining
parasitic signals that do not originate from the magnetic
sample we subtract two spectra Sij from each other. The second
spectrum is taken for a magnetic field value or angle q at which
magnetic resonances are shifted that much that we obtain the
magnetic field independent background signal in the frequency
region of interest.

7.5 Spin Wave Properties Studied by

Experiments
7.5.1 Spin Wave Group Velocity
The group velocity vg of spin waves is derived from dispersion
relations w(k) according to
dw df
vg = = 2p
dk dk

where f is the frequency in hertz as provided by the VNA.

The group velocity is relevant for the propagation speed of a spin
wave signal and hence data processing with spin wave–based
devices in magnonics.
For a transmission signal S12 detected by the VNA between
two CPWs, spin waves are excited at the second antenna and
propagate to the first antenna through a certain distance s. As
208 Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

CPWs can excite spin waves within a distribution of wavevectors

around, e.g., kI and kII spin waves with different wavevectors k
arrive at the detector antenna when changing f. Due to the
phase-sensitive detection of the spin-precession-induced voltage
the recorded voltage signal oscillates between positive and
negative values as a function of f whenever there is a relative
phase change Dj of p [15, 16]. In the analysis of group velocities
we therefore focus on oscillatory signals in the real or
imaginary parts of S12 spectra. The phase variation j of the
individual spin wave along the path depends on its wavevector k
and propagation distance s between signal lines according to

j = k . s.

We introduce the frequency variation Df between two

neighboring maxima in a spin wave transmission spectrum S12
(compare Fig. 7.8b). From maximum to maximum the phase
changes by Dj = 2p. Thereby one can rewrite the group velocity as

2pdf 2pDf 2pDf Dj

vg =  = = Df . s
dk Dk Dj Dk

Based on this approach we measured the group velocity

in 20 nm thick YIG and obtained about 1.2 km/s at small magnetic
field [17]. The group velocity of spin waves in CoFeB was
determined to be up to 25 km/s [18] consistent with a Heusler
alloy [19]. The large spin wave group velocity makes such
materials suitable for magnonic devices even if they exhibit a
much larger damping than YIG.

7.5.2 Decay Length and Nonreciprocity Parameter

When analyzing spin wave signal strengths in spectra S12 and S21
taken by a VNA, one can encounter an intensity difference due
to nonreciprocity effects. A similar difference can appear when
comparing spin wave signal strengths in, e.g., S12 for positive
and negative magnetic field values. The nonreciprocity parameter
b is defined via signal amplitudes aij as
 Performance of a Spin Wave Grating Coupler 209

a21
a11
b=
a21 a12
+
a11 a22

where a11, a12, a21, a22 are extracted from VNA spectra taken in
transmission and reflection configurations. The nonreciprocity
parameter enters when evaluating transmitted amplitudes in
terms of the decay length ld [20]:
s s
– –
a21 = ( b )a11e ld
, a12 = (1 – b)a22e ld .

Considering this we evaluated the decay length in 20 nm

thick YIG according to
–s
ld = .
 a21 
In 
 ba11 

Using the extracted decay length ld and group velocity vg, we

recalculated spin relaxation times t by
ld
t= .
vg

Relaxation times amounted to about 400 to 600 ns in

20 nm thick YIG [17]. The decay length was determined to be up
to about 600 μm, which was much longer than in a Heusler alloy
(16.7 μm) and CoFeB (23.9 μm) [18, 19].

7.6 Performance of a Spin Wave Grating

Coupler
We studied spin wave resonances and spin wave propagation
in different 2D bicomponent magnonic grating couplers. We
investigated nanodisks of different ferromagnetic materials
embedded in an antidot lattice etched into a ferromagnetic thin
film (Fig. 7.7), and nanodisks deposited on the surface of a plane
film (Fig. 7.8). The nanodisks were arranged on periodic square
210 Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

lattices with lattice constants a = 800 nm. In both approaches

we detected spin waves propagating with wavevectors kI,
kII, … excited directly by the CPW (compare Fig. 7.7a). In addition,
spin waves were resolved that corresponded to wavevectors
different from kI, kII, …. Analyzing their eigenfrequencies, field
dependencies and frequency variations when changing the
orientation of the in-plane magnetic field (Fig. 7.7b) we attributed
such spin waves to grating coupler modes, i.e., modes with a
combination of kI and reciprocal lattice vectors G originating
from the periodic nanodisk array (Fig. 7.7c). In Fig. 7.7, one can
see a direct comparison between spin waves excited by a CPW
on a bare CoFeB thin film and excited via an array of nanodisks
positioned between the CPW and the nominally identical CoFeB
film [11].


Figure 7.7 Spectra taken on a (a) CoFeB film and (b) a BGC with nanodisks
in reflection configuration for different angles q. White dotted lines
represent model calculations for the CPW modes kI, kII, and kIII [11].
White squares highlight the resonance frequencies of these three
modes at q = 90°. The BGC contained Py nanodisks on a lattice with
period a = 800 nm. The red dashed lines in (b) represent calculated
angular dependencies for modes with k = kI + G01 (uppermost line) and
k = kI – G01 (second-highest line). Modes attributed to the grating
coupler effect with reciprocal lattice vectors G that are tilted with
respect to G01 are marked with blue arrows. (c) Calculated dispersion
relation f (k) of DE modes at 40 mT in a CoFeB plane film for positive
and negative k (solid lines). The vertical dashed line indicates kI.
The squares highlight frequencies expected for |kI|, |kII|, and |kIII|.
Horizontal arrows and dashed curves indicate the back-folding of spin
wave branches due to the grating coupler. Graphs extracted from
figure “Angular-dependent spin-wave spectroscopy and back-folded
dispersion relation,” rearranged from Yu et al. [11], published under
CC-BY-NC-SA.
 Performance of a Spin Wave Grating Coupler 211

Figure 7.8 (a) Sketch of the experiment. Large magnetization

ferromagnetic nanodisk arrays (green) were positioned between CPWs
(yellow) and insulating YIG (violet). The magnetization M of YIG is
parallel to the CPWs. (b) Oscillating transmission signal (imaginary
(IMG) part) around 7.6 GHz attributed to k = kI + 6G = 48 rad/μm. The
corresponding wavelength amounts to 131 ± 3 nm. Graphs extracted
from figure “Resonantly driven nanodisks for injection and detection of
large-amplitude spin waves in thin YIG,” rearranged from Yu et al. [13],
published under CC-BY.

7.6.1 Grating Coupler–Induced Spin Wave Modes

In the spectra Fig. 7.7b, we find numerous additional modes at
large frequencies that we interpret as the back-folding of the
thin-film dispersion relation f (k) via reciprocal-lattice vectors G
(Fig. 7.7c). The high-frequency modes in Fig. 7.7c exhibit a
significantly larger signal strength than modes with, e.g., kII and
kIII directly excited by the CPW. Depending on the geometry
and materials, modes reached a signal enhancement as high as
~20,000% compared to the original CPW excitation at the
relevant k. The angular dependence of the grating coupler modes
(highlighted by dashed lines in Fig. 7.7b) was similar to the
modes excited directly by the CPW at kI, kII, and kIII. The
similarity indicated that these two high-frequency modes exhibited
wavevectors k being collinear with kI, kII, and kIII. At the same
time, the large eigenfrequencies at q = 90° suggested wavevectors
k > kIII. Considering the dispersion relation of DE modes, we
attributed the two high-frequency modes to two modes that
are back-folded to kI in the first Brillouin zone of the periodic
lattice using +G01 and –G01 (Fig. 7.7c). The absolute value of a
reciprocal lattice vector |G01| = 2p/a amounts to 7.85 rad/μm
that is larger than |kI| by about a factor of 8.
212 Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

7.6.2 Towards Omnidirectional Spin Wave Emission

Not only were magnons excited with reciprocal-lattice vectors
that were collinear with kI, but also with other propagating
directions. The two modes with wavevectors kI ± G11 and kI ± G1(–1)
with |G11|=| G1(–1)| = 2p/a exhibit maximum eigenfrequencies
near q = 45° and 135° instead of 90°. Such modes cross at
about 15 GHz near 0° and 180° (faintly seen in Fig. 7.7b). Thanks
to the 2D grating couplers acting both as emitters and detectors,
we perceived even “longitudinal” modes in transmission signals
whose wavevectors were nearly parallel to the CPW. Thus,
magnonic grating couplers enable one to emit plane-wave SWs
in a multitude of in-plane directions by adding (or subtracting)
specific reciprocal-lattice vectors from a CPW-induced wavevector
k. Using different Bravais lattices, different lattice constants and
differently wide CPWs spin waves might be emitted in almost
arbitrary directions. This is interesting when aiming at complex
integrated magnonic circuits.

7.6.3 Enhanced Magnon Excitation via Resonant

Nanodisks
Note that we discussed so far nonresonant grating couplers for
which the FMR of the nanodisks was below the eigenfrequencies
of excited spin waves. In the following we revisit a nanodisk
array that was prepared from a metallic ferromagnet with large
saturation magnetization MS such as Py or CoFeB on top of a 20 nm
thin YIG film (Fig. 7.8). YIG possesses a saturation magnetization
that is a factor of about 5(9) smaller compared to Py (CoFeB) [13].
The FMR eigenfrequency f0 of a thin YIG film is much smaller
compared to a Py and CoFeB thin film assuming the same film
thickness and in-plane magnetic field H. In a field regime where
short-wavelength spin waves in YIG became degenerate with
the field-dependent FMR of the nanodisks, we found that the
transmitted spin-wave signal was pronounced (Fig. 7.8b) and
significantly enhanced (by about factor of 6 in case of Py) compared
to the signals measured for the nonresonant grating coupler.
Au et al. [21] argue that the dynamic stray field hdip of precessing
spins in a nanomagnet-based transducer locally enhances the
 Performance of a Spin Wave Grating Coupler 213

microwave magnetic field hrf and enlarges the torque acting on

the magnetic moments in a neighboring film.
Following their modeling, the enhancement of hrf at f0 via hdip
depends on materials properties according to (2a(1 + 2H/Ms))–1
where a denotes the Gilbert damping parameter of the given
transducer material. Slightly larger signal amplitudes in YIG
observed for CoFeB nanodisks were attributed to the larger
saturation magnetization and smaller damping parameter of
CoFeB compared to Py nanodisks [13].

7.6.4 Sub-100 nm-Wavelength Spin Waves

As CoFeB exhibits a large saturation magnetization MS [18],
the field-dependent FMR frequency for the saturated CoFeB
nanodisks was high and underwent crossings with spin waves in
YIG that had large wavevectors k. We observed a pronounced
propagation signal at a frequency consistent with k = kI + 9G
= 71 rad/μm. The wavelength l corresponded to 88 ± 2 nm [13].
The eigenfrequencies f attributed to different grating coupler
modes followed a dependence f  k2 which suggested exchange-
dominated spin waves.
Note that the original wavelength of electromagnetic waves at
the same frequency in free space was on the order of cm, i.e., larger
than l = 2p/k by more than a factor of 105. The magnonic grating
coupler thus allowed to shrink the wavelength of a microwave
signal enormously. The relative signal strength at large k amounted
to up to 38 % of the signal strength at kI.

7.6.5 Angular Dependance of Propagating Grating

Coupler Modes
In addition to field-dependent measurements at fixed angle as
shown in Ref. [13], we also conducted measurements, in which we
fixed the field strength at 50 mT and rotated the field direction.
Figure 7.9 shows the experimental data measured on a YIG plain
film (top row) as well as YIG film with Py nanodisks on top
(bottom row). Both reflection spectra S11 (left) and transmission
spectra S12 (right) are depicted. We assume that H is large enough
that the YIG film and nanodisks are saturated for the different
214 Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

field directions. DE modes are pronounced at –90°, 90°, and 270°.

At these angles, several mode branches can be resolved in Fig. 7.9
(top row) consistent with Fig. 7.7a. At 0° and 180°, mainly one
pronounced BVMSW mode branch is detected.

Figure 7.9 Angular dependence of spin wave modes in YIG film

(top row) and YIG with a Py nanodisk array (bottom row). The applied
field value is 50 mT. Zero degree is defined as field parallel to kI.
Horizontal lines are due to subtraction of a reference spectrum. White
arrows indicate grating coupler modes of weak signal-to-noise ratio at
high frequencies.

The spectra become richer in Fig. 7.9 (bottom row) when the
nanodisk array is present. As discussed, spin waves are detected
up to higher frequencies compared to the bare YIG film.
These high-frequency modes are due to the grating coupler effect.
With angular dependence measurements, we follow how such
modes transform from the DE mode configuration into BVMSW
mode. Some of the modes have “frequency maxima” near 45°
 Conclusions and Outlook 215

or 30°, which can be understood as a result of grating coupler

modes such as kI + G11 or kI + G12, respectively. In a specific angle
regime we observed weak transmission signals S12 around 12 GHz
from which we estimated the so far shortest wavelength l of
68 ± 1 nm.
The angular dependence of the main branch related to kI
is modified in the grating coupler sample compared to the bare
thin film sample (Fig. 7.9, at the bottom on the left).
We detect a splitting of modes near, e.g., +/–45°. This observation
might indicate that the band structure of the YIG is modified in
the presence of the nanodisk array similar to a bicomponent
magnonic crystal [5].
We now relate the grating coupler effect to some other
schemes that can excite spin waves with short wavelengths. Among
these schemes there are parametric pumping [22], wavelength
conversion [23], spin-transfer torque nanocontact oscillators
(NCO) [24, 25], magnetic vortices [26], nanostructured
antennas [27, 28], and edge excitation of a ferromagnetic thin film
[29]. NCOs and grating couplers form opposing limiting cases in
that NCOs represent point-like emitters, whereas grating couplers
allow for plane waves. The research fields of nanomagnonics
[9, 30] and magnon spintronics [8] certainly benefit from the
recent developments concerning the different spin wave emitters.

7.7 Conclusions and Outlook

Taking advantage of nanofabrication technology and material
science, spin waves with wavelengths l below 100 nm were
excited in magnetic thin films using conventional coplanar
waveguides. This was achieved via the resonant magnonic grating
coupler effect. By further optimization (via nanodisks made
from ferrites with higher FMR frequency and reduced lattice
parameters), spin waves with l of about 20 nm might be excited,
i.e., in a wavelength regime known from electromagnetic waves in
the X-ray regime. Combined with reconfigurable magnonic
crystals one expects advanced wave control in solids that promises
a compelling future for nanomagnetic devices using spin waves
for computing and information processing.
216 Microwave-to-Magnon Transducers for Exchange-Dominated Spin Waves

Acknowledgments
We thank S. Tacchi, G. Duerr, R. Huber, M. Bahr, T. Schwarze, F.
Brandl, M. Madami, S. Neusser, G. Gubbiotti, G. Carlotti, O. d’ Allivy
Kelly, V. Cros, R. Bernard, P. Bortolotti, A. Anane, F. Heimbach,
and Y. Stasinopoulos for their contributions. The experimental
work received funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
(DFG) via the German excellence cluster Nanosystems Initiative
Munich (NIM), as well as project GR1640/5-1/2 in the framework
of the DFG Priority Program Spincaloric Transport Phenomena
SPP 1538.
We thank the following colleagues for their help in editing
the text: Che Ping, Tobias Stueckler, Sa Tu, Chuanpu Liu, Junfeng Hu,
Jilei Chen, Jianyu Zhang, Xing Chen, and Yinan Wang.

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Chapter 8

Spin Waves on Spin Structures: Topology,

Localization, and Nonreciprocity

Robert L. Stamps,a Joo-Von Kim,b Felipe Garcia-Sanchez,c

Pablo Borys,d Gianluca Gubbiotti,e Yue Li,a and Robert E. Camleyf
aSUPA School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Glasgow, UK
bCentre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Université Paris-Saclay, France
cIstituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica, Turin, Italy
dRIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science, Tokyo, Japan
eIstituto officina dei Materiali, CNR, Perugia, Italy
fDepartment of Physics and Energy Science, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs,

Colorado, USA
[email protected]

8.1 Introduction
Spintronics exists because of an extra degree of freedom provided
by electron spin that can be used for carrying information.
Whereas information can be manipulated and transported using
charge, this comes at a cost due to the concurrent and inherent
generation of Joule heating. An alternative mechanism for
transporting information through the spin variable is available
and, in fact, has been studied for over 80 years. Spin waves and
their particle-like counterpart, magnons, are the low-lying energy

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
220 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

states of spin systems and were first predicted by Bloch [4, 25,
38, 43]. Not only do spin wave excitations exhibit a wide variety
of linear and nonlinear properties (which makes them interesting
for fundamental research), they also exist in the gigahertz to
terahertz region of the frequency spectrum, which is appropriate
for telecommunications and information technologies. New
technologies that allow the fabrication of devices in the nanoscale
together have led to the discovery of phenomena such as spin
pumping [88], spin transfer torque [2, 80], and spin Hall effects
[24, 42]. The field now called magnonics is concerned with
consequences of the fact that the transport and processing of
information can be achieved without physical charge transport.
Challenges addressed in this field pertain to issues related
with spin wave dissipation, device miniaturization [82],
and fabrication of artificial magnonic crystals [48–50]. Most
recently, consequences of the Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction
(DMI) on spin wave properties has been studied extensively,
especially in regards to interface-induced DMI. The DMI arises in
low-symmetry materials with a strong spin-orbit coupling and
is modeled as an antisymmetric form of the exchange interaction.
Dzyaloshinskii first postulated this interaction in order to
explain weak ferromagnetism in antiferromagnets [26]. A few
years later Moriya calculated the second-order energy terms
associated with spin-orbit couplings for the exchange interaction,
thereby establishing a mechanism for the interaction [68, 69].
In noncentrosymmetric magnetic crystals the DMI is
responsible for the spontaneous formation of helicoidal and
skyrmionic structures [6, 7]. From the viewpoint of applications,
the most exciting recent development has been experimental
demonstration that an interface form of the DMI can appear
because of inversion symmetry breaking at the surface between
magnetic films on heavy metal nonmagnetic substrates that
provide the spin-orbit coupling. Experiments have shown that
this induced form of the DMI leads to chiral spin structures in
manganese monolayers on top of tungsten [5] and skyrmion
lattices in iron monolayers on iridium [37]. This interfacial
DMI also exists for sputtered multilayer films such as Pt/Co/Ni
[23], Pt/Co/AlOx [1], Pt/Co/Ir [66], Pt/Co/MgO [9], and
(TaN, Hf, W)/CoFeB/MgO [81], which have strong perpendicular
magnetic anisotropy. This form of DMI has helped explain
 Introduction 221

puzzling observations obtained for domain wall dynamics.

The DMI stabilizes a Néel-type domain wall with a given
handedness [15, 36, 86] with significant consequences on domain
wall mobilities. The mobilities are now understood in terms of the
interfacial DMI [87].
The interfacial DMI is of particular interest for magnonics.
Udvardi and Szunyogh in 2009 suggested the possibility that the
spin wave chiral degeneracy (resulting from the isotropic part
of the exchange) could be lifted in the presence of the DMI [90].
From a first-principles calculation they found an asymmetric
magnon dispersion for a Fe monolayer on tungsten for a certain
direction of propagation that was explained by the presence
the DMI. Shortly thereafter, Zakeri et al. demonstrated a DMI-
driven asymmetry in the spin wave dispersion using spin-polarized
electron energy loss spectroscopy on a Fe double layer grown on
tungsten [100].
Theoretical studies suggested that DMI-induced nonreciprocity
should exist [17, 18, 54, 65], and inelastic light scattering
studies provided evidence for the nonreciprocal dispersion
phenomenon and have been used to obtain measures of its strength
[1, 23, 81, 83]. Localized spin wave modes have been studied
for many years and are particularly important for thin-film
geometries and inhomogeneous magnetic configurations. In
particular, Winter calculated spin wave properties for propagation
along a Bloch domain wall in the context of nuclear magnetic
resonances in 1961 [98] and outlined the properties of a wall-
localized mode that appears in the modified spin wave dispersion.
An unpinned wall supports a mode with zero energy for
propagation perpendicular to the plane of the wall and a quadratic
gapless dispersion for propagation parallel to the plane of the
wall in which there is no spatial variation of the static
magnetization.
We discuss in this chapter the propagation of spin waves
along domain walls and the consequences of the DMI on their
dispersion. We also discuss how the DMI affects the gap between the
energies of freely propagating spin waves and the spin waves
channeled along walls, as well as consequent nonreciprocities.
These features provide the essential ingredients for a new type of
application whereby domain walls are used to guide and control
the flow of spin wave information.
222 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

In the second half of this review, we discuss a possibility

for creating a mesoscopic metamaterial analogue of domain
wall channeling. The idea in this case is very different and
relies upon a new emerging technological concept sometimes
referred to as artificial spin ice (ASI). Artificial magnetic spin ice
is an arrangement of interacting nanomagnets with emergent
collective magnetic properties. A straightforward and well-studied
example is square ASI, wherein elements are arranged such
that the dipolar interactions result in a type of antiferromagnetic
alignment. The single-domain magnetic elements in these
structures can spontaneously order into two sublattice arrays of
alternating magnetic orientations on a two-dimensional square
lattice. Relatively simple alterations of the array geometry can
be made to produce other types of ordering or create frustration
through competing interactions as occurs in spin glasses.
Static magnetic configurations in ASI can be manipulated
through application of magnetic fields. We review how the
magnetic configuration determines many details of the allowed
microwave frequency excitation spectra. The individual
ferromagnetic single-domain elements from which ASI is
constructed have resonances in the microwave region. We
discuss aspects of ongoing work aimed at using magnetic
configurations in spin ice to manipulate microwave resonances.
Ultimately it may be possible to employ ASI as reconfigurable
magnonic crystals, a magnetic analogy to photonic crystals,
where new and useful dynamic properties emerge by patterning
magnetic thin films. We illustrate this idea using results from
micromagnetic simulations for a type of configurable microwave
resonator in a square ice geometry. The configurability arises
from resonances associated a spin ice analogue to a microscopic
domain wall.

8.2 Chiral Interactions and Spin Waves

As discussed in the introduction, the presence of the DMI leads
to nonreciprocal propagation of spin waves. In this section, we
discuss two specific consequences of this interaction, namely the
appearance of an underlying drift current in certain geometries
and focusing effects such as caustics.
 Chiral Interactions and Spin Waves 223

8.2.1 Nonreciprocity: Symmetry Breaking through the

DMI
To understand how the nonreciprocal behavior comes about, it
is useful to consider the magnetization dynamics in the micro-
magnetics approximation. Let m(x, t) be a unit vector that describes
the magnetization in time and space. The basic equation of
motion governing the dynamics is the Landau–Lifshitz–Gilbert
equation,

dm dm , (8.1)
= – gm0m × Heff + am ×
dt dt

where a is a dimensionless damping parameter, g is the

gyromagnetic constant, and m0 is the permeability of free space.
Heff (x, t) is the local effective field and is given by the variational
derivative of the magnetic energy, U, with respect to the
magnetization vector,
1 dU ,
Heff = – (8.2)
m0 MS dm

where MS is the saturation magnetization. The energy contains

contributions from the exchange interaction, dipole-dipole
interaction, magnetocrystalline anisotropies, and the DMI.
The spin wave dispersion relation can be obtained by
linearizing the equation of motion about the equilibrium magnetic
configuration. Let m(x, t) = m0(x) + dm(x, t), where m0 represents
the static equilibrium state and dm represents the fluctuations.
This generates corresponding terms in the effective field,
Heff = Heff,0 + dHeff. Neglecting the damping term, the linearized
form of the dynamics is obtained by keeping terms that are linear
in the fluctuations,

d dm
= – gm0 (m0 × dHeff + dm × Heff,0 ). (8.3)
dt

For the interfacial form of the DMI, the largest nonreciprocities

occur in the Damon–Eshbach (DE) geometry, which describes the
configuration in which the magnetization lies in the film plane
and where spin waves propagate in the film plane in a direction
224 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

perpendicular to the magnetization. For an ultrathin film of

thickness d, the dispersion relation is given by [53]

w( k )= w||( k )w( k ) – 2gDk x / MS , (8.4)

where

w||( k )= w0 + wex (k )+ gm0 MSdk x2/2k , (8.5)

and

w( k )= w0 + wex (k )– wK – gm0 MSdk/2k. (8.6)

Here, w0 = gm0H0 is the Zeeman term, where H0 is the applied

field in the film plane along the y axis that saturates the
magnetization in this direction. wex = 2gAk2/MS is the contribution
from the exchange interaction, where A is the exchange constant.
wK = gm0HK is the contribution from the effective perpendicular
anisotropy, with 2K0/m0MS and K0 = Ku – m0MS2/2 being the
anisotropy field and constant, respectively. From Eq. 8.4, one can
immediately deduce the nonreciprocal propagation introduced
by the linear term in kx, where D is the strength of the DMI. Note
that propagation is reciprocal along the y direction, parallel to the
magnetization.
Another interesting consequence of the shifted dispersion
relation can be seen in Fig. 8.1, where results of micromagnetics
simulations of the transient response of the dynamical
magnetization to a pulsed field excitation are shown. The open-
source code MuMax3 [93] was used to perform these simulations
on a 40 μm × 40 μm × 1 nm thick film. A magnetic field 5% larger
than the effective anisotropy field is applied to saturate the
magnetization along the y direction. The simulations were used
to compute the transient magnetization response to a 5 GHz
sinusoidal field excitation applied for one period [53].
After the application of the field pulse, we observe a ripple
structure that represents spin waves radiating outward from
the excitation source, a common feature of wave phenomena
like the water ripples observed after a pebble is thrown into a
pond. An important feature for the DMI case is that the center
 Chiral Interactions and Spin Waves 225

of the ripple is observed to drift along the –x direction as its size

grows, which can be seen from the snapshots in Fig. 8.1a taken at
different instants after the field pulse. In Fig. 8.1b, the
displacement of this ripple is shown as a function of time after
the application of the field pulse for different values of the DMI
constant. The drift velocity of the ripple depends on D, where
the lines indicate the expected displacement given by the drift
part of the dispersion relation, that is, vdrift = дwdrift/дkx = wdrift/kx
= –2gD/MS, which represents the component for which the phase
and group velocities are identical. The simulated displacement
of the ripple agrees very well with this equation, which indicates
that the DMI leads to an underlying drift in the spin wave
propagation in the DE geometry. This is consistent with the recent
proposal that the DMI can be interpreted in terms of a Doppler
shift by an intrinsic spin current [51].

Figure 8.1 DMI-induced drift of a spin wave ripple. (a) Time evolution
of a spin wave ripple at three instants (2, 4, and 8 ns) after the
application of a sinusoidal field pulse at the center of the image, with
D = 1 mJ/m2. The image dimensions are 10 μm × 10 μm. Dx denotes the
displacement of the ripple center. (b) Ripple displacement as a function
of time for three different values of D. Symbols correspond to simulation
data while solid lines are based on Eq. 8.4. Reprinted with
permission from Kim et al. [53]. Copyright 2016 American Physical Society.
226 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

8.2.2 Caustics
The DMI-induced drift in spin waves has interesting consequences
for power flow. With an interfacial DMI and for propagation in the
DE geometry, the dispersion curve is approximately parabolic
but with the minimum shifted away from the origin along the
wavevector axis. Because of this, dw/dk is negative in some regions,
and this indicates the group velocity is opposite to the phase
velocity. However, this simple analysis is not sufficient to capture
all the important features of the anisotropic power flow created
by the DMI.
The study of focusing patterns for bulk [85] and surface
phonons [13] in crystals is well known. The corresponding
investigations in thick-film magnetic systems have begun only
recently with both experimental [19, 22, 78, 79] and theoretical
results [94]. The focusing results have already shown remarkable
behaviors, including focusing effects of energy well below the
expected diffraction limit and an interesting reflection behavior
for energy where the angle of incidence is not equal to the
angle of reflection. In many respects the magnetic system offers
richer phenomena because the external magnetic field offers an
opportunity to tune the dispersion relations and alter the focusing
patterns, something that is not available in phonon focusing.
Let us discuss how this drift leads to focusing effects and
caustics. In general, the far-field radiation pattern of waves excited
by a point source can be predicted from the slowness surface,
that is, a constant frequency curve in k-space. The radiation or
focusing pattern can then be determined from the power flow,
directed along the normal to the slowness surface, and with an
amplitude that is inversely proportional to the square root of the
curvature of the slowness surface [94]. Caustics appear at points
along the slowness surface at which its curvature goes to zero,
resulting in a divergence in the power flow.
To understand how caustics appear for spin waves in ultrathin
films with an interfacial DMI, let us return to the dispersion
relation in Eq. 8.4 from which the slowness surfaces can be
computed. There are three main contributions to the spin wave
energy that are wavevector dependent. First, the exchange term,
wex  k2, gives a circular component to the slowness surface
that results in a finite and positive curvature for all propagation
directions in the film plane. As such, radiation of spin wave
 Chiral Interactions and Spin Waves 227

power from an excitation point source is isotropic with only the

exchange term. Second, the DMI results in simple displacement of
the slowness surface in wavevector space but does not influence
the curvature in any way. This results in the overall drift of
excitation patterns, as discussed in the previous section. Third,
the dipole-dipole interaction not only leads to elliptical precession
(w|| ≠ w) but also anisotropic propagation in the film plane
with respect to the magnetization orientation.
The combination of these three terms leads to nontrivial
spin wave flow in ultrathin films. Some examples are shown in
Fig. 8.2, where the slowness surface and focusing patterns are
presented at five different frequencies for a 2-nm-thick film. In
Fig. 8.2a, the slowness surface for each frequency is shown, where
elements of the three interaction terms can be seen. The group
velocity vectors are also indicated along each slowness surface.
The expected focusing patterns are shown in Fig. 8.2b, computed
from the curvature of the slowness surface in Fig. 8.2a. For the
lowest frequency considered (4.2 GHz), a caustic can be seen
for spin wave propagation in the –x direction, which is a consequence
of the flattening on the left part of the slowness surface. As the
frequency is increased to 5 and 6 GHz, a dent develops in the
slowness surface, leading to two caustics propagating outward in
the −x direction. The presence of the dent leads to the curvature
vanishing at two points along the slowness surface, resulting
in the two focused beams predicted. As the frequency is further
increased, the dent vanishes and a single caustic is recovered
at 6.5 GHz. For higher frequencies, the exchange terms become
dominant in the dispersion relation and the slowness surfaces
recover a more circular shape, resulting in smaller focusing effects,
as seen for 7.0 GHz.
The predicted focusing patterns can be compared with
results from micromagnetics simulations, with which the spin
wave power flow from a point source excitation can be computed.
The same geometry as for Fig. 8.1 is considered, but instead the
response to a continuous sinusoidal point source field excitation
is computed. In Fig. 8.2c, the spin wave power is presented for five
difference excitation frequencies, which is computed by averaging
the z component of the dynamic magnetization, dmz(x, t)2,
following the application of the field excitation. The excitation
frequencies used in the simulations were chosen to match as
228 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

closely as possible the focusing patterns predicted from the

dispersion relation (Fig. 8.2b). While the agreement in the
frequencies is only semiquantitative, the simulations reproduce
well the different focusing patterns predicted, namely the
orientation and trends in the different caustics as the excitation
frequency is increased. The discrepancy is likely due to the
local approximation used for the dipolar interaction in Eq. 8.4.
Nevertheless, relatively good agreement between the simple
analytical theory and full micromagnetics can be achieved.

Figure 8.2 Spin wave power flow and caustics. (a) Slowness surfaces
for different frequencies determined from Eq. 8.4. vg denotes the group
velocity vector. (b) Predicted focusing patterns based on the slowness
surfaces in (a). (c) Simulated focusing patterns due to a sinusoidal
point source excitation at different frequencies. Each image represents
an area of 20 μm × 20 μm, and the point source is located at the center.
The frequencies are chosen to match the focusing patterns in (b).
Reprinted with permission from Kim et al. [53]. Copyright 2016
American Physical Society.
 Chiral Interactions and Spin Waves 229

Figure 8.3 Interference patterns. (a) Slowness surfaces for two

frequencies determined from Eq. 8.4. vg denotes the group velocity vector.
(b) Wavevector k as a function of the direction of vg for the slowness
surfaces in (a). The shaded regions denote propagation directions for
which several k are possible. In the top inset, a schematic real space
representation of propagation directions along which interference
is expected, where the numbers indicate the number of allowed k.
(c) Simulated interference patterns due to a point source excitation at
different frequencies. Each image represents an area of 5 μm × 5 μm,
with the point source located at the center. The frequencies are chosen
to match the interference patterns expected from (b). Reprinted with
permission from Kim et al. [53]. Copyright 2016 American Physical Society.

Another remarkable feature of Eq. 8.4 is the possibility of

generating interference patterns from a single point source.
Some evidence of interference can already by seen in Fig. 8.2c
for the excitation frequencies of 4.7 and 5.2 GHz in the region
bounded by the two focused beams. To illustrate how such effects
arise, we consider an example in which the dent in the slowness
surface evolves into two distinct surfaces between 5.7 and 5.8 GHz,
as shown in Fig. 8.3a.
Consider first the response to the excitation at 5.7 GHz, which
results in a C-shaped slowness surface. If we examine how the
230 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

group velocity vector, vg, evolves around this surface, we notice

that certain orientations of vg appear at multiple points along this
surface, which indicates that propagation along these directions
can involve partial waves with different wavevectors. To see this
more clearly, we plot in Fig. 8.3b the magnitude of the wavevector
k as a function of the angle of vg with respect to the kx axis (in
the film plane), vg ,f, for the two excitation frequencies considered.
For 5.7 GHz, a range of propagation angles can be identified in
which three values of the wavevector k are allowed, while only a
single k is allowed outside this range. This is illustrated
schematically above the graph in Fig. 8.3b, which suggests that
three-wave interference should only be seen for propagation near
the –x direction, while no interference is expected for propagation
along +x. This picture is verified in micromagnetics simulations
at a similar excitation frequency of 5.56 GHz, where interference
is mostly localized to the x < 0 region.
On this basis, the existence of two slowness surfaces for
5.8 GHz (Fig. 8.3a) should result in interference for all propagation
directions. By following a similar analysis, four-wave interference
is expected within a narrow range of propagation angles about
the –x direction, while two-wave interference for all other
directions (Fig. 8.3b). This feature is confirmed in simulation at
an excitation frequency of 5.66 GHz, where one can distinguish
two different interference patterns with the expected angular
dependence.
Such caustic beams and interference patterns, induced by an
interfacial DMI, could be useful for magnon-based computation
and memory [49, 50, 59] and for exploring magnetic analogs of
wave phenomena seen in other physical systems such as vortices in
electron optics [73].

8.3 Localization and Reconfigurability

In this section, we discuss spin wave localization and channeling
effects due to spin textures, such as magnetic domain walls
and tilted-edge magnetization states in nanostructured films
and in ASI. These localized excitations can potentially allow
spin waves to be guided efficiency in thin films without any
lithography and provide schemes for reconfigurable magnonic
 Localization and Reconfigurability 231

circuits by virtue of using different domain structures and

magnetization states.

8.3.1 Domain Wall Channeling

The basic principle of the domain wall magnonic waveguide is
illustrated in Fig. 8.4 for a thin rectangular ferromagnetic wire
with dimensions of 1000 nm × 250 nm × 1 nm and a perpendicular
magnetic anisotropy along the z axis. A domain wall separates
two uniformly magnetized up and down states with the wall
axis along y, which is perpendicular to the wire axis x. The spin
waves considered are associated with localized domain wall
eigenmodes that propagate along the x direction, parallel to the
domain wall. In the following, we discuss results of micromagnetics
simulations in which these modes are driven by a local excitation
field hrf.
With the isotropic exchange interaction, uniaxial anisotropy,
and dipole-dipole interactions, the Bloch-type domain wall
minimizes the volume dipolar interaction and it is characterized
by moments that rotate in a plane (xz) perpendicular to the wall
direction (y). For this wall type, there exists a family of spin wave
eigenmodes, known as Winter modes, that are localized in the
direction perpendicular to the domain wall (y) on a length scale
l but propagate as plane waves parallel to the domain wall (x)
[98]. Here l = A / K 0 is the characteristic wall width parameter.
A particular feature of these modes is that they are gapless, in
contrast to the bulk spin wave modes that are quadratic in
wavevector with a gap at zero wavevector defined by the
perpendicular anisotropy energy (Fig. 8.4b). For a microwave
field excitation in the frequency gap of the bulk modes, only
the localized Winter modes are excited and are effectively
channeled along the domain wall center (Fig. 8.4c; excitation at
10 GHz), which acts as a local potential well for the spin waves.
The wavelength at 10 GHz is approximately 60 nm, which
means there is subwavelength confinement in both the film
thickness (1 nm) and across the width of the domain wall (~18 nm);
such localized modes therefore represent true one-dimensional
propagation of spin waves. When the microwave field is applied
in the frequency band of the bulk modes, the channeling is
preserved whereby the localized modes can be seen to propagate
232 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

with a higher wavevector than the bulk modes (Fig. 8.4c;

excitation at 50 GHz).

(a)
hrf
DW
y

z x – 0.01 0 0.01

50
50 GHz
40 bulk
W / 2p (GHz)

30
(c)
20
wall
10 10 GHz
(b)
0
–0.2 0 0.2
kx (nm-1)
50
50 GHz
40 bulk
W / 2p (GHz)

30
(e)
20
wall
10 10 GHz
(d)
0
–0.2 0 0.2
kx (nm-1)

Figure 8.4 Spin wave channeling in domain walls (DWs). (a) Geometry
for channeling along the center of the wall, where a radio-frequency
antenna generating an alternating field, hrf, excites spin waves that
propagate along the x direction. (b, d) Dispersion relation for channeled
Bloch (b) and Néel (d) domain wall spin wave modes in comparison
with bulk spin waves. For the Néel wall case, D = 1.5 mJ/m2. (c, e) Simulation
results of propagating modes for excitation field frequencies in the
bulk (50 GHz) and in the gap (10 GHz) for Bloch (c) and Néel (e)
walls. These driving frequencies are shown as dashed lines in (b, d).
Reprinted with permission from Garcia-Sanchez et al. [28]. Copyright
2015 American Physical Society.

Above a critical value of the DMI [36, 87], Néel domain

walls are favored energetically over Bloch walls. For example,
left-handed Néel walls are favored at equilibrium in the asymmetric
Pt/Co/AlOx multilayer [86], which possesses a strong interfacial
DMI [1]. The moments in this wall type rotate in a plane (yz)
parallel to the wall direction (y), which leads to an increase in the
volume dipolar interaction but which is subsequently compensated
by the DMI above a critical value [87]. In this case, the inclusion
 Localization and Reconfigurability 233

of the DMI leads to a hybridization of the Winter modes and

it is possible to obtain an expression for the channeled mode
frequencies from perturbation theory by using the Winter modes
as a scattering basis [8]. In addition to an ellipticity in the
precession, the DMI results in a linear wavevector dependence
for the mode frequency, as seen for the case discussed before for
propagation in the DE geometry in continuous films. However,
this linear dependence does not lead to a simple shift in the
quadratic dispersion relation as a result of the ellipticity. Instead,
the dispersion relation becomes markedly asymmetric with
respect to kx (Fig. 8.4d), where a quasi-linear variation is seen for
kx > 0, while a strongly quadratic variation is preserved for kx < 0.
This asymmetry leads to pronounced differences in the left- and
right-propagating wavevectors, which can be seen for microwave
field excitations in the frequency gap and in the frequency band
of the bulk spin wave modes (Fig. 8.4e). The channeling properties
of the Néel-type wall are preserved, even in cases where the
localized and propagating mode frequencies are closely spaced,
which can be seen for the kx propagation at around 50 GHz in
Fig. 8.4e. It is interesting to note that the energies of the
channeled and bulk mode become degenerate for a certain value
of kx for finite D. This value of kx represents an inversion of the
gap separating the localized from the bulk states.
Because of the strong localization of Winter modes, domain
walls can act as effective conduits for spin waves even in curved
geometries. An example is shown in Fig. 8.5, where results of
micromagnetics simulations are presented for channeled wall
modes for different excitation frequencies. In the simulations,
the spin waves are excited by a microwave antenna located at
one end of the domain wall and their propagation along a curved
wall structure, with a radius of curvature of 89 nm, is computed.
For wavelengths shorter than and comparable to the radius
of curvature 40 ≤ l ≥ 120 nm, transmission of the spin waves
around the corner is observed to be possible with minimal
scattering. For l = 120 nm, one can observe a slight phase shift
at the corner where the node of the wave profile is slightly
stretched at the bend. For l = 140 nm, some transmission is
observed but with amplitudes greatly reduced in comparison
to the incident wave. For l ≥ 160 nm, no perceptible transmission
of the spin waves around the corner is seen. These results
234 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

suggest that the curved waveguide structure proposed can allow

full transmission of spin waves as long as the wavelengths
involved are comparable to or smaller than the radius of
curvature of any corners encountered. Challenges for applications
would therefore involve designing suitably curved conduits, for
example, through domain wall pinning and engineering material
properties to obtain narrow or wide domain walls.

Figure 8.5 Spin wave channeling along curved domain walls. (a) Geometry
of the curved domain wall used in simulation, where a radio-frequency
antenna generating an alternating field, hrf, excites spin waves that
propagate along the wall. (b) Snapshots of channeled spin wave modes
at different wavelengths with the corresponding excitation frequencies.
rd denotes the radius of curvature of the domain wall channel.
Reprinted with permission from Garcia-Sanchez et al. [28]. Copyright 2015
American Physical Society.

Domain walls also allow for the prospect of constructing

magnonic circuits that do not require lithography [28, 55, 95]. In
Fig. 8.6, an example is shown of how stripe domains can be used
as multiple channels through which spin waves can be propagated
without interference. In this example, the domain structure was
calculated from micromagnetics simulations of a 1-nm-thick film
with lateral dimensions of 1 µm × 1 µm by allowing a stripe domain
pattern to relax with different pinning conditions along the left
and right edges of the system. For the Bloch walls considered, an
excitation in the frequency gap (10 GHz) results in channeled modes
that propagate along the domain wall conduits with no perceptible
cross-talk between the channels, as shown in Fig. 8.6b.
 Localization and Reconfigurability 235

Figure 8.6 Example of spin wave channeling in a multidomain structure

with Bloch domain walls. (a) Magnetization configuration of the domain
structure in a 1-nm-thick 1 µm × 1 µm film with a microwave antenna
along the middle of film. (b) Spin wave channeling along the domain walls
for an excitation frequency of 10 GHz, which lies in the frequency gap
of the bulk spin wave modes (cf. Fig. 8.4). Reprinted with permission
from Garcia-Sanchez et al. [28]. Copyright 2015 American Physical Society.

This scheme opens up a number of interesting possibilities

for reconfigurable magnonic circuits. For example, the orientation
of the stripe domain pattern and the spacing between walls
can be modified by external applied magnetic fields. The positions
of the walls can also be modified in a similar way. Indeed, this
feature has been demonstrated in a recent experiment involving
an in-plane magnetized film in which the domain wall conduit
for spin waves was displaced with a small magnetic field and
the propagation was probed using microfocus Brillouin light
scattering (BLS) (95; see Chapter 9 of this book).

8.3.2 Edge (Partial Wall) Channeling

Another important consequence of the DMI in finite-size
nanostructures is the appearance of twisted spin states at
boundary edges. To see how this arises in the micromagnetics
description (continuum limit), it is useful to recall that the
variational procedure leading the to the torque equation
(Eqs. 8.1 and 8.2) also gives rise to a boundary condition of the
form n . дU/д(m) = 0, where n is a unit vector normal to the
surface of the material considered [29, 76]. With only energy
terms due to the exchange interaction and perpendicular
236 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

anisotropy, one obtains the usual free boundary condition, дnm = 0,

in the absence of any surface pinning. Crucially, the inclusion
of the DMI requires satisfaction of twisted boundary conditions.
For example, the boundary surface n = ŷ has the conditions
Dmz + 2A∂ymy = 0, –Dmy + 2A∂mz = 0, (8.7)

which couples the perpendicular magnetization mz with gradients

in the transverse components mx,y and vice versa [29, 76].
Such conditions lead to tilts in the magnetization at the edges even
if the system is uniformly magnetized in the bulk.
An example of magnetization tilts at edges is shown in
Fig. 8.7. The profiles were computed with micromagnetic
simulations by first allowing a uniformly magnetized state in a
512 nm × 512 nm × 1 nm square dot to relax under several values
of the DMI. Stronger tilts occur when the strength of the DMI
is increased, and the sign of the transverse component of the tilts
is reversed along with the sign of the DMI (Fig. 8.7a,b). In fact,
these profiles are well described by partially expelled Néel walls.
This is shown by the solid curves in Fig. 8.7c, which represent
the theoretical wall profile mz(y) = tanh [(–y – yc)/l] at the
right edge, where yc is the position of the domain wall center
outside the film, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 8.7b.
On the basis of this wall profile and the boundary conditions in
Eq. 8.7, it is possible to derive an analytical expression for the
partial wall position, as sketched in Fig. 8.7b (for yc > 0),

w  2A 
yc – = l cosh–1 , (8.8)
2  Dl 

where w is the wire width. This behavior is reminiscent of the

partial twists encountered in exchange-spring systems and
ferromagnet-antiferromagnet bilayers where the gradual rotation
of the uniformly magnetized hard (ferromagnetic) layer creates
torques at the interface that are compensated by formation of a
partial wall structure in the soft (antiferromagnetic) layer [52].
Here, the DMI acts to pin a partial wall at the edges through
Eq. 8.7, and the strength of the DMI governs the extent to which
the partial wall enters the film. The analytical model agrees
well with the simulation results (Fig. 8.7d).
 Localization and Reconfigurability 237

Figure 8.7 Twisted spin states at boundary edges due to the DMI.
(a) Transverse magnetization component at the boundary edges
(located at y = ±256 nm) of a 512-nm-wide rectangular wire. (b)
Illustration of the magnetization tilts for D > 0, with the shaded
regions representing the tilts shown in panels (a) and (c). The partial
wall (dashed curve) is shown schematically, with yc denoting the wall
center and w the wire width. (c) The perpendicular component at
the boundary edges, where the solid lines correspond to fits to a partial
Néel wall profile. (d) Partial wall center yc as a function of D. Points
are simulation data and the solid line represents Eq. 8.8. Reprinted
with permission from Garcia-Sanchez et al. [29]. Copyright 2014 American
Physical Society.

The consequences for propagation along the edges of the spin

texture induced by the DMI follow from the previous discussion
on channeling in Néel walls. Since the tilted magnetization
at the edges are partial Néel walls, the tails that extend into the
system possess a specific chirality determined by the DMI, and
as a result, the energies of spin wave states propagating along a
given edge will depend on their propagation direction relative
to the (partial) domain wall orientation. As a consequence, the
lowest-energy spin waves propagate only along one direction
when localized on one side of the wire and flow in the opposite
direction when localized on the other side.
238 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

Figure 8.8 Nonreciprocal propagation in a thin rectangular wire.

Spatial profiles of the dynamic magnetization resulting from a microwave
field excitation, hrf, at (a) 50 GHz and (b) 16 GHz. The different wave
vector components considered are illustrated. In panel (a), the excitation
frequency is in the spin wave band and nonreciprocal propagation occurs
for ktop and kbot, while kcen propagation is symmetric. In panel (b), the
excitation frequency is in the gap of the bulk modes and only edge
modes are excited. (c) Dispersion relations computed from simulations
for D = 4.5 mJ/m2. Dots represent simulation results. The solid black
curve represents the theoretical dispersion relation for exchange modes.
(d) Dispersion relation for D = 2.5 mJ/m2. Reprinted with permission
from Garcia-Sanchez et al. [29]. Copyright 2014 American Physical
Society.

This nonreciprocal propagation can be seen in more detail

in Fig. 8.8, where results from micromagnetic simulations of spin
wave propagation in a thin rectangular wire are shown. For
excitation frequencies in the spin wave band (Fig. 8.8a), three
distinct wavevectors can be identified for propagation along
one direction, which correspond to the top (ktop), center (kcen), and
bottom (kbot) of the wire. For propagation towards the right, +x,
we note that |ktop| < |kcen|< |kbot|, while for propagation towards
the left, –x, the opposite inequality applies, |ktop| > |kcen| >
|kbot|. Moreover, |ktop| = –kbot, which is a clear signature of
nonreciprocal propagation. We observe a shifted dispersion
 Localization and Reconfigurability 239

relation for the edge modes, while the central modes remain
symmetric about kcen = 0 (Fig. 8.8c). For the central modes, the
dispersion relation is well described by exchange-dominated
spin waves, where the theoretical curve using our micromagnetic
parameters agrees well with the simulated curves. For the edge
modes, the shifted dispersion relation for D = 4.5 mJ/m2 is well
described by a reduction in the spin wave gap due to the reduced
anisotropy field at the edge in addition to a linear wavevector
term that describes the nonreciprocity. As Fig. 8.7d shows, the
center of the partial wall is located farther outside the wire for
smaller values of the DMI, which results in a weaker nonreciprocal
channeling effect. This can be seen in the dispersion relation of
the edge modes in Fig. 8.8d, where the shifts become less
pronounced as D decreases. This phenomenon is reminiscent of
edge modes in topological insulators.
Channeling for the wire geometry is robust with regard
to the curvature of the edge in the same way as for curved
domain walls. We now discuss the consequences for finite-size
nanostructures. In a circular dot, for example, it is known that
clockwise (CW)- and counterclockwise (CCW)-propagating
azimuthal spin waves are degenerate in frequency. The inclusion
of the DMI, however, lifts this degeneracy by favoring one
handedness over the other. To appreciate how this might occur,
one can imagine the edge modes in a circular dot constructed
by deforming a rectangular wire bent into a ring-shaped structure.
The lowest-frequency spin waves traveling along the outer
circumference can propagate with only one handedness. Spin
waves traveling along the inner circumference travel with the
opposite handedness at the same frequency.
Figure 8.9 illustrates the spin wave eigenmode spectra for
a circular dot 100 nm in diameter and a square dot 100 nm in
width. A key feature is the frequency splitting of certain modes
as the strength of the DMI is increased. The frequency of other
modes, on the other hand, are only slightly affected by the DMI.
For a similar dot size, the magnitude of the splitting appears to be
larger for the circular dots, which suggests that the azimuthal
component of the eigenmodes plays an important role. For the
circular dots, the frequency splitting with increasing DMI is
associated with lifting in the degeneracy of eigenmodes with a
strong azimuthal character, such as Modes 2 and 3 in Fig. 8.9c.
240 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

Figure 8.9 Map of the eigenmode power spectral density (PSD) as a

function of D for (a) 100-nm-diameter circular dots and (b) 100-nm-
wide square dots. Selected profiles of the four lowest modes for different
strengths of the DMI for the (c) circular and (d) square dots. Reprinted
with permission from Garcia-Sanchez et al. [29]. Copyright 2014 American
Physical Society.

While there is no discernible change in the spatial profile of

these modes, a frequency splitting of around 1 GHz appears at
D = 2.5 mJ. Modes with a strong radial character, such as Modes
1 and 4 in Fig. 8.9c, experience only a slight decrease in their
frequency with increasing D and little change in their spatial
profile. These differences can be understood in terms of the
nonreciprocal wall channeling described earlier, where radial
modes are similar modes that traverse a domain wall, while
azimuthal modes are similar to modes that are channeled by the
domain wall, which are strongly nonreciprocal. Similar features
 Localization and Reconfigurability 241

are also seen in the square dots, but the distinction between
radial and azimuthal modes is not as sharp. One difference can
be seen in Mode 4 in Fig. 8.9d, which represents a mixed radial-
azimuthal excitation for which splitting due to the DMI results
in an asymmetric profile at higher frequencies.

8.3.3 Magnetic Configurations in Artificial Spin Ice

Artificial spin ice (ASI) is a class of magnetic materials created by
patterning single-domain ferromagnetic islands in such a way
as to introduce some degree of frustration through competing
interactions [40]. The magnetic elements are typically fashioned
as elongated islands with nanoscale dimensions in order to
ensure that their magnetic state is single domain with a large
uniaxial shape anisotropy so as to approximate a rigid block
spin [27, 67, 71]. In magnetic ASI composed of discrete elements,
interactions are provided by the stray magnetic fields associated
with the individual elements.
Square ASI is one of the first and best-studied ice
geometries [92, 96], along with the fully frustrated kagome
lattices [62]. A variety of other structures have also been since
studied, including Penrose [3] and Shatki lattices [16, 30] as well
as suggestions for many others [31, 75].
In what follows we will discuss exclusively square ASI for
which the magnetic elements are aligned in two sets of rows on
a square lattice. One set has elements aligned along one axis of
the lattice, and the other set of elements is aligned along the
other orthogonal axis. An example of the unit cell of a square lattice
is shown in Fig. 8.10. Each vertex, defined by the four ends of
adjacent magnetic elements, can be characterized by an
average magnetization magnitude (called the charge) and its
direction. There are 16 unique configurations possible with charges
varying from –4 to +4 and 8 possible alignments for non-zero
magnetization values. The dipolar coupled square ASI ground state
complies with the ice rule, that is, a two-in, two-out configuration,
and can be thought of as a mesoscopic antiferromagnet with
two well-defined ground states. An appealing aspect of ASI is
the ability to modify macroscopic magnetic properties through
design of the ASI geometry and generate new functionality
[3, 30, 58].
242 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

The soft transition metals commonly used to fabricate

ASI exhibit high-frequency electromagnetic resonances in the
gigahertz range. The resonances correspond to band center, long-
wavelength spin waves. We discuss below results obtained using
BLS. This technique has been used to obtain experimental values
for a number of magnetic parameters: magnetic anisotropy [41, 60],
gyromagnetic ratio [84], exchange constants [35], and saturation
magnetization.
The mode structure of a spin wave in individual elements
is well understood [45]. Spin wave modes observed in micron-
and submicron-size magnetic elements are confined modes
with stationary character and their energies are primarily
magnetostatic [32]. Most importantly, modes exist which are
localized to edges and ends of the magnetic elements. These
modes have dipolar stray fields [45], which extend away from
the material, although they decay exponentially away into the
surrounding medium. In addition, since the elements are in a
single-domain state, there is a non-uniform distribution of
demagnetizing fields in the elements, which is most pronounced
near the edges and corners. These can lead to some curling
of the magnetization within an exchange length of the edges and
serves to affect the frequency of end-localized modes.
The magnetic elements lie along the sides of squares and
the frequencies of modes depend upon whether the magnetization
of individual elements are aligned by the applied field along easy
or hard directions of the elements. Micromagnetic simulations
were used to identify the excitations measured in the independent
elements.
Details of sample fabrication and experimental procedure
can be found in Ref. [57]. Results from two BLS configurations
are discussed. First, the frequency dependence on the wavevector
(qk) was studied with a 3 kOe magnetic field applied along
directions at 0° and 45° with respect to the ASI lattice. The
angle of incident light, q, upon the sample varied from 0° to 60°
corresponding to the in-plane wavenumber qk from 0 to 2 × 1017 m–1.
Two scattering geometries were studied: the DE for spin waves
with wavevector k perpendicular to the external field H, and the
backward volume (BA) mode configuration for spin waves with
the wavevector parallel to the applied field. In the second
configuration, the angle of incidence of the illuminating laser
 Localization and Reconfigurability 243

was fixed at a = 20°. The external field H was, however, varied

from +4 kOe to –4 kOe and applied along the 0° and 45°
orientations with respect to the ASI lattice.
Spin wave dispersions were measured to indicate the possible
inter-island dynamic coupling and propagation of collective spin
waves through the array. Parts (a) and (b) of Fig. 8.10 are shown
for the two different magnetic field orientations. When the
field is applied at 45°, there are two well-defined peaks in the
spectra, while at 0° up to seven peaks are visible in two
different frequency ranges with the larger in-plane wavevector.

Figure 8.10 Sequence of BLS spectra measured at different incidence

angles with the external field of 3 kOe applied at (a) 0° and (b) 45°.
The wavevector of the incident light parallel to the applied field in
the Damon–Eshbach configuration. Spin wave dispersion curve of ASI
at a 3 kOe (c) parallel field and (d) diagonal field. Dots are experimental
results and lines are guides for the eye. Reprinted with permission
from Li et al. [57]. Copyright 2016 IOP Publishing Ltd.
244 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

Frequencies measured for different wave numbers are shown

in Fig. 8.10c,d with the field applied along an array edge and
diagonal orientation. The dispersion curve is almost flat, indicating
that dynamic coupling between individual island resonances
is negligible in the ASI system with this spacing. In fact, careful
micromagnetic studies of square ASI with this element design
suggest that it is not possible to produce magnonic bands with
the DE geometry because of the difficulty in bringing edge mode
localizations on adjacent elements sufficiently close in order to
produce strong dynamic interactions. Some examples of the localized
mode profiles for these element geometries are shown in Fig. 8.11.

Figure 8.11 (a) Frequencies of the spin wave eigenmodes as a function of

the applied field parallel to the ASI islands. Dashed lines are the cutoff
points between saturated and unsaturated regions of the hard-axis
magnetization. (b) Spatial profiles of the eigenmodes at different field
strengths for H1 (upper panel) and H89 (lower panel), with frequency
increasing from left to right. Reprinted with permission from Li et al. [57].
Copyright 2016 IOP Publishing Ltd.
 Localization and Reconfigurability 245

We note that Iacocca et al. [45] have theoretically calculated

the magnonic band structure of a square ASI array and show that
the Brillouin zone energy variations of band structure are in the
order of 0.1 GHz for spacing similar to our system. Their results,
however, do not take into consideration coupling via localized
modes. This suggests that with careful element design and
spacing, it may be possible, at least in principle, to create magnonic
bands in a square ASI lattice geometry.
The field dependence of the frequencies obtained in the DE
scattering configuration is presented in Fig. 8.11a. The measured
frequencies are shown by square symbols, and the magnetic field
is oriented along the 0° direction. Several distinct modes are
identified from the spectra, and each exhibits different behavior
for fields in the region of hysteresis between +4 and –4 kOe. The
frequencies were recorded from spectra obtained by decreasing
the field from positive to negative saturation, thereby following
the upper branch of the magnetization loop. The behavior of
the frequencies is roughly linear with field outside this region,
as one expects for saturated elements.
At the coercive fields, several modes appear to merge with
others or disappear entirely. The two lowest-frequency modes
have minima near the coercive fields. At a zero field, mode
crossings appear in two higher-frequency modes. These modes in
the horizontal islands appear to be softening at negative applied
fields. Except for the mode crossings, the behavior of the mode
frequencies for the vertical islands with the applied field are
symmetrical so that minima again appear for the lowest-
frequency modes at around a ±1.3 kOe field, marked by two
black dashed lines, and there is a linear increase of frequencies
for fields outside the hysteresis region.
An analysis of the mode structure was performed using
micromagnetic simulations with parameters detailed in Ref. [57].
The frequencies were calculated in the following way. At each field
step after relaxation to a steady-state configuration a field pulse
is applied and oriented along the z axis. This drives oscillations
in the components mx, my, and mz in each micromagnetic
discretization cell, and their responses are recorded every
picosecond. Frequencies and intensities of spin wave modes are
then calculated using a discrete Fourier transform (in time and
space) of the magnetization component, mz, for each cell [61].
246 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

The frequencies calculated in this way are shown in Fig. 8.11a

by solid lines for the horizontal elements (for which the
applied field is collinear) and the dotted blue lines for the vertical
elements (for which the applied field is perpendicular to the
element axes). The simulations describe well the measured
frequencies. The small discrepancies may be due in part to the
effects of edge roughness [34] and neglect of static interaction
fields. These static fields can be quite large, on the order of
several hundred oersteds in the saturated state.
To identify which of the confined modes are responsible for
the spectra, the spatial profile of the magnetization dynamics
mz was calculated, and examples are shown Fig. 8.11b. For the
analysis which follows, we use the same classification protocol
as in Ref. [33].
The modes are classified into four categories: backward
(m-BA), Damon–Eshbach (m-DE), edge (m-EM), and fundamental
(F). In this classification, the integer m indicates the number of
nodal lines. The m-BA mode is a mode with the nodal line
perpendicular to the magnetization. Nodal lines parallel to the
magnetization are called m-DE. The edge modes, m-EM, are
localized at the ends of the islands and normally have a
small intensity in the BLS spectrum. The fundamental F is the
Kittel uniform resonance (m = 0). This mode typically has the largest
intensity.
The modes associated with the horizontal elements are
labelled in Fig. 8.11 as 1-EM1 and F1, representing, respectively,
the EM and fundamental modes. These mode profiles remain
unchanged in intensity for magnetic fields between 3 kOe to 1 kOe.
F1 appears to soften for fields more negative than −50 kOe,
consistent with reversal of the magnetization of the horizontal
element. We note that the calculated 1-EM1 mode has two minima
in the unsaturated region. This corresponds to curling of the
edge magnetization. Note also the difference in amplitude of the F
mode for the 1 and 3 kOe fields.
Modes for the vertical elements are labelled EM89, DE89,
E89M, F89, EM89, EM89, and EM89. The corresponding spatial profiles
shown in the bottom of Fig. 8.11b. The EM89 mode possesses the
lowest frequency. Hybridization is more apparent in the higher-
frequency modes, where a mix of an F mode with EM and DE
modes occurs. As for the horizontal elements, there is significant
 Localization and Reconfigurability 247

dependence of the mode amplitudes on field, as seen by comparing

the profiles for 2 and 3 kOe. Furthermore, the frequency of the EM
mode is smallest at 1.5 kOe as the magnetization begins to saturate
perpendicular to the element axis [64].

8.3.4 Reprogrammable Microwave Response

The example mode profiles displayed in Fig. 8.11 illustrate how
simple magnetic configurations can be used to generate a rich
spectrum of microwave responses for uniformly magnetized
particle arrays. When the applied magnetic field is small, in the
range between +1.5 kOe and –1.5 kOe, the magnetization of the
array is not uniform although the magnetization of individual
elements is still single domain. In the spin ice discussed so far,
inter-element static interactions are relatively weak, and the
ordering of neighboring element magnetizations are not
strongly correlated. However, in spin ice with stronger static
interactions, obtained, for example, by patterning thicker films
with closer inter-element spacing, correlations can be observed.
In some systems mesoscopic domains of ordered elements have
been observed, with boundaries defined by conjoined lines of
mesoscopic analogies to domain walls.
If we are to use such complex arrangements of dipolar
coupled magnets for device applications [46], then a first
important step is to be able to control the configurations
resulting from inter-element correlations. One way to do this is
to modify individual islands, for example, making them narrower
(wider) than the rest of the islands in the array so that the
shape anisotropy, and therefore the island switching field, is
higher (lower). In this way, one can determine in a controlled
manner where Dirac string avalanches in quasi-infinite ASI
arrays start and where they stop [44, 62]. In small clusters,
one can use this to control the field-induced states and vortex
chirality [39].
Another intriguing approach is to ask whether it is possible
to create a specified configuration of magnetic moments with
a sequence of applied magnetic fields. In particular, a field
oriented along certain directions can drive specific element
reversals and avalanches, where the reversal details depend upon
the magnitude of the field and disorder in the system. An analysis
248 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

of this concept was made in simulations whereby specific

configurations were tracked for sets of possible field sequences
[11]. It was found that a sequence of such fields can access a
small subset of states but not all states. However, it is possible to
increase the number of states accessible to a finite sequence of
fields by controlling a small number of element orientations.
An example is shown in Fig. 8.12. In Fig. 8.12a, the four
configurations in a 16-spin square array that can be accessed for
a certain applied field strength are shown. The starting point
is a fully polarized lattice, and for this particular field strength
there are only two configurations available to evolve into.
Which configuration appears depends on the direction of the
applied field. One additional configuration is possible from each
state and arrived at by applying the field in a new direction.
The exact configurations are depicted in Fig. 8.12a where the top
and bottom pairs of configurations correspond to the two possible
evolutions. Controlling one of the corner spins, indicated by the
circular frame, allows one to access many more configurations,
as shown in Fig. 8.12c, where one is able to access 128 different
configurations through alignments of the control spin and different
orientations of the applied field.
Micromagnetic simulated examples of how control of magnetic
array configurations on mesoscopic length scales can be used
to configure microwave response is shown in Fig. 8.13. In this
figure are two examples of how mesoscopic analogies to domain
walls can be used to channel microwave resonances of strongly
interacting magnetic elements. Square ASI, coupled by dipolar
fields, is antiferromagnetic with two ground-state configurations
represented by a two-in, two-out spin ice rule for each vertex of
four magnetic elements. These ground states are labelled as
“Type I.” The geometry of the square spin ice defines the two
ground states as incommensurate arrangements, which
cannot coexist without a topological boundary separating the
arrangements. The boundary is the equivalent of a microscopic
magnetic domain wall and is labelled as “Type II” in the figure.
In Fig. 8.13a the Type II configuration defines a straight path
through the magnetic array, and in Fig. 8.13b the Type II
configuration represents a corner. In both cases, microwave wave
frequency excitations exist for the Type IIs that are distinct in
frequency and profile from the excitations that can exist in the
 Localization and Reconfigurability 249

Type I regions. The profiles of these resonances are shown in

the panels on the right-hand side of Fig. 8.13. The excitations
are resonances strongly localized to the magnetic element ends
defining the vertices between neighboring elements.

Figure 8.12 Effect of a control spin on allowed configurations of a 16-

element array. The reference configuration for the array is with all
spins pointing to the right, that is, the black arrows. Without a control
spin, a field strength of h = 11.5 is large enough to access only four
configurations. These configurations are shown in (a), begin with
reversals of edge element spins, and are accessed by applying the field
along specific directions. The corresponding map of allowed configurations
is shown in (b), where each dot represents a unique configuration
of element spins and each line represents an orientation of the field
(with fixed magnitude h). To illustrate the effect of including a control
spin, we specify the orientation of an element spin at the lower-left
corner of the array, indicated with a circular frame in (a), in addition
to, and independently of, the applied field. This allows, in principle,
two different flipping processes for each field orientation corresponding
to the two different orientations of the control spin. The cumulative
effect of these different flipping processes is that a multitude of
configurations can be accessed depending on the orientation of the control
spin and the direction the field is applied, even though its magnitude
is still h. In (c) the corresponding configurations are shown. Reprinted
with permission from Budrikis et al. [11]. Copyright 2012 IOP Publishing
Ltd.
250 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

Figure 8.13 Control of microwave resonances in different spin ice

configurations. In (a), two domains of ground-state configurations of
magnetic elements in square spin ice (designated “Type I”) are separated
by a line of differently aligned elements (designated “Type II”). The Type
II configurations are the mesoscopic equivalent of a magnetic domain
wall. The magnetic resonances associated with the Type II configurations
are distinct from the resonances of the Type Is and represent a
channeling of resonances along the direction defined by the Type IIs.
This channeling is illustrated in (b), where the Type II configuration is
directed around a corner separating two Type I domains. The resonances
associated with this configuration are localized strongly to the element
edges at the vertices of four neighboring elements.

The ability to spatially localize and configure microwave

frequency resonances in an ASI array is only one example of how
patterned magnetic elements may be used to control microwave
properties on micrometer length scales. Reconfigurability,
perhaps through some scheme such as that outlined in Fig. 8.12,
may enable a new type of microwave device based on artificial
magnetic materials created through mesoscopic engineering, as
exemplified by the construction of ASI.

8.4 Outlook
We close with a few comments regarding the important topics of
charge and spin transport. It may be possible to utilize and control
 Outlook 251

spin wave excitations in new ways, for example, through spin

caloritronics in which spin currents can be created by thermal
gradients. Spin-orbit coupling, discussed earlier in relation to chiral
interactions, can also affect the transport of angular momentum
via spin currents across interfaces and give rise to spin Seebeck
and spin Hall effects. These are so named due to their analogies to
conventional charge transport [20, 21, 89, 91], and spin currents
are believed to interact with spin waves. This opens up exciting
possibilities for electric field control of spin waves.
Further afield are other growing areas of activity. Plasmonic
metamaterials have many possible applications and are, in
principle, subject to control via applied magnetic fields. It turns out
that magnetically polarizable elements in a plasmonic array can
enable different properties to be “tuned” using externally applied
magnetic fields. An example is negative refraction [12, 56, 63, 70].
Additional developments include laser-induced switching [72]
and optically controlled charge and spin currents for information
encoding and transfer. These advances may allow the generation
and guidance of spin waves using all-optical techniques [77].
There are enormous possibilities for the manipulation of
magnetic element structure and composition with nanoscale
precision in two and even three dimensions. Because of a
rapidly evolving lithographic technology, there exist new,
unexplored opportunities for designer metamaterials. It is
possible, for example, to examine topics from entirely different
fields within the context of spin wave materials. As an example,
electrical conduction in topological insulators is a phenomenon
that arises from the way electronic states can form near material
boundaries. The topological phase is a property of waves that
can be realized for wavelike excitations that are distinct from
electron waves and electronic band structure. In particular,
analogies to topologically protected surface states have been
proposed for spin waves in magnetic materials [48]. Essential
for realization of these phenomena is the ability to geometrically
pattern magnetically functional matter on appropriate length
scales.
The fascinating interplay between symmetry, interactions,
and physical properties is now being explored at the micro- and
nanoscale in ways that were not possible a few years ago [10].
252 Spin Waves on Spin Structures

For over one hundred years, wave interference in periodic

structures has been studied [74] and has led to our understanding
of, for example, localization [47] and the engineering of bandsand
bandgaps [99]. In terms of magnonics, we now have available a
large number of ways to introduce novel electric, magnetic,
thermal, elastic, and electromagnetic responses in artificially
designed materials. In this chapter we have described a number
of recent examples of how relatively simple material designs can
produce spin wave phenomena, such as channeled nonreciprocity,
that is at once interesting and potentially useful. The prospects
are very encouraging, indeed, for exploiting new capabilities of
sample fabrication at mesoscopic length scales in order to create
new magnonic metamaterials and devices for broad application
across information and communications technologies.

Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge fruitful discussions with J.-P. Adam,
M. Bailleul, V. Cros, T. Devolder, Y. Henry, S. Rohart, J. Sampaio, R.
Soucaille, A. Thiaville, and A. Vansteenkiste. This work was partially
supported by the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (France)
under grant numbers ANR-11-BS10-003 (NanoSWITI), ANR-14-
CE26-0012 (Ultrasky), and ANR-16-CE24-0027 (Swangate); the
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (UK); the
University of Glasgow; and the National Council of Science and
Technology of Mexico (CONACyT). The work of Y. L. and R. L. S.
was supported by the China Scholarship Council and EPSRC
(grant number EP/L002922/1). P. B. acknowledges support
from a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas
(Grant No.26103006) from the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Japan. We would like
to acknowledge that some of the results of micromagnetics
simulations presented here made use of the Emerald High
Performance Computing facility made available by the Centre
for Innovation. The Centre for Innovation is formed by the
universities of Oxford, Southampton, Bristol, and University
College London in partnership with the STFC Rutherford-Appleton
Laboratory.
 References 253

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Chapter 9

Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin

Textures

Katrin Schultheiss, Kai Wagner, Attila Kákay,

and Helmut Schultheiss
Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden–Rossendorf, Institute of Ion Beam Physics
and Materials Research, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany

[email protected]

One of the grand challenges in cutting edge quantum and condensed

matter physics is to harness the spin degree of electrons for
information technologies. While spintronics, based on charge
transport by spin polarized electrons, made its leap in data storage
by providing extremely sensitive detectors in magnetic hard-drives
[1], it turned out to be challenging to transport spin information
without great losses [2]. With magnonics, a visionary concept
inspired researchers worldwide: Utilize spin waves—the collective
excitation quanta of the spin system in magnetically ordered
materials—as carriers for information [3–8]. Spin waves, which are
also called magnons, are waves of the electrons’ spin precessional
motion. They propagate without charge transport and its associated

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
262 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

Ohmic losses, paving the way for a substantial reduction of energy

consumption in computers.
While macroscopic prototypes of magnonic logic gates have
been demonstrated [9, 10], the full potential of magnonics lies in
the combination of magnons with nano-size spin textures. Both
magnons and spin textures share a common ground set by the
interplay of dipolar, spin-orbit, and exchange energies, rendering
them perfect interaction partners. Magnons are fast, sensitive to
the spins’ directions, and easily driven far from equilibrium. Spin
textures are robust, nonvolatile, and still reprogrammable on
ultrashort timescales. The vast possibilities offered by combining
these magnetic phenomena add value to both magnonics and the
fundamental understanding of complex spin textures.
The scope of this chapter is about experimental studies on
magnon transport in metallic ferromagnetic microstructures
with focus on actively controlling the magnon propagation. Two
inherent characteristics of magnons enable for lateral steering: the
anisotropy of the magnon dispersion and its sensitivity to changes
in the internal magnetic field distribution. We intend to give an
idea of how these magnon features can be utilized toward realizing
functionalized magnonic networks.

9.1 Introduction
The main idea behind magnonics is to explore the foundations of
a novel type of information processing technology, in which logic
operations are performed by the superposition of waves rather
than by the motion of electric charges [3–8]. But what are the
reasons behind searching for alternatives for state of the art CMOS
technologies?
Since the information transport by magnons does not rely
on charge transport it does not suffer from Ohmic losses and the
associated Joule heating, one of the drawbacks and limitations of
conventional electronics and their scalability. Moreover, the wave-
based phenomena such as interference, diffraction or refraction
allow for novel types of logic architectures and a broad frequency
 Introduction 263

operating range from MHz up to THz. In contrast to electromagnetic

waves in this frequency range, the magnons’ wavelengths and,
therefore, the size of magnonic circuits approaches nanometer
dimensions, allowing for high integration densities in future
devices. In fact, prototypes of magnonic logic gates based on the
ultralow damping material yttrium iron garnet (YIG) demonstrated
coherent signal propagation over millimeters and wave-based logic
operations [9]. Chumak et al. even succeeded in the realization
of an all-magnon transistor for controlling the primary magnon
propagation by nonlinear interaction with secondary magnons [10].
Most of the realized prototypes of magnonic logic gates are based on
the interference of magnons in macroscopic devices made from YIG.
The terminals for controlling the magnons’ phases or amplitudes are
either macroscopic current lines for generating magnetic fields or
microwave antennas for pumping secondary magnons.
However, the route towards highly integrated magnonic circuits
requires efficient mechanisms for controlling magnons on length
scales ideally given by the magnons’ wavelengths, ultimately only a
few nanometers. Thinking about these requirements provides the
not-so-obvious answers to the question, why magnons as carriers
of information could be a valuable extension to state-of-the-art
electronic and spintronic approaches. In short, the answer lies in
the interactions between magnons and noncollinear spin textures,
present even in the linear regime for small amplitude excitations.
The origin of these interactions lies in the fact that magnon transport
is strongly determined by the local orientation of the magnetic
moments with respect to the magnons’ wavevectors. This allows
one to control magnon propagation not only by different source
geometries or waveguide designs (as typically the case for linear
and isotropic waves), but additionally by tailoring the magnetic
material parameters and their magnetic  texture itself. Here, any
non-zero derivative of the vector field M given by the magnetization
generates additional effective magneticfields due  2to the symmetric,
Heisenberg-like exchange energy Hex µ (—M ) and magnetic
 volume 
dipolar energy Hdip µ div( M ) . Note that these two terms are
only accounting for fields generated by magnetic moments within
the sample volume. The boundaries of any finite magnetic body
 surface 
cause an additional dipolar magnetic field Hdip µ M ◊ nˆ once the
264 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

magnetic moments have a component parallel to the surface normal

n̂ . This results in a strong anisotropy of the magnon dispersion for
thin, in-plane magnetized films [11, 12]. While the exchange field is
strongly localized, the bulk and surface contributions of the dipolar
magnetic fields are nonlocal. This means that for calculating the
dipolar magnetic field acting on a magnetic moment at a particular
position, the dipolar magnetic fields generated by all other magnetic
moments have to be summed up, which makes the analytical
handling of the dipolar contribution to the effective magnetic field
to be complicated. A theory for calculating the magnon dispersion
in infinite thin films incorporating both exchange and dipolar
interaction was given by B. Kalinikos and A. N. Slavin in 1986 [13].
Even though this dispersion relation was not derived for patterned
films it could be used to quantitatively describe discrete magnon
spectra and magnon propagation in microstructures [14–19].
To sum this up, even in conventional ferromagnets such as
Fe, Ni, and Co a noncollinear magnetization texture will create an
inhomogeneous internal magnetic field and, therefore, locally affect
the magnon dispersion. Hence, spin textures like magnetic domain
walls, vortices, and skyrmions, where magnetic moments are not
parallel, are ideal candidates to manipulate magnons on a nanometer
length scale. A pioneering work giving evidence for the interaction of
magnons with topological spin textures by R. Hertel and coworkers
[20] demonstrated, that a magnon pulse travelling through a
magnetic domain wall experiences a phase shift large enough for
realizing magnon based logic gates [21]. The full potential of using
spin textures for manipulating magnons is given by the fact that they
are topologically protected and, therefore, nonvolatile. But still there
are various means for their manipulation for example by magnetic
fields, electric currents, or ultrashort laser pulses [22–24].
This chapter is outlined as follows:
In the next section, we will give a short introduction to magnon
transport in ferromagnetic stripes with a width in the micrometer
range. We will explore the magnon dispersion and the impact of its
anisotropy, in order to sensitize the reader to challenges that emerge
when guiding or steering magnons in two-dimensional structures.
In the following section, we will introduce a method based on locally
generated magnetic fields for steering magnons and even switching
 Magnon Transport and Dispersion in Magnonic Waveguides 265

their propagation path. In the final section, we discuss active

channeling of magnons in magnetic domain walls.

9.2 Magnon Transport and Dispersion in

Magnonic Waveguides
The experiments discussed in this chapter are all based on magnon
transport in microstructures patterned from Ni81Fe19 (Permalloy,
Py) films with thicknesses below 50 nm and lateral dimensions
larger than one micrometer. For such geometries the magnetization
is oriented within the sample plane and the magnon dispersion
can be well approximated following the general formalism for
corresponding continuous films derived by Kalinikos and Slavin [13].
A simpler form of the dispersion is discussed in [25], in particular
for confined magnons with uniform amplitude profiles over the film
thickness. Note that magnons with non-uniform amplitude profiles
across the film thickness have much smaller group velocities for
propagation within the film plane and, therefore, are typically not
considered for magnonic applications.
In thin films the magnon dispersion is defined by a continuous
surface in the reciprocal space as shown in Fig. 9.1a, where the magnon
frequency is plotted as a function of their wavevector components
parallel and perpendicular to the equilibrium direction of the
magnetization. For the sake of simplicity we omitted quantitative
values for frequencies and wavevectors, which are dependent
on material parameters, film thickness and the magnitude of the
applied magnetic field. The main feature we devote our attention to
is the anisotropy of the dispersion relation with respect to the angle
between the wavevector k and the magnetization M. For k ^ M the
magnon frequency monotonously increases, whereas for k || M it
initially decreases with increasing wavevector k until the exchange
interaction dominates over the dipolar interaction and causes
an increase of the magnon frequency. It is also worth mentioning
the significant difference in the absolute value of the slope of the
dispersion, which actually defines the group velocity of magnons
and, hence, the signal propagation speed in magnonic circuits.
266 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

Figure 9.1 Magnon dispersion relation in the wavelength range in which

the magnon energy is mainly determined by dipolar interaction. (a) The
dispersion for an infinite thin film exhibits a strong anisotropy. For larger
wavevectors k perpendicular to the magnetization M the frequency
increases, whereas it decreases for magnons propagating parallel to M. (b)
The dispersion of the first magnon mode of a perpendicular magnetized
stripe with a width w can be calculated by intersecting the dispersion
surface with a plane defined by k^ = p/w.

As a general rule, magnons with a wavevector perpendicular to

the magnetization are faster compared to any other propagation
direction. With respect to information transport via magnons, this
has a strong impact on the design of magnonic waveguides. In the
simplest scenario, i.e., magnon transport within a magnetic stripe,
the magnetic shape anisotropy forces the magnetization to align
parallel to the stripe’s long axis. Thus, in order to realize most
efficient signal transport with high group velocities, one needs to
overcome the shape anisotropy and actively pull the magnetization
perpendicular to the transport direction. The calculation of the
exact dispersion relation for such geometries is tedious because of
the inhomogeneous internal magnetic field distribution caused by
the demagnetizing field. An analytic expression can be derived using
a Green’s function formalism as shown by Kostylev and coworkers
[26]. However, in good approximation one can get results following
the idea sketched in Fig. 9.1b.
Confining a wave to a waveguide with finite width results
in discretization of the wavevector components perpendicular
to the transport direction in analogy to the TEM (transversal
 Magnon Transport and Dispersion in Magnonic Waveguides 267

electromagnetic) modes of a laser resonator or microwave

waveguide. The dispersion for these transversal magnon modes of a
stripe waveguide with a width w and mode number n can be extracted
from the dispersion relation of a continuous film by intersecting
the dispersion surface with a plane defined by k^ = np/w, where k^
is the component of the magnon wavevector perpendicular to the
magnetization. To account for the finite size of the magnetic structure
when using the dispersion of a continuous film a slight adjustment
has to be made to the width of the magnonic waveguide. As pointed
out by Guslienko and coworkers [27] effective dipolar boundary
conditions for the dynamic magnetization in thin magnetic stripes
have to be considered. This results in a slight increase of the effective
width w of the discretization volume for the waveguide modes used
for calculating the dispersion relation.
Deriving the dispersion for a finite element from the dispersion
relation of a continuous thin film works surprisingly well and has
been applied to understand magnon transport in numerous studies
[14–19, 28, 29]. One example is shown in Fig. 9.2a that is adopted
from the work of Pirro and coworkers [18]. It shows a spatially
resolved magnon intensity map of two counter propagating magnon
beams excited by microwave antennas in a 4 µm wide and 40 nm thick
Permalloy stripe. The magnon intensity was measured with Brillouin
light scattering microscopy (µBLS), which is in detail described
in [30, 31]. The stationary interference pattern shown in Fig. 9.2a
for an excitation frequency of 7.13 GHz and an externally applied
magnetic field of 30 mT oriented perpendicularly to the magnon
waveguide demonstrates the coherent propagation of magnons
over distances larger than the decay length. The periodicity of the
interference pattern allows for a direct measurement of the magnon
wavelength. Repeating this for different excitation frequencies yields
the magnon dispersion relation shown in Fig. 9.2b for wavevectors
oriented along the magnon waveguide, i.e., in transport direction.
From the periodic oscillations of the width of the magnon beams
one can already conclude that the resulting interference pattern
is a superposition of many transverse waveguide modes, an effect
which was first observed experimentally in micron sized magnonic
waveguides by Demidov and coworkers [16, 17].
268 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

Figure 9.2 (a) Intensity profile of two counter propagating magnon beams
in a Permalloy stripe with a width of 4 µm revealing a clear stationary
interference pattern. (b) Plot of the magnon frequency as a function of
the wavevector extracted from the periodicity of the interference pattern.
Images adopted from [15].

With the example described above and the listed references, we

conclude that coherent magnon transport over distances larger than
the magnon decay length is possible in metallic microstructures.
Additionally, the parameters that describe the transport properties,
in particular the dispersion relation, are well known and understood.
This conclusion, however, only holds for configurations, where the
magnetic moments are homogeneously aligned along the principle
directions, either perfectly perpendicular or parallel to the magnon
wavevector. The situation changes drastically once this symmetry
is broken and the magnetic moments have an alignment with the
magnon wavevector that is neither parallel nor perpendicular.
Two examples of magnon transport in magnonic waveguides
with a finite width are shown in Fig. 9.3. The most straightforward
approach of introducing a skew section in a 2.5 µm wide stripe
patterned from a 60 nm thick Permalloy film was realized by
Clausen and coworkers [32]. Part of the results are displayed in
Fig. 9.3a, where magnon intensities are measured with µBLS for an
excitation frequency of 7 GHz and an external magnetic field of 50.7
mT applied perpendicularly to the waveguides. The key result of this
study was that the magnon flow is not simply redirected to follow the
waveguide but that instead the magnons undergo a mode conversion
upon passing a simple skew section. In the straight waveguide a
continuous variation of the width of the magnon beam is observed,
which Demidov and coworkers [16, 17] identified as the beating
 Magnon Transport and Dispersion in Magnonic Waveguides 269

pattern resulting from the interference of several waveguide modes

with an odd mode number. In contrast, the waveguide with the skew
section exhibits a snake like pattern as a consequence of the mode
conversion in the skew section and the subsequent interference of
the first and second waveguide mode.
The challenges of magnon transport are even more evident
in the second example shown in Fig. 9.3b. Vogt and coworkers
[33] launched a magnon beam in a 2 µm wide and 30 nm thick
Permalloy waveguide which exhibits a Y junction with an opening
angle of 60 degree in 5 µm distance to the microwave antenna.
In case all magnetic moments are aligned perpendicularly to the
initially straight part of the waveguide by applying a magnetic field,
magnons propagate away from the excitation antenna towards the
junction point. The magnon beam impinging on the Y junction does
neither split into two beams nor is it converted into other magnonic
waveguide modes. The experimental results show that magnons
do not propagate into the angled waveguide sections, where the
magnetization is not aligned perpendicularly to the transport
direction.

Figure 9.3 (a) Magnon transport in 2.5 µm wide waveguides. One straight and
the other with a skew section, where the waveguide is shifted transversally
by 1 µm over a distance of 3 µm. A magnetic field of 50.7 mT was applied
perpendicularly to the waveguide and the excitation frequency was 7 GHz.
(b) Magnons propagating towards a Y junction, excited by microwaves in
the lower part (not shown). Magnon intensities were measured with µBLS.
Images adapted from Clausen et al. [32] and Vogt et al. [33].

These two examples should give a taste of the challenges

arising in more complex magnonic circuits. New design rules are
required for steering magnons in two-dimensional networks.
Intriguing approaches are for example graded-index magnonics
introduced by Davies and coworkers [34] or the magnonic grating
270 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

coupler effect discovered by Yu and coworkers [35] that are both

covered as separate chapters in this book. In the following sections
of this chapter we introduce two alternative concepts for steering
magnons, one based on locally generated magnetic fields for aligning
the magnetization in the magnonic waveguide and one based on
channeling magnons inside magnetic domain walls.

9.3 Steering and Multiplexing Magnons by

Current-Induced, Local Magnetic Fields
In the previous section, we gave two examples that showed
redirecting magnon transport to be increasingly complex in
magnonic waveguides when the relative angle between the
magnetization and the magnon wavevector component in transport
direction was altering from the starting 90° (see Fig. 9.3) as a
result of the geometric patterning. But what if one could ensure a
transversal alignment between magnetization and propagation
direction even in more complex geometries like a bended magnonic
waveguide? It would require an effective magnetic field that is
oriented transversally to the waveguide’s edges and sufficiently
strong to locally compensate the demagnetizing field caused by
the shape anisotropy. It turned out that such a locally oriented
magnetic field can be generated via an electric current line placed
underneath the magnon waveguide [36]. The working principle of
this idea is sketched Fig. 9.4a,b for a curved magnon waveguide with
a thickness of 30 nm, that is directly deposited on top of a 50 nm
thick Au current line. Let us first consider the case without electric
current but with a uniform, external magnetic field, strong enough to
overcome the shape anisotropy (Fig. 9.4a). Such an external field has
two major disadvantages regarding magnon transport in the curved
section: First, the magnetization is rotating with respect to the
transport direction which affects magnon propagation as discussed
in the previous section. Second, the angle of the magnetization with
respect to the waveguide’s edges is continuously rotating, resulting
in an inhomogeneous demagnetizing field and, thus, also affecting
magnon transport.
However, both of these disadvantages can be avoided when
magnetizing the magnon waveguide via the Oersted field generated
 Steering and Multiplexing Magnons by Current-Induced, Local Magnetic Fields 271

from an electric current running underneath the magnonic

waveguide. Already in the simple case of a ferromagnet/metal hybrid
conduit with a composition of Py(30 nm)/Au(50 nm) as shown in
Fig. 9.4 calculations reveal that 90% of the current flows in the Au
conductor because of its lower resistivity. Since the current flow
follows the direction of the magnon transport, the resulting magnetic
field is aligned perpendicularly to the magnon wavevector at any
position of the magnon waveguide. However, the open question
is if the generated magnetic field for moderate current densities
(without creating too much Joule heating) is sufficient to overcome
the shape anisotropy of the magnon waveguide in order to align the
magnetization perpendicularly to the waveguide boundaries and,
hence, perpendicularly to the magnon wavevector.

Figure 9.4 (a, b) Illustrating the difference in the magnetization texture of a

bended magnon waveguide depending on the magnetic field source. External

magnetic fields Hext cause a uniform alignment of the magnetic moments,
where the angle between the magnon wavevector and the magnetization
changes in the curved section of the waveguide. The alternative of an electric
current flowing in a conductor below the magnon waveguide generates a
magnetic field (Oersted field) that can force the magnetization to always
align perpendicularly to the magnon transport direction. (c) Schematic
sample layout for investigating the guidance of spin waves with locally
rotating magnetic fields. Images adapted from Vogt et al. [36].

This concept was tested for a 2 µm wide hybrid magnon waveguide

with a composition of Py(30 nm)/Au(50 nm) and a microwave
antenna for magnon excitation and dc contacts for applying electric
currents as shown in Fig. 9.4c. In order to experimentally verify
that the magnetic field generated by the electric current creates
similar conditions for magnon transport as an externally applied
272 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

magnetic field oriented perpendicularly to the magnon waveguide,

Vogt and coworkers proceeded as follows: In 1 µm distance to the
exciting antenna (position A in Fig. 9.4c), the magnon intensities
were measured as a function of the excitation frequency by means
of µBLS. This was recorded as a function of the externally applied
field, without dc current (Fig. 9.5a) and as a function of the applied
dc current, without externally applied magnetic field (Fig. 9.5b). If
only an external magnetic field is applied, magnons can be detected
starting from approximately 10 mT and 2 GHz. Starting from this
value the magnitude of the magnetic field is sufficient to overcome
the shape anisotropy at least in the middle of the magnon waveguide.
For fields below 10 mT hardly any magnon intensity is recorded
since the magnetization is still aligned parallel to the magnon
waveguide. In this geometry, the magnon dispersion is very flat (Fig.
9.1) and, consequently, the group velocity of magnons is so small
that any magnons excited at the microwave antenna do not reach
the measurement position. The solid black line in Fig. 9.5a indicates
the minimum of the magnon band for modes in a perpendicularly
magnetized stripe, which is essentially the magnon frequency for

k^ = 0, because the magnon dispersion monotonously increases for
this geometry. The white dashed line marks the magnetic field and
frequency combination for which the resulting magnon wavevector
coincides with the minimum of the microwave antenna’s excitation
efficiency. Note that the solid black and white dashed lines are
calculated based on the dispersion relation for a 2 µm wide,
perpendicularly magnetized waveguide and taking into account the
applied magnetic field. The excellent quantitative agreement of both
of these curves demonstrates once again the thorough theoretical
understanding of magnon transport in micron sized ferromagnetic
conduits.
The periodic oscillation of the magnon intensity as a function
of the excitation frequency is an artifact of the experimental setup.
The absolute microwave power that arrives at the exciting antenna
depends on the applied frequency due to impedance mismatches of
the microwave contacts to the sample.
The scenario without externally applied field, in which the
Oersted field of an electric current flowing beneath the magnon
conduit magnetizes the magnon waveguide, is shown in Fig. 9.5b.
For dc currents below 20 mA no magnons are detected in 1 µm
 Steering and Multiplexing Magnons by Current-Induced, Local Magnetic Fields 273

distance to the antenna, indicating that the magnetic field generated

by the dc current is not strong enough to rotate the magnetization
perpendicularly to the transport direction. Starting from 30 mA the
measured magnon intensities increase. For each current value the
spectra as a function of the excitation frequency (each column in the
intensity plot) are comparable to Fig. 9.5a, for which the magnon
waveguide was magnetized with an externally applied magnetic field.
In order to avoid heating, we applied current pulses with duration
of 150 ns and a repetition rate of 3 µs. Magnons were excited by
100-ns long microwave pulses synchronized to the dc pulses so that
magnons are only excited in the 150 ns time window defined by the
current pulses.

Figure 9.5 (a) Magnon intensities measured in the vicinity of the microwave
antenna used for magnon excitation as a function of the excitation frequency
and the externally applied magnetic field or (b) a direct current flowing in
the Py(30)Au(50) magnon waveguide. The black solid line indicates the

lower limit of the magnon band ( k^ = 0 ), the white dashed line marks the
magnetic field and frequency combination, where the resulting magnon
wavevector coincides with the minimum of the microwave antenna’s
excitation efficiency.

The magnon intensities in Fig. 9.5 were recorded in 1 µm

distance to the antenna. For selected excitation frequencies, the
same data is shown in a different representation in panel A of Fig.
9.6a. We directly compare magnon intensities measured with µBLS
as a function of the external magnetic field (lower x axis, empty
symbols) and the dc pulse amplitude (upper x axis, filled symbols).
274 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

In the investigated current range, the magnon spectra show the

same characteristics, independent of whether an external field or a
dc current is applied to align the magnetic moments. A direct current
of 54 mA is needed to generate a magnetic field of 10 mT. Duty cycle
measurements performed with shorter dc pulses and the same
repetition rate yield the same excitation spectra ensuring that Joule
heating can be neglected. Note that the maximum applied current
density of 1.1 · 1011 A/m2 is too small to expect a contribution of
spin transfer torque to the measured magnon intensity [37].

Figure 9.6 (a) Empty symbols show the BLS intensity measured as a function
of an externally applied magnetic field for excitation frequencies ranging
from 2.1 to 3.9 GHz. Filled symbols show the results of the BLS measurement
with dc current pulses through the Au/permalloy hybrid waveguide and
without applying an external magnetic field. The measurement positions
of panels A, B, and C are indicated in (b); the results were obtained 1 µm,
8 µm, and 11 µm away from the antenna. (c) Two-dimensional magnon
intensity distribution with an externally applied magnetic field of 12.3 mT
at an excitation frequency of 2.1 GHz and (d–g) applied dc pulses with an
amplitude of 66.7 mA for excitation frequencies ranging from 2.1 GHz to
3.9 GHz. The intensity scale is logarithmic and color-coded. Images adopted
from [36].
 Steering and Multiplexing Magnons by Current-Induced, Local Magnetic Fields 275

To verify that local magnetic fields generated by dc pulses can

turn magnons around the corner, the same measurements were
performed right before and inside the curved section. The results
are plotted in panels B and C of Fig. 9.6a, respectively. At position B,
the magnon intensity starts to increase at higher fields and higher
currents compared to the measurements at position A. This can
be attributed to forced magnon excitations outside the magnon
band that can still be detected in the vicinity of the antenna. These
magnons do not propagate along the waveguide and, thus, vanish
when moving away from the antenna. However, the results for an
applied magnetic field (empty symbols) and for a direct current
flowing through the waveguide (filled symbols) show similar
behavior. Since the magnetization configuration in region B is the
same for both the external magnetic field and the applied direct
current, the magnon spectra should not differ. In particular, the rise
in the magnon intensity coincides for the direct current as well as for
the external fields, which shows that the propagation characteristics
of magnons in the straight section of the waveguide is the same for
both magnetization configurations.
A comparison of the magnon intensity at position B for the
highest external magnetic fields and dc currents shows that for some
frequencies, there is a strong difference in the measured intensities.
The reason for this is that in the case of an externally applied magnetic
field, the magnons cannot propagate into the curved section and are
reflected. As a result, a standing wave pattern is created in front of
the curved section, and the intensity measured at point B oscillates
as a function of the applied excitation frequency.
Moving further away from the antenna into the curved region
of the waveguide, significant differences in the magnon spectra are
observed. Panel C of Fig. 9.6 compares the results of the measurements
made 11 µm away from the antenna, inside the curved section. As
the empty symbols show, no magnons are detected inside the bend
when an external field is employed to homogeneously magnetize
the waveguide. However, with a current flowing through the hybrid
magnon waveguide (filled symbols), the intensity of magnons excited
at 2.1 GHz strongly increases when the currents exceed 63 mA,
corresponding to a field of about 11.7 mT. For excitation frequencies
up to 3 GHz, those differences in the magnon intensity remain
276 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

visible. The overall magnon intensity drops for higher frequencies

because their group velocity decreases, which generally results in
an increased spatial decay. Due to damping the magnon intensity at
the center of the S-shaped bend is strongly attenuated and vanishes
altogether behind it.
These results show that magnon propagation in curved
waveguides is not possible as long as all magnetic moments are
aligned in one direction by a global external field. Only when a
transversal alignment of the magnetization of the waveguide is
maintained it is possible for magnons to turn a corner.
To better visualize this result, the two-dimensional magnon
intensity distribution was mapped in the bent region of the
waveguide. In Fig. 9.6c–g, the results of spatially resolved µBLS
measurements are displayed together with the schematic layout
of the sample and the corresponding magnetization texture. The
intensity scale is logarithmic and color-coded, where white (red)
represents minimum (maximum) values. When an external field of
13.3 mT is applied, magnons decay as soon as they enter the curved
section of the waveguide (Fig. 9.6c). However, if a direct current
flows through the hybrid magnon waveguide, magnons are guided
within the curved section for various excitation frequencies ranging
from 2.1 GHz to 3.9 GHz (Fig. 9.6d–g). With 66.7 mA, the amplitude
of the current pulses was chosen to yield the same magnetic field as
for the externally applied.
From the measurements shown in Fig. 9.6 two key results are
obvious: First, if no external magnetic field or dc current is applied,
magnons do not propagate far into the waveguide. The shape
anisotropy aligns the magnetization parallel to the waveguides
boundaries, which results in low group velocities and, hence, magnons
quickly decay. Second, a favorable geometry for magnon transport,
where the magnetization is always perpendicular to the propagation
direction, can be achieved in micro structured waveguides without
applying any external magnetic field. The Oersted field generated
by a direct current flowing in a conductor underneath the magnon
conduit is sufficiently high to attain transverse magnetization of
the waveguide. Employing the direct current for locally aligning
the magnetization, magnon propagation inside a curved waveguide
can be realized. This demonstrates that artificially guiding the
 Steering and Multiplexing Magnons by Current-Induced, Local Magnetic Fields 277

propagation direction of magnons in the sample plane is possible,

which is a crucial step towards new magnon based applications.

Figure 9.7 (a) Microscope image showing the magnon multiplexer

(Permalloy, Py), the microwave antenna (CPW: coplanar waveguide) and
the leads for dc connections (Au). Blue arrows indicate the oscillating
Oersted fields around the antenna for magnon excitation. The leads for the
dc connection are designed to allow for an electric current flowing either
from bottom to the left or from bottom to the right part of the Y junction. (b,
c) Schematics of the magnetization configurations with locally generated
Oersted fields (b) and with an externally applied magnetic field (c),
respectively. Images adapted from Vogt et al. [33].

In the following part of this section this concept for steering

magnons is applied in order to switch the magnon propagation
path in a Y junction, effectively building a magnon multiplexer
[33]. The fundamental question behind this experiment is: Can one
use the anisotropy of the magnon dispersion not only for guiding
magnons in bended waveguides but also for actively controlling
the propagation path in geometries with multiple options for the
magnon propagation direction? To address this question a hybrid
magnon waveguide forming a Y junction as displayed in Fig. 9.7a was
prepared. In order to optimize the electric current flow for generating
the locally oriented magnetic field, the hybrid magnon waveguide
was improved compared to the structure used for bending magnons
in curved geometries as discussed above. First, the electric current
lines were patterned in shape of a Y from 50 nm Au with a width of
3 µm by electron-beam lithography. Subsequently a second Y from
MgO (50 nm) and permalloy (30 nm) with a width of 2 µm was
patterned on top of the current lines, where the MgO layer ensures
278 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

that the electric current is only flowing in the Au lines. Afterwards,

an insulation pad was patterned from a hydrogen silsesquioxane
(HSQ, 50 nm) layer covering the entire magnon conduit and then the
coplanar waveguides (CPW, 100 nm Au) for magnon excitation were
processed on top. The schematic configurations of the magnetization
with locally generated Oersted fields and with an externally applied
magnetic field are shown in Fig. 9.7b and 9.7c, respectively. If an
electric current flows in the Y junction from the bottom to the top
right lead, the resulting Oersted field aligns the magnetization in the
magnon conduit perpendicularly to the magnon transport direction,
whereas the magnetization in the top left arm of the Y junction is
still aligned parallel to the transport direction due to the shape
anisotropy. Hence, magnons propagating from the bottom into the
right part of the junction will always sense a magnetization oriented
perpendicularly to their wavevector component in the direction
of propagation and have maximum group velocity. Thus, since the
magnon transport is connected to the electric current, switching the
dc configuration is expected to switch the magnon flow.

Figure 9.8 Magnon intensities measured with µBLS in the left (red circles) and
right (blue squares) part of the magnon waveguide in 4.5 μm distance to the
excitation antenna (effective propagation distance of the magnons). Magnons
are excited at frequencies ranging from 2 to 4 GHz and an electric current of
100 mA was flowing in (a) the left and (b) the right arm of the Y structure.
Images adapted from Vogt et al. [33].

In Fig. 9.8 the switching capability of this device based on the

anisotropy of the magnon dispersion was quantified. For a current
 Steering and Multiplexing Magnons by Current-Induced, Local Magnetic Fields 279

of 100 mA flowing in the left (Fig. 9.8a) and right (Fig. 9.8b) part of
the Y-junction magnon intensities were measured with µBLS in both
the top-right arm (red squares) and the top left arm (blue circles)
for frequencies ranging from 2 GHz to 4 GHz. There is clear evidence
for an overall asymmetry in the magnon propagation between
the left and right arm of the Y junction and maximum magnon
intensity is observed always in the part of the structure in which the
magnetization is aligned by the current-induced magnetic field.
Ultimate evidence for the functionality of the magnon multiplexer
is obtained from the measured two-dimensional magnon intensity
distributions in Fig. 9.9. Excitation with a frequency of 2.75 GHz,
which showed maximum magnon transmission in Fig. 9.8 for an
electric current of 100 mA, demonstrates switching of magnon beams
in the direction of the current flow. Figure 9.9c shows that magnon
propagation is entirely blocked behind the Y junction if a uniform
external magnetic field is applied, as discussed in the previous
section. Magnons are known to adiabatically adjust their wavevector
in regions of varying internal magnetic fields to compensate for the
resulting shifts of the dispersion [38–43]. But, apparently, magnons
do not propagate in stripe-shaped magnon waveguides if the relative
orientation between the magnetization direction and the magnon
wavevector changes.

Figure 9.9 (a, b) Two-dimensional map of the magnon intensity illustrating

the switching process: For a direct current of 100 mA applied to the left (a)
and right (b) arm of the Y structure, respectively, the spin waves at 2.75
GHz are guided through the Y junction and only propagate in the same
direction as the current flow. (c) Saturation with an external magnetic field
completely blocks magnon propagation beyond the junction. Image adapted
from Vogt et al. [33].
280 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

To summarize this section, magnon transport can be guided in

curved magnonic waveguides and even switched in more complex
structures such as a Y junction using locally generated magnetic
fields.
Note that the dimensions of the magnon conduits discussed here
were chosen to allow for optical characterization of their operation.
However, there are no physical limitations for miniaturizing them
into the nanometer regime, because the important parameter for
the local magnetic fields is the current density below the magnon
conduit. Therefore, smaller devices will also require less absolute
values of electric currents. Regarding materials for the magnon
conduits, the same approach can be adapted to ferrimagnetic
insulators, such as yttrium iron garnets, or metallic compounds
with ultralow magnetic damping [28, 44], in which the magnon
propagation distance is significantly increased. Another promising
approach to reduce the currents required in order to magnetize
the magnon conduit perpendicularly to the transport direction
is to use ion implantation to imprint magnonic waveguides into
paramagnetic [45] or ferromagnetic films [46, 47]. In such magnon
waveguides the shape anisotropy is reduced due to the surrounding
ferro- or paramagnetic environment. Lastly, while we use Oersted
fields to locally rotate the magnetization, it is also conceivable to
use programmable, nonvolatile stray fields from adjacent magnetic
elements [48] or direct exchange coupling [49] which would enable
a low-power operation of the magnon multiplexer in more complex
magnonic devices.

9.4 Channeling Magnons in Magnetic Domain

Walls
In the previous section we introduced the concept of using the
anisotropy of the magnon dispersion for steering magnons by a
local, magnetic field induced rotation of the magnetization. In this
section we transfer this knowledge to a new concept that also uses
a locally rotating magnetization direction but does not require any
externally applied magnetic fields or electric currents for operation.
We explore the intrinsic magnons that are confined across the width
of a magnetic domain wall and possess a well-defined wavevector
 Channeling Magnons in Magnetic Domain Walls 281

along the wall [50]. By targeting this class of magnons in Néel walls,
we focus on the potential of using domain walls as nanometer-scaled
channels to open new perspectives for energy-efficient control of
magnon propagation in two dimensions.
The top part of Fig. 9.10a shows a schematic of a 180° Néel wall.
The magnetic moments rotate within the sample plane, giving rise
to magnetic volume charges, with opposite sign on the two sides of
the domain-wall center. The red curve in Fig. 9.10a displays these
volume charges as a function of position perpendicular to the domain
wall calculated by means of micromagnetic simulations. They create
a strong dipolar magnetic field (blue curve in Fig. 9.10a) oriented
antiparallel to the magnetization in the center of the domain wall,
resulting in a locally decreased effective magnetic field. Since the
magnon energy depends on this internal magnetic field, the domain
wall effectively forms a potential well for magnons comparable to
magnons localized near edges of magnetic elements [38, 51]. The
width of this potential well is given by the domain wall width and
strongly depends on various parameters of the magnetic material.
The Néel wall studied here has a width of about 40 nm. However,
note that it can be tuned towards even smaller sizes if other
materials are used. In the following, we demonstrate experimentally
and numerically that such a potential well hosts magnons that are
strongly localized to the domain-wall width but still travel freely
along the wall.
Figure 9.10b presents a scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
image of the structure used in the experiment. A 40 nm thick
permalloy film is patterned into a magnon waveguide that is 5 μm
wide at one end and gradually broadens until it reaches a constant
width of 10 μm. This variable width stabilizes the 180° Néel wall
under the microwave antenna. A domain wall parallel to the long axis
of the waveguide is initiated by applying a sinusoidal, exponentially
decaying magnetic field parallel to its short axis, as depicted in the
bottom right inset in Fig. 9.10b. Magneto-optical Kerr microscopy
was used to confirm the magnetic remanence state of the magnon
waveguide. The overlay in Fig. 9.10c shows a Kerr micrograph,
with the black–white color code representing the magnetization
component along the y direction. A Landau-like domain pattern is
formed with a 180° Néel wall in the center separating two domains
with opposite magnetization. Additional micromagnetic simulations
282 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

(discussed in the following) confirm the Néel-type character of the

domain wall, with the magnetic moments rotating in the sample
plane as is expected for the material parameters and thickness of
the Py film [52].

Figure 9.10 (a) Schematic illustration of a 180° Néel wall carrying a


magnon. The divergence of the magnetization div(M) across the width of
the wall shows opposite sign on the two sides of the domain wall center and

results in a strong magnetostatic field Hdemag oriented antiparallel to the
magnetization direction. (b) Scanning electron microscopy image showing
the magnon waveguide and the microwave antenna. Inset (lower right):
magnetic field sweep used to initialize the domain configuration. (c) The
black–white contrast of the Kerr microscopy image confirms the formation
of a Landau-like domain pattern. Arrows indicate the magnetization
direction in the domains. Image adapted from Wagner et al. [50].

To analyze the magnon spectra in different areas of the waveguide,

the magnon intensity was measured as a function of the excitation
frequency at two different positions: inside the domain wall and in
the domains. These measurements were performed in the 10 μm
wide bottom part of the waveguide at a distance of 1 μm from the
antenna. Figure 9.11a summarizes the results and clearly shows
two distinct spectra. Inside the domain wall (square symbols), the
maximum intensity was observed at the lowest possible detection
frequency of 500 MHz, whereas in the domains (triangular symbols)
the highest intensities can be found at frequencies around 2.8 GHz.
To understand the nature of these different magnons, their
intensity profiles across the width of the waveguide were detected
and are plotted in Fig. 9.11b. Measurements were carried out
at the excitation frequencies where the maximum intensity was
observed within the wall and the domains, respectively. Figure
 Channeling Magnons in Magnetic Domain Walls 283

9.11b summarizes the results. The magnons show a clear spatial

separation, with magnons at 0.5 GHz strongly confined inside the
domain wall (squares). In contrast, magnons at 2.8 GHz (triangles) are
spread throughout the domains at both sides of the wall and almost
vanish at the domain-wall position. Thus, the potential well formed
by the domain wall can be used to confine magnons in a certain
frequency range on the nanoscale. The slightly different intensity
profiles detected at 2.8 GHz in the two domains are attributed to
a misalignment of the domain wall relative to the center position.
This asymmetry leads to different lateral confinement conditions in
the domains and, consequently, to a relative frequency shift of the
excitation spectra. However, quantization due to confinement in
micrometer-size waveguides has already been studied extensively
[14–19, 25–33]. Here, we focus on magnons inside the nanochannel
formed by the domain wall. The strong confinement becomes
even more evident from the two-dimensional µBLS measurement
presented in Fig. 9.11c. Solely at the position of the domain wall,
the signal of the magnons propagating away from the antenna is
detected, revealing the channeling character of the domain wall.

Figure 9.11 (a) Magnon intensity as a function of excitation frequency inside

the domain wall (squares) and the domains (triangles), respectively. The
measurement clearly shows different excitation spectra depending on the
probing position. (b) Line scans of the magnon intensity across the width
of the Py waveguide for two excitation frequencies that yielded maximum
magnon intensity inside the domain wall (squares) and in the domain
(triangles). (c) Two-dimensional magnon intensity distribution at 0.5 GHz.
Images adapted from Wagner et al. [50].
284 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

To obtain a deeper insight into the propagation characteristics

within the wall, micromagnetic simulations were carried out [53].
The modeled system was a 5 μm long, 1 μm wide, and 10 nm thick Py
rectangle. This reduction in size compared to the experiment allowed
for a sufficiently fine discretization required to simulate the nano-
size domain wall without affecting its character, which is mainly
determined by the material parameters and not by the different
dimensions. Therefore, the comparison between experiment and
simulation is still assumed to be valid for magnons within the
domain wall. Figure 9.12a shows the equilibrium magnetization
configuration. The red–blue color codes the magnetization
component along the short axis of the rectangle, and the arrows
indicate the magnetization direction. The microstructure exhibits a
flux-closure Landau domain pattern with a 180° Néel wall separating
two domains with opposite magnetization.

Figure 9.12 (a) Simulated domain configuration of a rectangular Py thin-

film element. The red–blue color represents the in-plane magnetization
component parallel to the short axis of the rectangle, and the arrows display
the net magnetization direction in the domains. (b) The x component of the
effective magnetic field. (c) Amplitude profiles of magnons excited locally at
the green dot. The red–blue color represents the out-of-plane component of
the magnetization. Green bars indicate the magnon wavelengths that can be
extracted from the data. (d) Dispersion relation extracted from simulations.
Images adapted from Wagner et al. [50].

The magnitude of the effective magnetic field calculated from

this remanence state is presented in Fig. 9.12b with the red–blue
 Channeling Magnons in Magnetic Domain Walls 285

color representing the field component along the short axis of the
rectangle. The data show strong effective fields across the domain
wall oriented antiparallel to the magnetization direction.
An out-of-plane field pulse with a Gaussian spatial profile was
used to locally excite spin dynamics at the domain-wall position
at a distance of 1.6 µm from the bottom edge (green dot in Fig.
9.12c). The subsequent analysis yields the magnon spectrum and
dispersion relation, which is discussed in the next paragraph.
To illustrate the mode profiles of the magnons, the response to
a continuous microwave excitation at four different frequencies
was simulated. In Fig. 9.12c, the normalized z component of the
magnetization is plotted for a given time once the system reached
a steady state. For the lower frequencies of 0.52, 1.28 and 2.16 GHz,
the magnons are strongly localized inside the domain wall. However,
a general trend is that the strong localization within the wall softens
with increasing frequency. Particularly for modes with higher
frequencies, for example 5.68 GHz, the radiation from the domain
wall indicates the onset of the magnon band in the domains and,
hence, loss of the channeling effect. Although the strong localization
for lower frequencies inside the domain wall is in good agreement
with the experiment, the simulated domain spectra appear at higher
frequencies than in the experiment. In general, magnons shift to
higher frequencies when reducing the domain size, which therefore
allows the guiding of magnons inside the wall, even for higher
frequencies and smaller wavelengths.
In addition to the spatial and spectral characteristics, the
micromagnetic simulations also shed light on the dispersion
relation. The wavelength for a given frequency—illustrated by the
green bars in Fig. 9.12c—can be determined by a Fourier analysis
of the dynamic magnetization along the domain wall. Figure 9.12d
shows the resulting positive dispersion that enables the transport
of information via magnons propagating within the domain wall.
Even though the magnons are confined transverse to the wall on a
length scale given by the domain wall width, the dispersion is mainly
dominated by dipolar energy. For the first three modes shown in
Fig. 9.12c, the dynamic part of the dipolar energy originating from
the magnons is by a factor of three to five larger than the dynamic
286 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

exchange energy. The observation of well-defined wavevectors

along the propagation path is a crucial precondition for numerous
concepts that rely on the interference of magnons [6, 9, 54–58] and
highlights the potential of domain walls in magnonic circuits for data
processing.
In contrast to the previously mentioned geometrical and,
therefore, rigid designs for confining magnon transport, magnon
nanochannels based on domain walls allow for intriguing flexibility
by actively controlling the magnon propagation path. The domain
walls and, hence, the magnon flow can be manipulated by several
means, including magnetic fields, charge or spin currents. Such
manipulations open a new perspective for the control of magnon
transport in two-dimensional nanostructures and towards the
realization of reconfigurable magnonic circuits.
The position of the domain wall was controlled via external
magnetic fields applied along the long axis of the waveguide.
Depending on the polarity of the field, the growth of either the left or
the right domain was favored, resulting in a shift of the domain wall.
Figure 9.13 shows µBLS scans across the width of the waveguide for
magnetic fields of −0.15, −0.05, 0.05, and 0.23 mT. The measurements
show that the detected magnons are shifted, together with the
domain wall, by the applied field. The overall left–right asymmetry
is attributed to the initial displacement of the domain wall, even in
the absence of external fields.
In fact, the magnon propagation path can be moved over a
distance of 2 µm within a field range of only ΔH = 0.38 mT. The inset
in Fig. 9.13 illustrates this displacement as a function of field with a
proportionality constant of 5.57 µm per mT. These data establish a
novel mechanism to control magnon transport in two dimensions.
Moreover, they pave the way for reconfigurable but nonvolatile
magnonic nanocircuitry. In future scenarios, artificial pinning
centers—for instance induced by ion implantation [59, 60]—might
be used to enable switching between stable remanence states, with
different domain-wall configurations acting as nanochannels to
guide magnons in logic devices. Furthermore, multiple domain walls
with a separation of a few tens of nanometers can form in materials
with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy [61–64], which allows for
an even higher integration density of these magnonic nanochannels.
 Channeling Magnons in Magnetic Domain Walls 287

Figure 9.13 Magnon intensities measured across the waveguide for different
external magnetic fields applied parallel to the long axis of the magnon
waveguide for 0.52 GHz. The measurements show that the domain wall
can be easily shifted with small applied fields over micrometer distances in
both directions, therefore allowing for fine control of the magnon channel
position. Inset: displacement of the magnon propagation path as a function
of applied magnetic field, yielding a proportionality constant of 5.57 µm per
mT. Image adapted from Wagner et al. [50].

In this section, we discussed experimental and numerical results

on the channeling of magnons in nanometer-wide magnetic domain
walls with a width of about 40 nm. Micromagnetic simulations
allowed for further analysis of the propagation characteristics.
Magnons propagating inside domain walls exhibit a well-defined
wavevector along their propagation path, enabling data transport
and processing using wave properties. Finally, we have demonstrated
a major advantage of domain-wall-based magnonic waveguides:
manipulating the domain configurations with tiny fields below 1
mT allows shifting the propagation path over a distance of several
micrometers. These observations pave the way for the realization
of reconfigurable, nonvolatile magnonic circuitry by switching
between different remanence states and, thus, for the realization
of energy-efficient and programmable magnon logic devices on the
nanoscale.
288 Steering Magnons by Noncollinear Spin Textures

9.5 Conclusions and Outlook

In this chapter, we discussed methods for steering magnons laterally
in two-dimensional structures. Both presented concepts—active
rotation of the magnetization by local, current-induced magnetic
fields and channeling magnon flow inside magnetic domain walls—
are based on the anisotropy of the magnon dispersion relation and
the magnons’ sensitivity to effective magnetic fields.
We are excited about the future opportunities for magnon
transport arising from novel material compositions and multilayer
geometries just being discovered. The experimental evidence of
asymmetric exchange interaction opened new perspectives: Due
to the chiral nature of magnons the dispersion relation in samples
with interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction (iDMI) is not
only anisotropic but it is also nonreciprocal. Magnons with the
same frequency have different wavelengths upon inversion of the
propagation direction, i.e., reversal of the magnon wavevector [65,
66]. It has been demonstrated in micromagnetic simulations that
domain walls in such systems allow for nonreciprocal and even
narrower magnon channels operating at even higher frequencies
[61, 62] and that these domain walls can be programmed in
microstructures by electric currents. In a recent work it was shown
[63] that one can combine the magnon switch based on a Y junction
and the channeling inside domain walls in an innovative way, where
the domain wall path acting as a magnon guide is permanently
switched by a short electric current pulse.
Furthermore, nonreciprocal effects modifying the magnon
dispersion relation are not limited to material compositions with
iDMI, but can also be observed in antiferromagnetically coupled
multilayers [67] or on curved surfaces [68].
Combining different classes of materials and making use of their
richness in topological spin textures sheds new light on magnonics.
Spin textures such as skyrmions are on the real nanoscale and
nonvolatile but still can be manipulated by electric currents or
magnetic fields. The marriage of both topological spin textures and
magnonics, as for example the magnon Hall effect [69], could link
both high-frequency information carriers and long-time information
storage in one unified, nanoscale framework.
 References 289

Acknowledgments
The samples studied in the original publications were prepared at
the Center for Nanoscale Materials (CNM) and the Materials Science
Division (MSD) at the Argonne National Laboratory as well as at the
Nanofabrication Facilities (NanoFaRo) at the Institute for Ion Beam
Physics and Materials Research at the Helmholtz-Center Dresden-
Rossendorf (HZDR). Without these facilities and the commitment
of the people behind them we would not be able to conduct our
experimental research. Therefore, special thanks go to L. E. Ocola
and R. Divan (CNM), J. E. Pearson (MSD), and T. Schönherr, C. Neisser,
B. Scheumann, and A. Erbe (HZDR). Furthermore, we are grateful to
A. Henschke and T. Hula for their support in designing, building, and
maintaining the experimental setups.
The work discussed in this chapter was inspired by ideas,
contributions, and discussions from F. Y. Fradin, S. D. Bader, A.
Hoffmann, B. Hillebrands, T. Sebastian, J. Lindner, and J. Fassbender.
K.S. acknowledges funding from the Helmholtz
Postdoc Programme. Financial support by the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft is gratefully acknowledged within
programme SCHU2922/1-1.

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Chapter 10

Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler

Shift

Matthieu Bailleula and Jean-Yves Chauleaub,

aInstitut
de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg,
UMR7504 CNRS-Université de Strasbourg, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
bLigne SEXTANTS, Synchrotron SOLEIL, L’orme des Merisiers Saint-Aubin,

F-91192 Gif-sur-Yvette, France

[email protected]

When subjected to an electric current, the electrons of a metal

ferromagnet are put in motion, which translates into a Doppler
shift for the spin waves. Predicted a long time ago, this phenomenon
has recently been measured by several groups in different
experimental situations. In this chapter, we will discuss the
interpretation of this effect in terms of adiabatic spin transfer
torque and its measurement using both inductive (frequency
or time domain) and magneto-optical techniques. We will also
discuss how the spin wave Doppler shift can be used to extract
relevant information on spin-polarized electrical transport and
present a related effect, namely the current-induced modification

Formerly at Department of Physics, Regensburg University, 93053 Regensburg,

Germany.

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
296 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

of spin wave attenuation associated with non-adiabatic spin

transfer torque.

10.1 Introduction
Since the discovery of spin transfer torque (STT) in the late
1990s, a number of current-induced effects have been explored
experimentally, interpreted theoretically, and, for some of them,
even put in application. Let us mention current-induced domain
wall motion in nanostrips and current-induced magnetic switching
or current-induced magnetic oscillations in magnetoresistive
nanopillars or nanocontacts. All these effects involve the flow of
spin-polarized electrons (the so-called spin current) in single-
or multilayer ferromagnets having a non-uniform magnetic
configuration. A spin wave, whose instantaneous magnetization
distribution provides such a non-uniform magnetic configuration,
is also subjected to spin transfer. In this case, the STT translates
into a simple shift of the spin wave frequency. This shift can be
identified as a Doppler effect. Indeed, everything happens as if the
whole spin system were drifting at an effective velocity u = Q/Ms,
where Q is the spin current expressed in Bohr magneton per unit
time and MS is the saturation magnetization. This so-called current-
induced spin wave Doppler shift (CISWDS) had been predicted
theoretically in 1966. It has been observed experimentally in
2008. Since that time, the CISWDS has proven to be a relevant
tool for measuring spin-polarized current in different materials
and for different experimental conditions. In 2012, another effect,
namely the current-induced modification of spin wave relaxation,
has been observed that is related to a non-adiabatic correction
of the standard (adiabatic) STT.
In this chapter, we review the work done on current-induced
modification of spin wave dynamics. For this purpose, we first
discuss the general idea of a Doppler effect for spin waves and
derive the expression of the frequency shift from the standard
equations of the STT (Section 10.2). Then, we present the three
experimental approaches that have been used to observe the
effect (Section 10.3) and discuss how such measurements can be
used to extract spin-dependent resistivities, which are essential
ingredients in the description of spin-polarized diffusive electrical
 A Doppler Shift for Spin Waves 297

transport (Section 10.4). Then, we describe the other effects that

accompany the CISWDS, namely the frequency shifts induced
by magnetic asymmetries and by the Oersted field generated by
the current (Section 10.4) and the current-induced modification
of spin wave relaxation, which allows one to evaluate the non-
adiabatic correction to the STT (Section 10.5). Finally we
conclude and give general perspectives (Section 10.6).

10.2 A Doppler Shift for Spin Waves

10.2.1 Spin Waves in a Drifting Electron Population

A typical example of the Doppler effect is the firefighter siren,
which sounds higher pitched when the vehicle is moving toward the
listener than when it is moving away. A similar effect arises when
both source and observer are immobile and the medium supporting
the propagation of waves is moving. This situation is illustrated in
the second panel of Fig. 10.1a, which shows water surface waves
generated by the oscillation of a wave maker: in the presence
of a global water current, the wavelength is longer for water
waves moving downstream than for waves moving upstream [1].
The same situation is expected to occur for a metal ferromagnet
subjected to an electric current. Indeed, the conduction electrons
that govern the electrical transport also participate in the
magnetism of the material. As a consequence, putting these
electrons in motion with the help of an external electrical field
will induce some linear momentum in the spin system, which will
affect the waves carried by it, namely spin waves. In a first
approximation, the kinematics of the spin system can be modeled
as a global drift with velocity vd. Let us now consider a localized
and immobile source inducing a precession of the magnetization;
this will generate propagating spin waves whose wavelength
will be different for upstream and downstream propagations
(bottom panel of Fig. 10.1a). For illustration purposes, the
figure shows a situation in which the frequency is fixed and the
wavelength adapts to the spin (or water) flow. The same effect
can be described in terms of a frequency shift for spin waves
generated at a given wave vector: the magnetization precession in
the frame R’ moving with the spins is written as M(x¢, t) = Meq +
298 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

m0 exp[i(wt – k x)], where Meq is the equilibrium magnetization,

m0 is the complex spin wave amplitude, k is the wave vector,
w = w0(k) is the angular frequency, and w0(k) is the spin wave
dispersion relation governed by the magnetic interactions acting
on the spin system. Then, the magnetization evolution in the
rest frame R is obtained from the Galilean transform x = x + vdt,
which yields M(x, t) = Meq + m0 exp[i(wt – kx + kvdt)], thus leading
to a Doppler-shifted angular frequency w = w + kvd.

Figure 10.1 (a) Sketches illustrating the Doppler effect for water waves
and spin waves in a drifting medium. (Top) Water surface waves
generated by the oscillation of a wake maker. (Middle) Same in the
presence of a water current. (Bottom) Spin waves generated locally
in a magnetic medium subjected to a global drift. (b) Calculated spin
wave dispersion in the absence of drift (full line) and for large drift
velocities (dashed lines). The long dashed line shows a hypothetical
situation in which the electric current is strong enough to induce
instability of the uniform ground state. After McMichael and Stiles [1]
and Fernandez-Rossier et al. [4].

This idea of a Doppler effect for spin waves was first

introduced by Lederer and Mills as a possible test of the nature
of ferromagnetism in 3D transition metals (itinerant vs. localized)
[2]. It was argued that the observation of a sizeable current-
induced Doppler shift for spin waves would be a strong indication
that the carriers of magnetism are actually band electrons,
because the effect of an electric field on purely localized spins
was calculated to be much smaller. At that time, the available
macroscopic-scale experimental techniques did not allow to
explore this prediction. Indeed, drift velocities in bulk metal do
not exceed a few centimeters per second, which, for a wavelength
 A Doppler Shift for Spin Waves 299

of a few millimeters, translates into a frequency shift of a few

tens of hertz, which is much smaller than the typical spin wave
frequencies, of the order of a few gigahertz. About 30 years later,
with the development of nanofabrication and high-frequency
measurement techniques, it became possible to inject much larger
current densities in nanostructures and also to measure spin
waves with a much shorter wavelength. Interestingly, the effect
was also revisited theoretically in a different context: Bazaliy et
al. derived the CISWDS within the general framework for spin
transfer [3] and Fernandez-Rossier et al. [4] obtained it from
different theoretical descriptions of itinerant magnetism, including
the spin-polarized Hubbard model [4]. In the following section,
we will describe explicitly the derivation of the effect from the
basic equation of motion of the magnetization, including the STT.

10.2.2 Influence of Spin Transfer Torque on Spin Wave

Dynamics
In the micromagnetic framework, the action of a spin-polarized
electric current on the local magnetization can be modeled by
augmenting the Landau–Lifshitz–Gilbert (LLG) equation with two
STT terms as follows:

dM M dM M
= – 0 gM × Heff + a × –(u .  )M + b [(u .  )M)],
dt Ms dt Ms
(10.1)

with M(r, t) being the local magnetization, Heff the effective

magnetic field, a the Gilbert damping parameter, and u the spin
drift velocity. This latter quantity, which has the dimension of
velocity, is proportional to the spin-polarized current density in
the following way:

– g B JP
u= , (10.2)
2 Ms | e |

with J being the electrical current density, P its spin polarization,

Ms the saturation magnetization, and | e | the absolute value of the
electron electrical charge. As electrons responsible for electrical
conduction flow through a non-uniform magnetic distribution,
300 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

their spins tend to align with the local magnetization direction

because of s-d exchange interaction. This process of realignment
results in a torque generated onto the local magnetization by
virtue of the principle of conservation of angular momentum.
In the approximation where magnetic moment of the conduction
electron fully aligns with the local magnetization direction, this
torque is given exactly by the first STT term (third term on the
right-hand-side of Eq. 10.1), commonly named adiabatic STT [3].
In continuous magnetic distributions, the STT will take place
when a spin-polarized current crosses regions with a finite
gradient of magnetization (Fig. 10.2a). Such a situation occurs
in current-induced domain wall motion experiments (see, for
example, Ref. [5] and references wherein). However, it has been
shown that the current density threshold calculated for putting a
domain wall in motion by the adiabatic STT is at least 1 order of
magnitude higher than the one reported in these experimental
observations [6]. A second term accounting for deviations to
the adiabatic approximation and weighted by the b parameter
was, therefore, needed [6, 7]. This second STT term (fourth term
on the right-hand-side of Eq. 10.1) is named non-adiabatic STT.
Note that this torque is perpendicular to both the local
magnetization and the adiabatic STT, [6]. The possible origins
of the non-adiabatic STT will be discussed later in this chapter.

Figure 10.2 Schematic representation of the adiabatic spin transfer torque

(a) and its consequences on spin wave characteristics (b, c). Reproduced
from Vlaminck [8].
 Experimental Observations 301

Spin waves are dynamical non-uniform magnetization textures

which have, in the simplest description, a constant gradient
characterized by the complex wave vector k. Subjected to a
spin-polarized flow of electrons, they are therefore expected to
be affected by the STT (Fig. 10.2b) [8]. Considering spin waves as
plane waves with small deviations m(r, t) from the equilibrium
magnetization (Meq), that is, m(r, t) = m0 exp[i(wt – k . r)] and,
the linearized LLG becomes

iw  bu . k 
i( w – u . k )m = – 0 g(m × Heq + Meq × h )+ a – M × m ,
MS  w  eq
  
(10.3)

where Heq and h are the equilibrium and dynamic parts of the
effective field. Interestingly, one can note that the here-above
equation is similar to the spin wave equation in the absence of
the STT if one proceeds to the following substitutions [8, 9]:

wres  wres + u . k(adiabatic STT), (10.4)

bu . k
a  a– (non-adiabatic STT). (10.5)
w

This means that while the adiabatic STT leads to a frequency

shift of the spin wave mode, the non-adiabatic STT affects the
dissipative part and modifies the apparent damping coefficient
(Fig. 10.2b,c). Both changes are proportional to u, which reflects
the essence of the STT. Current-induced modifications of spin
wave dynamics are therefore a direct approach to probe the STT.
Note that the spin drift velocity u plays the role of the global
drift velocity vd introduced in Section 10.2.1.

10.3 Experimental Observations

10.3.1 Frequency Domain Inductive Measurements
A convenient method for measuring spin wave propagation with
a good frequency resolution consists in using a pair of narrow
conducting lines (the so-called spin wave antennas) inductively
302 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

coupled to the ferromagnetic film and to measure the microwave

transmission between these two antennas. This technique,
known as propagating spin wave spectroscopy (PSWS), was
introduced in the late 1960s at the millimeter scale to measure
spin wave propagation in yttrium-iron-garnet (YIG) slabs [10]
in which spin waves could propagate over such long distances.
In the early 2000s, this technique was miniaturized to the
micrometer scale to adapt to the much shorter attenuation
length of metal ferromagnets [11]. Measuring the CISWDS, it
has been necessary to miniaturize the technique further to the
submicrometer scale [9, 12] so as to increase the wave vector
to a few radians per micrometer (see the device pictures in
Fig. 10.3a,b and the corresponding spatial Fourier transform in
Fig. 10.3c).

Figure 10.3 Inductive frequency domain measurement of the current-

induced spin wave Doppler shift. (a) Optical micrograph of a device
showing the ferromagnetic strip, DC pads, coplanar waveguide ports,
and two antennas. (b) Scanning electron microscope image showing
the central part of the strip and the two antennas. (c) Fourier transform
of the spatial distribution of the microwave current flowing in one
antenna. (d) Principle of the propagating spin wave spectroscopy
measurement. (e) Propagating spin wave waveforms measured for a
DC current of +6 mA. The red and blue curves correspond to k > 0 and
k < 0, respectively. (f) Same for a current of –6 mA. After Vlaminck and
Bailleul [9].

The principle of the technique is illustrated in Fig. 10.3d.

Each antenna consists of a set of conducting tracks connected
such that the injected microwave current alternates in direction
 Experimental Observations 303

between adjacent tracks. The microwave current generates a

microwave field around each track, which, in turn, generates
a strongly non-uniform microwave magnetic field. This field
forces the precession of the magnetization in the ferromagnetic
film located underneath, thus exciting spin waves with a
wavelength equal to the pitch of the antenna. The excited spin
wave propagates in the ferromagnetic film and reaches a second
antenna located at a distance D on which it generates a microwave
voltage. The response functions for such measurements are
the mutual inductance ΔLij, which is the ratio of the time-varying
magnetic flux at the detection antenna i to the microwave
current injected in the excitation antenna j (i, j = 1, 2). These mutual
inductances are conveniently extracted from the S parameters
measured by connecting the two ports of a microwave vector
network analyzer to the antennas. Due to the phase delay
accumulated by the wave during its propagation between the
two antennas, the measured mutual inductances are oscillating
signals with a period equal to the inverse of the spin wave group
delay time. For a typical group velocity of about 1 km/s and
a distance between antennas of a few micrometers, this time
amounts to a few nanoseconds, resulting in an oscillation with a
period of a few hundreds of megahertz [12].
To measure the CISWDS, a direct electric current is injected
along the ferromagnetic metal strip during the microwave
measurements, and the mutual inductances DL21 and DL12
are measured as a function of the direct current (DC) [9].
DL21 corresponds to a wave propagating from antenna 1 to antenna
2, that is, k > 0, and DL12 corresponds to a wave propagating
from antenna 2 to antenna 1, that is, k < 0. Figure 10.3e,f shows
the waveforms measured for a current of +6 mA and –6 mA,
respectively. One recognizes clearly a frequency shift of about
18 MHz between the two waveforms, which, as expected for
a Doppler effect, changes sign upon reversing the current. This
frequency shift was measured as a function of the current, wave
vector, external field, and ferromagnetic strip width to make
sure it follows the predicted form of Eqs. 10.2 and 10.5. In
this first observation, a degree of spin polarization of the electric
current of about 0.5 was extracted. We will discuss in detail the
meaning of this value in Section 10.4.
304 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

Let us mention possible artifacts likely to affect this

measurement (see supplementary materials of Ref. [9]). Because
a relatively large current is applied in DC mode, a sizeable Joule
heating of several tens of Kelvin is observed. This effect can
be ruled out by comparing measurements taken for the same
magnitude of the current, that is, at the same temperature. The
electric current also generates a sizeable Oersted field (about
1 mT on each film surface), which might perturb the spin
dynamics. However, for the measurement mode used here, this
does not influence the extracted frequency shift. Indeed, the
measurement is performed in the so-called magnetostatic
forward-volume wave configuration (equilibrium magnetization
saturated out of the film plane by a large external magnetic field
H0). This configuration is known to be reciprocal for spin wave
propagation (i.e., the –k spin wave has the same amplitude and
mode profile as the +k one), so the Oersted field affects in the
same way two counterpropagating spin waves, and the frequency
shift between +k and –k is expected to be solely due to the
Doppler effect. This simplification cannot be invoked for the
so-called magnetostatic surface wave (MSSW) configuration
(equilibrium magnetization in the film plane, perpendicular
to the spin wave vector), which is intrinsically non-reciprocal.
This configuration, used in subsequent observations of the
CISWDS [13–18], mostly because it is easier to implement,
requires therefore specific data analysis procedures, which will be
explained in Section 10.6.
Before discussing the other techniques used, let us review
briefly the pros and cons of PSWS. Because it works intrinsically
in the frequency domain, this technique has the advantage of
giving directly access to the frequency shift. Another strong point
is the relatively good definition of the wave vector allowed by
the meander design of the antennas. Main disadvantages are the
difficulties of fabricating such meanders with track widths and
interspacings of the order of 100 nm and the need for a careful
microwave calibration before network analyzer measurements.

10.3.2 Time Domain Inductive Measurements

Inductive time domain PSWS [19] has proven to be an interesting
alternative approach [20]. A burst of magnetic field that is created
 Experimental Observations 305

by a first asymmetric coplanar stripe (Fig. 10.4) triggers a several

nanosecond-wide spin wave pulse in a large permalloy element
(typically 120 × 120 µm² and 35 nm thick). After propagating
through the permalloy layer, the spin wave pulse induces an
inductive signal in a second asymmetric coplanar stripe (Fig. 10.4b),
which is detected with time resolution.

Figure 10.4 (a) Experimental configuration for time domain inductive

investigation of the current-induced spin wave Doppler effect. (b) Induced
inductive signals detected after spin wave propagation for different gaps
(x) between the two antennae. (c) Dependence of the shift in group
velocity on the applied current density. (d) Extracted values of the degree
of spin polarization for different samples with different antenna gaps (x).
Adapted from Sekiguchi et al. [20].

In this approach, spin waves are characterized by wave

packets and the main experimental observables are the time
delay and the amplitude of the spin wave packet, as well as their
current-induced changes. First of all, by assessing the delay and
the amplitude as a function of the distance between the antennae,
the spin wave group velocity (here Vg = 13.1 km/s) and the decay
length (here l = 15 µm) can be extracted. A key parameter of
magnetization dynamics, namely the damping parameter (a), can
be deduced from the decay length.
Then, in the presence of an electric current, the spin wave group
velocity is augmented by the spin drift velocity:

DVG = u. (10.6)
306 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

For nanosecond current density pulses of 0.8 × 1011 A/m²

(equivalent to a current intensity of 330 mA for the described
geometry), a change of group velocity of about 4 m/s could
be measured. As expected, this current-induced shift in group
velocity varies linearly with the amplitude of the applied electric
current (Fig. 10.4c). By assessing the slope of this variation, the
degree of spin polarization P = 0.6 could be extracted. This analysis
has been performed for samples with different antenna gaps
and shows fairly robust reproducibility (Fig. 10.4d).

10.3.3 Magneto-Optical Measurements

Besides inductive techniques, another experimental approach can
be used to probe current-induced spin wave dynamics, namely
time-resolved magneto-optical Kerr microscopy (TR-MOKE). As
denominated, the heart of this approach is the magneto-optical
Kerr effect, which manifests itself as a modification of light
polarization characteristics (direction and ellipticity) after being
reflected upon a magnetic layer. Although all components of
magnetic distributions can, in principle, be probed [21]; for current-
induced spin wave dynamics investigations, solely the out-of-plane
component is accessed in a so-called polar MOKE configuration.
Characteristic timescales of magnetization dynamics in
ferromagnetic systems are typically in the range of hundreds of
picoseconds. Therefore, the use of TR-MOKE to probe magnetization
dynamics has been made possible, thanks to the emergence of
mode-locked lasers with subpicosecond light pulse durations.
The system used to investigate spin wave dynamics is an 80 MHz
repetition rate mode-locked Ti-sapphire laser, which provides
150–200 fs laser pulses. The access to magnetization dynamics
with TR-MOKE is based on an optical stroboscopic pump-probe
technique, which provide a snapshot of the dynamical out-of-plane
component of the magnetic configuration at a given excitation
time (Fig. 10.5). The potential of TR-MOKE to investigate
magnetization dynamics processes has been demonstrated by the
pioneer work of Hiebert et al. [22], where the temporal evolution
of magnetic distributions in micron-size circular shaped
permalloy structures is assessed in the time domain after being
subjected to short magnetic field pulses. In addition, it was
demonstrated that by focusing the laser pulse, local magnetic
 Experimental Observations 307

resonance measurements can be performed with a spatial

resolution limited by the diffraction limit of far-field visible optics,
that is, a few hundreds of nanometers. Consequently, by measuring
locally magnetization dynamics as a function of the distance to
a localized excitation, propagating spin wave dynamics can be
accessed and even imaged, as demonstrated in nonpatterned
permalloy thin layers [23, 24]. TR-MOKE has been used in a
large variety of studies of magnetization dynamics, including
investigations related to magnonics.

Figure 10.5 Principle of TR-MOKE as used for spin wave Doppler

investigations. Adapted from Bauer et al. [41]. (Upper left inset)
Schematic representation of the synchronization of short light pulses with
out-of-plane oscillations of the magnetic component. (Upper right inset)
Typical experimental spin wave line scan.

Regarding current-induced modifications of spin wave

dynamics, an 855 nm wide and 15 nm thick permalloy stripe is
continuously excited at a fixed frequency by a continuous wave
(CW) microwave magnetic field delivered by a unique gold
antenna (Fig. 10.5) similar to the ones described for the inductive
techniques (see Section 10.3.1). A 400 nm wavelength probing
light pulse, phase-locked on the CW microwave excitation
(Fig. 10.5), is focused on the sample using an objective lens
allowing a spatial resolution of about 300 nm. Note that an
additional in-plane static magnetic field is applied and kept
constant to adjust the spin wave resonance conditions. By
308 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

scanning the laser spot over the permalloy stripe, an image of the
excited spin wave mode is thus acquired (Figs. 10.5 and 10.6a–c).
Alternatively, the position of the laser spot can be kept at a
given position, while the magnitude of the static magnetic field
is swept across the different resonance conditions, allowing
therefore to probe locally spin wave resonance spectra (not
shown).

Figure 10.6 Characterization of spin wave modes under applied

electric current: Idc = 1.2 mA. (a–c) Set of spin wave mode images on
the left side of the antenna and for different magnitudes of the applied
field. The region of the antenna is shaded in red. (d) Real part of the
wave vector extracted from fits to the line scans as a function of H.
Measurements have been performed at different excitation frequencies:
9.92 GHz (red squares), 10.00 GHz (black circles), and 10.08 GHz (blue
triangles). Solid lines are the associated linear fits. (e) Decay length as
a function of H, measured at 10 GHz. (f) Deduced group velocity as a
function of H. Note that the error bars are smaller than the dot size
and are therefore not shown in the graphs. (g) Histograms of the
current-induced shift Δk of the real part of the complex wave vector
Re(k) = 5.33 µm–1 measured on the left (green) and right (orange) sides
of the antenna at a fixed applied field (H = –105 mT). Adapted from
Chauleau et al. [25].

The analysis of a spin wave line scan (see, for example, inset
of Fig. 10.5) leads to a direct access to its spatial characteristics:
the real and imaginary parts of the k-vector. A full characterization
of spin wave modes is performed, including spin wave mode
imaging, which enables the evaluation of important additional
quantities such as group velocity (Fig. 10.6f). Similarly to
the inductive studies, the permalloy stripe is subjected to an
electric current (±1.2 mA, equivalent to ±0.935 × 1011 A/m²). A
TR-MOKE study will thereby aim at addressing the
current-induced changes in the real and imaginary parts of the
 Parametrizing the Two-Current Model 309

k-vector [25]. Note that the case of the real part of the k-vector
is the exact realization of McMichael and Stiles’s picture of
the spin wave Doppler effect (see Fig. 10.1a) [1]. The current-
induced shift in the resonant magnetic field was also measured;
however, unlike PSWS, TR-MOKE is not suitable to measure
frequency shifts accurately. Indeed, because of the stroboscopic
approach, the excitation frequency has to be a multiple of the
laser repetition rate, that is, 80 MHz. The frequency resolution
is therefore limited to this value. The current-induced shift of the
real part of the spin wave vector can be related to the spin
drift velocity (u) as follows:

VG  Dk 
u= Re , (10.7)
2  k 

where VG is the group velocity of the considered spin wave

mode. After ruling out the possible additional effects discussed
in Section 10.6 by considering both sides of the antenna (i.e., ±k)
and of course both current polarities (±I), the degree of spin
polarization could be estimated as P = 0.65 ± 0.03.

10.4 Parametrizing the Two-Current Model

As can be seen from Eqs. 10.2 and 10.5, CISWDS measurements
give access directly to the degree of spin polarization of the
electric current P once the spin wave vector k, saturation
magnetization Ms, and charge current density J are known.
This degree of spin polarization plays an essential role in many
spintronics phenomena, including all manifestations of the
adiabatic STT, but also some magnetoresistive effects. Up to
now, this quantity could only be measured in quite indirect
ways, either by modeling the deviations from Matthiessen’s rule
(DMRs), observed when measuring the electrical resistivity of
binary or ternary ferromagnetic alloys [26], or by following the
ferromagnetic film thickness dependence of the CPP-GMR [27]
(giant magnetoresistance in the current-perpendicular-to-the-
plane configuration). As explained in this section, CISWDS
measurements give access to P with good precision in different
materials and for different experimental conditions, and these
310 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

measurements provide an unprecedented realistic description

of spin-polarized transport in ferromagnetic metal films.

10.4.1 Definitions of the Degree of Spin Polarization

Before discussing the value of this degree of spin polarization, let
us first discuss its meaning. Indeed, there are several different
definitions of spin polarization, each of them being related to
a specific context and/or measurement technique. Let us start
with the expression of the electrical conductivity s = e2 < Nv2 > Fτ
derived from Boltzmann theory. Here, N is the electron density
of states (DOS), v is the electron velocity, <–>F indicates an
average over the Fermi surface, and τ is the electron linear-
momentum relaxation time. In the two-current model, the electrical
transport is assumed to proceed via two independent channels,
one for majority spins and one for minority spins. Accounting
for the spin dependence of the electron properties, the degree
of spin polarization of the electric current is therefore:

N(E F )v 2 t – N(E F )v 2  t

P= . (10.8)
N(E F )v 2 t + N(E F )v 2 t

This expression of spin polarization is relevant for a purely

diffusive regime of electrical transport in which the Boltzmann
approach holds. This is the case for our Doppler measurements
in which the spin wavelength is much larger than all
characteristic lengths of electron transport, but also for resistivity
measurements in bulk alloys [26], for some measurements of
CPP-GMR [27] and for some ab initio calculations of spin-
polarized transport [28, 29].
In the case of tunnel or ballistic regimes of transport, the
expression of the electric current is different, and so is that of
its degree of spin polarization. For tunnel transport through
amorphous barriers or photoemission measurements, one
usually uses the spin polarization of the DOS: PN = (N – N)/
(N ­ + N). For point contact Andreev reflection measurements in
the clean limit, one uses the spin polarization of the ballistic
current: PNv = (<Nv>­ – <Nv>–)/(<Nv> ­+ <Nv>–) [30]. Although
all these expressions involve the DOS at the Fermi level N, the two
other parameters v and t also play a role and, if they are strongly
 Parametrizing the Two-Current Model 311

spin dependent, can lead to large discrepancies between the

different definitions of the degree of spin polarization.

10.4.2 Spin-Dependent Electron Scattering

Once we have identified the context, let us review the different
microscopic mechanisms that determine the spin-dependent
conductivity in the diffusive regime. Figure 10.7c shows a resistor
model of the main sources of electron scattering in a ferromagnetic
metal film:
• Within the majority and the minority spin channels,
electrons undergo spin-conserving momentum scattering
due to impurities (random alloy disorder), phonons, grain
boundaries (if the film is polycrystalline), and also film
surfaces. In the resistor model of Fig. 10.7c, it is assumed
that Matthiessen’s rule applies within each channel, that is,
the spin-up and spin-down resistivities corresponding to
the different sources of scattering add up to form ρ and ρ,
respectively.
• Electrons can also undergo spin-flip scattering due to
thermal magnons or due to processes involving the
spin-orbit interaction. The corresponding spin-flip resistivity
ρ tends to increase the total resistivity and to depolarize
the current:

r  r + r( r  + r) (10.9)

r=
r  + r + 4
( r  – r)
P= .
r  + r + 4 r

Measuring the degree of spin polarization of the current

P and the total resistivity ρ simultaneously, one obtains two
parameters, which is not enough to determine all spin-dependent
resistivities in the model of Fig. 10.7c. However, the relative
magnitudes of these contributions can be tuned by varying the
experimental parameters, including the temperature, the film
thickness, and the film composition. Let us now review the
different measurements that have been carried out on permalloy
(Py = Ni80Fe20), the prototypical material of nanomagnetism.
312 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

Figure 10.7 Current-induced spin wave Doppler shift measurements of

the degree of spin polarization of the electric current in permalloy films.
(a) Temperature dependence for a film thickness of 20 nm.
(b) Film thickness dependence at room temperature. (c) Two-current
resistor model of electrical transport used to interpret these results.
(d) Comparison of these experimental results (crosses and triangles) to
an ab initio calculation accounting only for phonons (open circles) and
phonons plus thermal magnons (filled circles). After Zhu et al. [13],
Haidar and Bailleul [16], and Liu et al. [32].

10.4.3 Spin-Polarized Transport in Permalloy Films

Figure 10.7a shows the temperature dependence of the degree
of spin polarization extracted from spin wave Doppler shift
measurements on a 20-nm-thick permalloy strip by Zhu et al. [13].
One recognizes a clear decrease of the degree of spin polarization
 Parametrizing the Two-Current Model 313

as the temperature increases, from 0.75 at 80 K to 0.58 at 340 K.

This behavior is understood as follows: At low temperature, the
spin polarization is determined to a large extent by the random
alloy disorder (Fe atoms in the Ni host), and this contribution is
known to be strongly spin polarized (P = 0.8 to 0.95 according to
resistivity measurements in dilute Ni-based ternary alloys [26]
and ab initio calculations [31]). Interestingly, the low temperature
value extracted from spin wave Doppler measurements is also in
good agreement with the ones extracted from CPP-GMR
experiments [27]. When the temperature increases, thermal
excitations, that is, phonons and magnons, start to play a role,
both of them tending to reduce the spin polarization. Indeed, the
(mostly spin-conserving) electron-phonon scattering is expected to
be less strongly spin polarized (P ≈ 0.6 in Ni from measurements
in dilute alloys [26]). Moreover, the electron-magnon spin-flip
scattering, which contributes through the r term in Eq. 10.9 is
expected to reduce P significantly [26].
Figure 10.7b shows the film thickness dependence of the
degree of spin polarization extracted from spin wave Doppler
shift measurements on permalloy strips at room temperature by
Haidar et al. [16]. In this case, the degree of spin polarization
decreases as the film thickness decreases, from 0.63 at 20 nm
to 0.42 at 6 nm. This decrease is attributed to a large extent to
diffuse electron scattering by the surfaces, whose relative
weight increases as the film thickness decreases. Because of the
relatively long mean free path of majority electrons, this effect
is particularly strong for the majority channel. In addition, two
other thickness-dependent effects are included in the model of
Fig. 10.7c: a gradual change of stoichiometry of the film as a
function of the film thickness, due to an unwanted selective
oxidation at the top Py/Al2O3 interface, and a surface spin-flip
scattering that might result from the spin-orbit interaction.
The results of Fig. 10.7a,b have been used as an
experimental reference in a recent ab inito study of spin-polarized
transport at finite temperature by Liu et al. (Fig. 10.7d) [32].
The good agreement between theory and experiment indicates
the consistency of this picture of spin-polarized diffusive
electrical transport.
314 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

10.4.4 Spin-Polarized Transport in Other Materials

In addition to these studies on pure permalloy films, three
other systems have been explored by the Doppler shift method,
in which both smaller and larger values of the degree of spin
polarization were extracted. In (Ni80Fe20)1–xGdx, Thomas et al.
observed a significant depolarization of the current [15] with
P decreasing from 0.71 at x = 0% to 0.30 at x = 5.5% (see
Fig. 10.8a). This indicates that the electron scattering on Gd
impurities significantly depolarizes the current, which might be
associated with negatively polarized spin-conserving electron
scattering and/or to spin-flip scattering. On the other hand, in
(CoFe)1–xGex, Zhu et al. measured a large spin polarization [14]
ranging from 0.84 at x = 0% to 0.95 at x = 35% (see Fig. 10.8b),
which has been attributed to the emergence of a pseudo gap
in the minority spin band in this pseudo Heusler compound.
Note finally the value of about 0.3 reported recently for Co0.9Fe0.1
films [18].

Figure 10.8 Degree of spin polarization of the electric current extracted

in (Ni80Fe20)1–xGdx (a) and (CoFe)1–xGex films (b). Measurements are
performed at room temperature in 30-nm-thick strips. After Thomas
et al. [15] and Zhu et al. [14].

10.5 Extraction of the Non-Adiabatic Spin

Transfer Torque Parameter
As mentioned in Section 10.2.2, the so-called non-adiabatic
STT has been introduced in order to overcome the poor matching
 Extraction of the Non-Adiabatic Spin Transfer Torque Parameter 315

between current-induced domain-wall experiments and their

micromagnetic modeling when including solely the adiabatic
STT. In the LLG description, the norm of the magnetization remains
constant, so only the component of the torque perpendicular
to the local magnetization is active. The only possible direction
for a torque in addition to (u .  )M is therefore M × [(u .  )M]
[6]. Thus, an orthogonal basis is formed, and any other terms
should be projected on this basis. Furthermore, the non-adiabatic
STT term is weighted by a parameter b, which reflects the
different microscopic mechanisms involved in the non-
adiabaticity. The first mechanism is the actual deviation from the
adiabatic approximation, that is, a real geometrical mistracking
of the conduction electron magnetic moment with the local
magnetization distribution. The magnitude of this contribution
has been discussed in details by several studies [33, 34]. It should
be dominant only in magnetic distributions showing very large
spatial gradients, that is, a magnetic structure comparable to
a characteristic length L = EF/Eex . kF, with EF and kF being the
Fermi energy and the wave vector, respectively, and Eex the
s-d exchange energy. The geometrical contribution to the non-
adiabatic STT is expressed with a parameter b, which depends on
the magnetic object width (w) as follows: b = 1/w exp(–gw/L),
with g being a sharpness indicator, as defined by the authors
[33]. Note that typically, L is expected to be in the range of a few
nanometers for metallic ferromagnets. The second mechanism,
addressed by the pioneer work of Zhang et al. [7], involves the
spin accumulation generated by an electric current crossing
a non-uniform magnetization distribution. This contribution to b
is linked to the spin-flip scattering time (tsf ) and the s-d exchange
energy interaction (  J) as follows: b = ħ/tsf J. It is interesting
to note that unlike the pure mistracking contribution, this
expression is solely dependent on materials parameters and not
on characteristic sizes of the considered magnetization
distributions. Finally the most advanced theoretical work that
tackles the microscopic origins of b has been proposed by
Garate et al. [35]. In this study, it is pointed out that the
obtained expression for b “can be applied for real materials with
arbitrary band-structures” and can be considered as a correction
to the Gilbert damping where the spin-orbit coupling plays a
major role. This theoretical work opens new routes for material-
316 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

specific predictions in the field of current-induced magnetization

dynamics.
Regarding current-induced modifications of spin wave
dynamics, the non-adiabatic STT contribution appears as a
current-induced change of effective damping (see Section 10.2.2).
Straightforwardly, one can see the attenuation length as being
the main spin wave characteristic that is affected by the non-
adiabatic STT. In other words, to assess the non-adiabatic b
parameter from spin wave dynamics, the current-induced
changes in the imaginary part of the spin wave vector have to
be measured. Indeed, b can be expressed as (supplementary
materials of Ref. [25])

 k Dk  
Im  
 w k   (10.10)
b= + a,
 k  Dk  
Re  
 gu0H k  

where k is the complex spin-wave wavevector, Dk its complex

current-induced changes, w the spin wave frequency, and a
the Gilbert damping parameter. (Note: The * denotes the complex
conjugate).
One consequence of the change of spin wave attenuation
length is the variation of its amplitude at a given location.
This first approach has been addressed by Sekiguchi et al. [20].
Using inductive time domain PSWS, the change of amplitude of a
spin wave packet is measured as a function of the applied
electric current (Fig. 10.9a).
For the considered current densities, amplitude changes
are typically in the range of 0.1%. Similarly to the spin
polarization (Section 10.3.2), b is obtained from the slope of the
current-induced change in amplitude as a function of the
applied current density (Fig. 10.9a). Yet the changes in spin
wave amplitude are actually the sum of several contributions.
Substantial effort has been performed in this work in order to
disentangle these latter contributions and therefore extract the
sole non-adiabatic parameter. In particular, the CISWDS, that
corresponds here to the change in group velocities, leads to a
 Extraction of the Non-Adiabatic Spin Transfer Torque Parameter 317

change in amplitude at a given position. Besides, because the

sample is relatively thick (35 nm) and because the Damon–
Eschbach configuration is used, the effect of the generated Oersted
field substantially affects the evaluation of b. Therefore it was
essential to carry out micromagnetic simulations in order to
extract a b parameter corrected from the spurious Oersted field
contribution. Eventually, for a central wave vector of k = 0.5 µm–1
(wavelength = 12.6 µm), a frequency of w/2p = 3.6 GHz, and a
spin polarization of P = 0.6 (see supplementary materials of
Ref. [20]), the non-adiabatic parameters of four devices with
different antenna gaps have been evaluated, ranging from about
b ≈ 0.02 to b ≈ 0.05, and leading to an average value of
< bmeasured > = 0.033 ± 0.012. This latter average value is reduced
to about breal = 0.02 after modeling correction.

Figure 10.9 (a) Current-induced changes of normalized spin wave

amplitude as a function of the applied current (antenna gap x = 20 µm).
Adapted from Sekiguchi et al. [20]. (b) Histograms of the current-
induced shift Dk of the imaginary part of the complex wave vector
Im(k) = 0.502 µm–1 measured on the left (green) and right (orange)
sides of the antenna at a fixed applied field (µ0H = –105 mT). Adapted
from Chauleau et al. [25].

In a second work, TR-MOKE microscopy was used to directly

and precisely image [25] current-induced changes in the imaginary
part of the wave vector (Fig. 10.9b). Furthermore, one can note
that after some approximations (which lead to less than a
2% error), Eq. 10.10 can be slightly simplified and has the
interesting advantage to present quantities that are all
experimentally accessible on the very same magnetic stripe:
318 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

  Dk  
 Im  
–1   k  Im( k )t 
b – + a, (10.11)
 k   Dk  1 – Re( k )t 
VG Re  Re  
 gì 0H   k  

where VG is the group velocity and t the nanostripe thickness.

Typical changes in the wave vector imaginary part of
Im(Dk) =0.005 µm–1 with 25% uncertainty are measured (error
bars are substantially reduced by the averaging procedure).
Subsequently, for k = 5 µm–1, w/2p = 10 GHz and a = 0.0075,
the value b = 0.035 ± 0.011 has been evaluated.
Despite relatively large error bars (about 30%), the non-
adiabatic parameters have been evaluated from current-induced
modification of spin wave dynamics. More importantly in these
two studies a, b, and the spin drift velocity have been measured
simultaneously, that is, from the same samples and on the same
magnetic objects, which is of the utmost relevance in order to
optimize current-induced magnetization dynamics.

10.6 Other Types of Spin Wave Frequency

Shifts
As already mentioned in the experimental section, the Doppler
shift might combine with other sources of frequency shift, and
it is important to distinguish them, particularly in the MSSW/
Damon–Eshbach configurations, which have been used in most
experimental studies. By nature, the Doppler effect is odd in
both the spin wave vector k and the electric current I and even in
the magnetic field H. In the following section we discuss three
other types of frequency shift: a zero-current frequency non-
reciprocity of purely magnetic origin (odd in k and H, even in I),
the standard Oersted-field-induced frequency shift (odd in I and
H, even in k), and a non-reciprocal Oersted-field-induced
frequency shift (NR-OFIFS) (odd in k and I, even in H, that is,
the same symmetry as the Doppler effect). Understanding each
of these effects will make clear how to rule them out for a given
measurement.
 Other Types of Spin Wave Frequency Shifts 319

10.6.1 Zero-Current Spin Wave Frequency

Non-Reciprocity

The so-called MSSWs, that is, spin waves with a wave vector
perpendicular to the equilibrium magnetization, both vectors
lying in the film plane, have specific non-reciprocal properties,
in that the amplitudes and sometimes also the frequencies of two
counterpropagating spin waves are different. This is illustrated
in Fig. 10.10c, which shows the two counterpropagating PSWS
signals measured on a 10 nm permalloy film at a wave vector
of +/–7.8 rad/µm. One recognizes clearly a large difference
of amplitude of the two waveforms, the k < 0 one being about
four times more intense than the k > 0 one. One recognizes also
a clear frequency shift, the k < 0 waveform lying 34 MHz higher
in frequency than the k > 0 one.

Figure 10.10 Magnetostatic surface wave (MSSW) non-reciprocities.

(a) Sketch of a propagating spin wave spectroscopy (PSWS) experiment
in the MSSW configuration. The asymmetries of the modal profiles across
the film thickness are sketched for both propagation directions. (b) Sketch
of the distribution of the dipole fields generated by the dynamic
magnetization. (c) PSWS waveforms measured at zero current for a 10 nm
film and k = +/–7.8 rad/µm. The solid line is for k < 0 and the dashed line
is for k > 0. After Gladii et al. [37].
320 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

The amplitude non-reciprocity is well-known in the spin

wave community: it is attributed to the matching of the chiralities
of the microwave field generated by the antenna to that of the
dynamic magnetization of the spin wave. The less documented
frequency non-reciprocity originates from the combination
of two asymmetries: the asymmetry of the modal profile (see
Fig. 10.10a, where one recognizes that the amplitude of spin
precession is maximal close to the bottom surface for k > 0,
while it is maximal close to the top surface for k < 0) and the
asymmetry of the magnetic properties of the film. In
Fig. 10.10a, the magnetic surface anisotropies at the top and
bottom surface are different. For each direction, the spin wave
frequency is influenced mostly by the value of the surface
anisotropy of the surface on which it has the largest amplitude,
resulting in a frequency non-reciprocity proportional to the
difference of surface anisotropies. For a realistic description of
MSSWs in the film thickness range of interest, one requires a
dipole exchange theory accounting for the hybridization
between the uniform FMR mode and the antisymmetric first
perpendicular standing wave mode [36]. In the small-thickness,
small-wave-vector limit, the frequency non-reciprocity derived
in this description is [37]

8 g K Sbot – K Stop k .
fNR  (10.12)
p3 MS L2 p2
1+ 2
t
K bot – K Stop and
8 gHere 8kg K bot –are
K Stop the ksurface magnetic anisotropy
.
fNR  3 S fNR  32 2S .
constants
p MS for theL p top
p M and
S
bottomL2 pfilm
2
surfaces, respectively,
1
and L is the exchange+ 2
1 +
length.t Note that the interfacial
2
t
Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction, of importance in ferromagnetic
metal/heavy metal bilayers, also results in an MSSW frequency
non-reciprocity (see chapter 8 by Stamps et al. for a discussion
of the specificities of spin waves in the presence of this interaction).
Note also that both amplitude and frequency non-reciprocities
reverse when the direction of the equilibrium magnetization
is reversed. Consequently, these two effects can be ruled out
by comparing (+k, +H) and (–k, –H) spectra, as done by Zhu,
Thomas, Sugimoto, and coworkers [13–15, 18].
 Other Types of Spin Wave Frequency Shifts 321

10.6.2 Reciprocal Oersted-Field-Induced Frequency

Shift
As sketched in Fig. 10.11a, a direct current flowing in a film
leads to an Oersted field directed perpendicular to it. Assuming
the electric current density J is uniform, this field is perfectly
antisymmetric with respect to the film midplane and averages
out to zero when integrated over the film thickness. However,
any asymmetry of the electrical properties of the film (e.g., a
difference of the diffuse electron scattering efficiencies at the
top and bottom surfaces) translates into a deviation from this
antisymmetry and a non-zero residual Oersted field <HOe>. In
the MSSW configuration, this field combines with the external
field H, and the spin wave frequency becomes f (H + <HOe>).
In this picture, the current-induced frequency shift is expected
to be the same for k > 0 and k < 0, that is, it is a reciprocal
effect. As a consequence, this reciprocal Oersted-field-induced
frequency shift (R-OFIFS) will add to the (non-reciprocal)
current-induced Doppler shift for one propagation direction
and subtract from it for the opposite one. This is illustrated in
Fig. 10.11b, which shows PSWS signals measured for the two
propagation directions and for the two current polarities. In
this plot, one recognizes first the signature of the magnetic
frequency non-reciprocity: the pair of k < 0 waveforms (dashed
lines) being shifted about 15 MHz higher in frequency with
respect to the pair of k > 0 ones (solid lines). One also recognizes
qualitatively the current-induced Doppler effect, with a positive
current-induced frequency shift for one direction (df21 = f21(–I)
– f21(+I) > 0) and a negative current-induced frequency shift for
the opposite one (δf12 = f12(–I) – f12(+I) < 0). However, contrary
to the expectation for a pure Doppler effect, these two shifts
are of very different amplitudes, which is attributed to the
combination of the R-OFIFS with the Doppler effect. The two
contributions can be extracted as dfOe,R = (df21 + df12)/4 and
dfDop = (δf21 – df12)/4. In the example in Fig. 10.11b the residual
Oersted field is estimated to be about 12 A/m, which corresponds
to a top/bottom asymmetry of the distribution of electric current
of about 3% for this 10 nm film. Note that the R-OFIFS is odd in
both H and k [38], so it is ruled out when comparing (+k, +H,I)
322 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

and (–k, –H, I) spectra, as done by Zhu, Thomas, Sugimoto, and

coworkers [13–15, 18].

Figure 10.11 Reciprocal Oersted-field-induced frequency shift (R-OFIFS).

(a) Sketch of the geometry. (b) Current-induced spin wave frequency
shifts measured for k = +/–3.8 rad/µm, I = +/–7.5 mA, and µ0H = 28 mT.
Solid lines are for k > 0, and dashed lines are for k < 0. The Al2O3/Py(10nm)/
Al2O3 strip is 8 µm wide. After Haidar and Bailleul [16].

10.6.3 Non-Reciprocal Oersted-Field-Induced

Frequency Shift
Let us now combine two effects mentioned before and examine
the situation, sketched in Fig. 10.12b, in which a nominally
antisymmetric Oersted field acts on a spin wave with a pronounced
modal profile asymmetry. In this case, the residual field dHOe
can be evaluated by a weighted average in which the Oersted
field is multiplied by the normalized amplitude of the spin wave
and integrated over the film thickness. Due to the opposite
localization of the +k and –k spin waves, this weighted average
results in dHOe of different signs for two counterpropagating
spin waves (solid and dashed arrow in the top of Fig. 10.12b),
that is, the effect is non-reciprocal. It is also clear that this effect
is odd in I, and it can be shown that the effect is even in H [17];
when the static magnetic field reverses, the modal profile
asymmetry also reverses. This effect is called the NR-OFIFS. It is
odd in I, odd in k, and even in H, which is the same symmetry as
the CISWDS, so the two effects cannot be distinguished from
each other by any symmetry analysis. Hopefully, the two effects
 Other Types of Spin Wave Frequency Shifts 323

have very different dependences on the film thickness and wave

vector. Indeed, using the same dipole exchange description
as mentioned before, Haidar et al. could derive an explicit
expression of the NR-OFIFS [17]:

4 2 Jt P –P
dW = Q01 00 11 . (10.13)
2
p Ms W– W 

Figure 10.12 Non-reciprocal Oersted-field induced frequency shift

(NR-OFIFS). (a) Wave vector dependence of measured and calculated
non-reciprocal current-induced spin wave frequency shifts (NR-OFIFS +
Doppler) for two film thicknesses. Open and solid squares are measured
data for a 10 nm and a 40 nm permalloy film, respectively. The lines are
calculated using values of the degree of spin polarization and exchange
constant P = 0.6 and A = 11.5 pJ/m, respectively. (a) Sketch of the effect
showing the distribution of the Oersted field (arrows) and of the spin wave
amplitude (mode profiles) across the film thickness. After Haidar et al.
[17].

Here, J is the electric current density, t is the film thickness,

W0 and W1 are the normalized angular frequencies of the
fundamental mode and the first perpendicular standing wave
mode, respectively, and P00, P11, and Q01 are dipolar matrix
elements representing the dipole field generated by the two
324 Current-Induced Spin Wave Doppler Shift

modes over themselves and their non-reciprocal mutual coupling,

respectively.
Figure 10.11a shows the non-reciprocal frequency shift
measured for two film thicknesses (open squares: 10 nm; solid
squares: 40 nm). Using the symmetry analysis mentioned in the
last section, the part of the current-induced frequency shift
dfodd, which is odd in k, has been extracted, which allows one to
eliminate both the zero-current frequency non-reciprocity and
the R-OFIFS. The dfodd extracted for different devices with
different values of wave vectors are then normalized by the electric
current density J and plotted as a function of k. For the 10 nm
film, one obtains a linear dependence on k, as expected for a pure
Doppler effect. Indeed, the NR-OFIFS correction calculated in
that case is extremely small, because the exchange spitting
makes the denominator of Eq. 10.13 very large. For the 40 nm film,
on the other hand, one observes a complicated wave vector
dependence (solid squares in Fig. 10.12e), with a saturation
around 4 rad/µm and a change of sign at higher values.
This behavior is accounted for by adding to the Doppler shift of
Eq. 10.5 the NR-OFIFS of Eq. 10.13 (dashed line in Fig. 10.12e).
Indeed, the NR-OFIFS is opposite to the Doppler shift and its
magnitude increases strongly as the wave vector increases,
basically because the frequency splitting between the uniform
and first antisymmetric modes decreases, which leads to the sign
change of the total frequency shift. From this analysis, it is clear
that the best way to avoid the NR-OFIFS is to deal with thin-
enough films (for permalloy films thinner than 20 nm, the
NR-OFIFS can be safely neglected for the wave vectors commonly
used) [17]. For thicker films, one should examine the wave
vector dependence of the effect and subtract it from the
measurements.

10.7 Conclusion and Perspectives

Together with magnetic domain walls, vortices, and, nowadays,
skyrmions, spin waves represent the most commonly studied
magnetic objects, and the research carried out on them has
already led to tremendous breakthroughs in the understanding
 References 325

of the magnetism of nanostructures. Measuring the current-

induced modification of the spin wave dynamics has proven to
be a particularly elegant approach to probe STT mechanisms.
Several experimental configurations have been implemented,
which have led to the evaluation of the effect of a spin-polarized
current on most spin wave characteristics, namely changes
in frequency [9, 13–15, 18], changes in group velocity and
amplitude [20], and changes in the complex wave vector and
resonant field [25]. The access to the CISWDS has allowed us to
measure precisely the degree of spin polarization of the electric
current in various conditions. Furthermore, it has been
demonstrated that the three key parameters that rule current-
induced magnetization dynamics can be extracted self-consistently
from spin wave Doppler experiments. This is of the utmost
importance in order to improve the experimental understanding
regarding the microscopic origins of the non-adiabatic parameter.
Indeed, it is now well established that the Gilbert damping
coefficient a varies depending on the considered magnetic
object [39, 40] and P varies with the sample thicknesses [16].
A precise quantitative determination of b requires a and P
to be measured for the same magnetic object in the same
nanostructure. Current-induced modification of spin wave
dynamics can therefore be envisioned as a relevant approach
to investigate the microscopic origins of b by measuring the set
(a, b, P) as a function of wave vector, temperature, and material
compositions. Finally, it is interesting to note that the spin wave
Doppler experiment could be implemented to investigate spin
currents of different kinds such as thermal magnonic spin currents.

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Chapter 11

Excitation and Amplification of

Propagating Spin Waves by Spin
Currents

Vladislav E. Demidova and Sergej O. Demokritova,b

aInstitute for Applied Physics, University of Muenster, Corrensstrasse 2-4,

Muenster 48149, Germany

bInstitute of Metal Physics, Ural Division of RAS, Yekaterinburg 620041, Russia

[email protected]

11.1 Introduction
The unique features of spin waves, such as the possibility to achieve
submicrometer wavelength at microwave frequencies and electronic
controllability by static magnetic fields make these waves uniquely
suited for implementation of novel integrated electronic devices
characterized by high speed, low power consumption, and extended
functionalities. The utilization of spin waves for integrated electronic
applications is addressed within the emerging field of magnonics
[1–8]. Although the application of spin waves for microwave signal
processing has been intensively explored for many decades (see,
e.g., [9, 10]), recent advances in spintronics and nanomagnetism,
as well as the development of novel techniques for nanofabrication
and measurements of high-frequency magnetization dynamics,

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
330 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

created essentially new possibilities for magnonics and brought it

onto a new development stage. Of particular importance here is the
discovery of spin-transfer torque (STT) produced by spin-polarized
electric currents [11, 12] or by pure spin currents [13, 14], which
has already been demonstrated to enable novel geometries and
functionalities of spin-wave devices [5, 8, 15–22].
STT phenomena have been traditionally studied in nanodevices
based on the tunneling or giant magnetoresistance spin-valve
structures [23–26], where STT is induced by the electric current
flowing through a multilayer that consists of a “fixed” magnetic spin-
polarizer and the active magnetic layer, separated by a non-magnetic
metallic or insulating spacer. In these structures, the electric charges
must cross the active magnetic layer to excite its magnetization
dynamics. The flow of the electrical current through the active layer
results in a significant Joule heating. In addition, the inhomogeneous
Oersted fields induced by the localized currents can complicate the
dynamical states induced by STT. Moreover, to enable current flow
through the active magnetic layers, STT devices operating with spin-
polarized electric current require that current-carrying electrodes
are placed both on top and on the bottom of the spin valve, which
severely reduces the flexibility of the device geometry.
An alternative approach to the implementation of STT devices
that avoids these shortcomings utilizes pure spin currents—flows
of spin not accompanied by directional transfer of electrical charge.
This approach does not require the flow of electrical current
through the active magnetic layer, resulting in reduced Joule heating
and electromigration effects. One can also eliminate the electrical
leads attached to the magnetic layer to drain the electrical current,
enabling novel geometries of the STT devices. Additionally, it
becomes possible to use insulating magnetic materials [27] such as
yttrium iron garnet (YIG) [28]. The main advantage of this material is
its exceptionally low dynamic magnetic damping. Since the expected
density of the driving current necessary for the current-induced
auto-oscillations is proportional to damping, YIG-based STT devices
can be significantly more efficient than the traditional devices based
on the transition-metal ferromagnets.
Pure spin currents can be created by using the spin-Hall
effect (SHE) [13, 14]. Devices utilizing SHE benefit from many
advantages of pure spin currents. However, they are also not free
 Introduction 331

from shortcomings. In particular, efficient spin-Hall materials

such as Ta and Pt exhibit a high resistivity. As a consequence, a
significant fraction of the driving current is shunted through the
active magnetic layer, which must be in electrical contact with the
SHE material to enable device operation. This problem is avoided
in the SHE devices based on magnetic insulators, but even in this
case the high resistivity of the SHE material results in a significant
Joule heating of both this material and the active magnetic layer
in direct thermal contact with it. The heating adversely affects the
dynamical characteristics and can even damage the device. Another
shortcoming of the SHE devices is the increase of magnetic damping
generally observed in the bilayers of active magnetic layers with the
SHE materials. This increase is difficult to avoid because it is caused
by the enhanced electron–magnon scattering due to the same spin–
orbit interactions that enable the operation of SHE devices.
The shortcomings described above can be avoided in devices that
utilize spin currents generated by the nonlocal spin-injection (NLSI)
mechanism, which does not require electric current flow through
highly resistive materials [29–31]. In contrast to the SHE-based
devices, current flow through the active magnetic layer is negligible
in the NLSI-based oscillators. Their dynamical characteristics are
also not compromised by the detrimental effects of layers with
strong spin–orbit coupling. Moreover, since the driving current in
the NLSI devices flows mostly through low-resistivity layers, the
Joule heating effects are minimized.
Here we review our recent experimental investigations on the
excitation and control of spin waves propagating in microscopic
magnonic waveguides by using STT phenomena. We first discuss the
excitation of propagating guided spin waves by utilizing traditional
STT devices driven by spin-polarized electric current. Then we
describe experiments on the control of spin-wave propagation by
using pure spin currents created by the SHE mechanism for the
cases of all-metallic magnonic waveguides and waveguides based
on ultra-thin insulating YIG films. Finally, we show that pure spin
currents created by the NLSI mechanism can be utilized for the
efficient excitation of propagating spin waves with large propagation
length and short spin-wave packets with the duration down to a few
nanoseconds.
332 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

11.2 Experimental Technique

All the experiments described below were performed by using
the micro-focus Brillouin light scattering (BLS) spectroscopy. BLS
spectroscopy has been known for many decades as an experimental
tool enabling direct visualization of spin-wave propagation with
the spatial and temporal resolution and unprecedented sensitivity
[32]. Thanks to the recent developments, nowadays the spatial
resolution of this technique is in the submicrometer range, which
enables imaging of spin waves in individual magnetic structures
with microscopic dimensions. Since the first demonstration of the
micro-focus BLS technique [33], the technical details about this
experimental tool have been discussed in several review papers
[6, 34]. Therefore, here we limit ourselves to a short introduction
of its main principles considering typical implementation of micro-
focus BLS measurements of spin-wave propagation in a microscopic
magnonic waveguide.
Figure 11.1a shows a schematic of a typical experiment. A
ferromagnetic film with the thickness of 5–50 nm is patterned into a
stripe with the width in the range of 0.1 to 5 µm serving as a magnonic
waveguide. To excite spin waves, a stripe microwave antenna
oriented perpendicular to the waveguide axis is manufactured on
top of it. The antenna is made of highly conductive material, such
as Au or Cu, and has typical width in the range of 0.5 to 2 µm and
thickness of 100–150 nm. The antenna is electrically isolated from
the waveguide by a 20–40 nm thick dielectric layer. The excitation
of spin waves [35, 36] is performed by transmitting through the
antenna a microwave-frequency current. This current creates a local
dynamic magnetic field, which couples to the magnetization in the
waveguide underneath the antenna, resulting in a creation of a spin
wave propagating away from the excitation area.
Although the detection of spin waves in the described system can,
in principle, be done electronically by using secondary spin-wave
antenna, utilization of spatially resolved magneto-optical methods,
such as micro-focus BLS technique, allows one to obtain significantly
more detailed information about the spin-wave propagation and
essentially improve the experimental sensitivity. To implement BLS
measurements, the probing light generated by a single-frequency
laser with the wavelength of 532 or 473 nm and the power
 Experimental Technique 333

<1 mW is focused onto the surface of the magnonic waveguide

into a diffraction-limited spot by using a high-quality microscope
objective lens with large numerical aperture. This probing light
experiences interaction with the magnetization oscillations in the
magnetic material, causing a modulation of the scattered light. The
latter is collected by the same objective lens and analyzed by using
a multipass Fabry–Perot interferometer. The obtained spectrum
typically shows an intense peak corresponding to the frequency of
the laser, accompanied by two spectral satellites appearing due to the
modulation. While the frequency shift of the satellites is equal to the
frequency of the magnetization oscillations, their intensity (referred
to as BLS intensity) is proportional to the intensity of magnetization
oscillations at the position of the probing spot. The latter fact enables
direct spatial imaging of the spin-wave intensity by two-dimensional
rastering of the probing spot over the sample surface (Fig. 11.1a).
The acquired intensity maps, such as that shown in Fig. 11.1b,
allow one to obtain information about the decay characteristics of
spin waves in magnonic waveguides. They also provide important
information about the spatial characteristics of the spin-wave beam,
which is necessary for experimental addressing of the possibilities
of spin-wave manipulations on the nanoscale.

Figure 11.1 (a) Sketch of a typical micro-focus BLS experiment on spin-

wave propagation in a microscopic waveguide. (b) and (c) Representative
examples of the two-dimensional maps of the spin-wave intensity (b) and
phase (c) recorded by micro-focus BLS. © (2015) IEEE. Reprinted, with
permission, from [6].

For reliable two-dimensional imaging of spin waves, the spatial

resolution of the micro-focus BLS apparatus is of crucial importance.
This resolution can be estimated by analyzing spatial profiles of the
intensity of light reflected from nano-sized objects [37]. Another
334 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

method, enabling direct determination of the “magnetic” resolution,

is based on the imaging of magnetization oscillations confined to a
nanoscale region. Recently this calibration became possible thanks
to the discovery of spin-Hall nano-oscillators [38], where the auto-
oscillating “bullet” mode characterized by the lateral dimensions
below 100 nm and large amplitude of magnetization oscillations
can be directly accessed by BLS. Both these methods showed that
the spatial resolution of the micro-focus BLS technique is about
250 nm. This resolution can be further improved to about 50 nm
[39] by utilizing the principles of the near-field optical microscopy.
However, the use of this approach inevitably leads to a reduction of
the sensitivity, which noticeably increases the time needed for BLS
measurements. Therefore, the experiments described here were
performed by using free-space-optics micro-focus BLS apparatus
with the resolution of 250 nm, which is sufficient to address most of
the spin-wave propagation phenomena.
Due to the large uncertainty of the light-scattering angle
associated with the tight focusing of the probing light, high spatial
resolution of the micro-focus BLS technique is incompatible with the
wavevector resolution, which is known to be one of the significant
advantages of the standard BLS spectroscopy [32]. This drawback
can be eliminated by making use of the phase conservation in the
light-scattering process, which results in the direct correlation
between the phase of the modulation of the scattered light and the
phase of the magnetization oscillations causing this modulation.
This phase information can be acquired by utilizing interference of
the scattered light with the light modulated by the signal used to
excite the magnetization oscillations. This approach enables direct
measurements of the phase difference between the excitation
signal and the phase of a propagating spin wave at the given spatial
location, providing, for example, direct information about the spin-
wave wavelength. Figure 11.1c shows a representative example of
the measured spatial phase map for spin waves propagating in a
submicrometer-width magnonic waveguide. The plotted value is cos
(j), where j is the phase difference between the microwave current
in the antenna and the magnetization oscillations in the spin wave.
The spatial period of cos (j)-function is equal to the spin-wave
wavelength at a given excitation frequency. Therefore, by varying the
latter and measuring the spatial period, one can obtain the complete
 Excitation of Guided Spin Waves by Spin-Polarized Currents 335

information about the spin-wave dispersion characteristics of the

studied waveguide [40].

11.3 E xcitation of Guided Spin Waves by Spin-

Polarized Currents
The unique feature of the spin-transfer torque phenomena is the
possibility to directly convert the energy of the direct electrical
current into the energy of high-frequency dynamic magnetization
[11, 12]. From the point of view of technical applications, this means
that additional losses associated with the nanoscale transmission
of microwave electric currents and the limited efficiency of the
coupling of the dynamic magnetic field with the magnetization
can be avoided resulting in more efficient operation of magnonic
nanodevices. Therefore, the utilization of the spin-transfer torque
for excitation of propagating spin waves significantly advances the
technical potential of nanomagnonics.
Although the emission of spin waves due to the spin-transfer
torque was theoretically predicted already in the first works on
the subject, its direct experimental observation became possible
only recently [15, 16] with the development of micro-focus BLS
spectroscopy. The obtained results provided a proof-of-principle
demonstration of the possibility to utilize spin-torque nano-
oscillators (STNOs) as nanoscale emitters for magnonic applications.
However, they have also shown that the practical implementation
of efficient spin-torque magnonic devices requires development of
advanced approaches to the spectral matching of the STNO with the
spin-wave guiding medium. The main problem arises from the fact
that due to the nonlinear frequency shift in the practically useful in-
plane magnetization geometry, the auto-oscillation frequency of the
STNO is shifted with respect to the frequency range of propagating
spin waves resulting in inefficient spin-wave emission [41–43].
This difficulty can be overcome by utilizing nonlinear frequency
conversion mechanisms [44] or modifications of the STNO layout
[45]. However, both these approaches result in the increase in
complexity of operation and/or construction of magnonic devices.
Recently it was experimentally demonstrated [5] that efficient
matching between STNO and propagating spin waves can be
336 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

achieved by utilizing the dipolar magnetic field of magnetic

nanowires producing one-dimensional propagating modes that
are spectrally matched with the STNO. It was shown that magnonic
nanowaveguides based on this principle can be easily integrated with
STNOs, providing the possibility for directional transfer of the energy
of spin waves generated by the spin torque effect. This approach is
illustrated in Fig. 11.2a: A point-contact STNO comprises a multilayer
nanopillar with dimensions of 120 nm × 40 nm fabricated on top of
an extended 5 nm thick Permalloy (Py) film. Additionally, the device
incorporates a 5 nm thick and 200 nm wide CoFe nanowire below
the Py film. The edge of the nanowire is located at a distance of 150
nm from the center of the STNO. The device is magnetized by a static
magnetic field applied in the plane of the Py film perpendicular to
the CoFe nanowire.

Figure 11.2 (a) Schematic of a magnonic nano-waveguide integrated with

an STNO. (b) Calculated distribution of the internal static magnetic field
in the Py film through the section transverse to the nano-waveguide. The
positions of the edges of the CoFe nanowire are marked by the vertical
dashed lines. Horizontal dashed line shows the value H0 = 900 Oe of the
internal field in the free Py film. (c) Calculated dispersion curves for the
spin waves in the extended Py film and that of the waveguide mode. Dashed
lines show the boundaries of the STNO auto-oscillation frequency range. ©
(2015) IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [6].
 Excitation of Guided Spin Waves by Spin-Polarized Currents 337

Figure 11.2b shows the distribution of the internal magnetic field

in the Py film through the section perpendicular to the nanowire
obtained from the micromagnetic simulations. These data show that
the internal field is significantly reduced in the magnetic film in the
region over the CoFe nanowire. The reduction of the internal field
results in the local shift of the spin-wave spectrum toward smaller
frequencies creating a one-dimensional channel with allowed spin-
wave frequencies matched with the auto-oscillation frequency of the
STNO. This is illustrated by Fig. 11.2c, which shows the dispersion
curve for spin waves in an extended magnetic film and that for the
normal mode of the nanowaveguide formed by the CoFe nanowire
and the Py film on top calculated for H0 = 900 Oe. Under these
conditions, the auto-oscillation frequency of the STNO is located in
the range from 6.5 to 7.5 GHz, marked in Fig. 11.2c by dashed lines.
As seen from these data, within this range, there are no available
spin-wave spectral states in the extended film, which prevents the
spin-wave emission. In contrast, due to the local reduction of the
internal filed, the dispersion spectrum of the waveguide mode
clearly overlaps with the STNO frequency range, which allows spin
waves excited by the STNO to propagate along the waveguide.
Figure 11.3a shows the measured spin-wave intensity map re-
corded by rastering the probing laser spot over a 1.6 µm ¥ 1.6 µm
area. The map clearly shows that the spin-wave energy is concentrat-
ed entirely in the nanowaveguide, i.e., spin waves are guided by the
field-induced channel without noticeable losses associated with the
radiation of energy into the surrounding free Py film. By analyzing
transverse cross sections of the map, one determines the transverse
full width at half maximum of the spin-wave intensity distribution.
As seen from Fig. 11.3b, this width is independent of the propagation
coordinate, which confirms that the spin wave is efficiently localized
in the waveguide and does not spread out in the process of propaga-
tion. The BLS intensity integrated over the transverse section of the
map exhibits a simple exponential spatial decay in the direction of
propagation (shown on the log scale in Fig. 11.3c). We define the
propagation length x as the distance over which the wave amplitude
decreases by a factor of e. By fitting the data of Fig. 11.3c with the
338 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

function exp(–2y/x), we obtain x = 1.3 µm. We note that this value

is close to the best spin-wave propagation characteristics obtained
in low-loss Py films with comparable thickness, despite the higher
dynamical losses expected due to the stronger damping in CoFe.

Figure 11.3 (a) Measured map of the intensity of spin waves emitted by the
STNO. The positions of the STNO and the CoFe nanowire are schematically
shown. Spatial decay is numerically compensated. (b) Dependence of the
transverse width of the spin-wave intensity distribution on the propagation
coordinate. Symbols are experimental data, horizontal line is the mean
value. (c) Dependence of the integral spin-wave intensity on the propagation
coordinate. Symbols are experimental data, line is the exponential fit. ©
(2015) IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [6].

Finally, we discuss the power transmission between the STNO

and the nanowaveguide. It is mediated by the dynamic dipolar fields
generated due to the magnetization oscillations in the STNO point-
contact area, and depends on the distance between the center of
STNO and the edge of the nanowaveguide. In the studied test system,
the distance of 150 nm gives transmission efficiency of about 2%,
which is comparable, for example, with the typical outcoupling in
lasers. The coupling efficiency can be further increased by reducing
this distance.
 Control of the Propagation Length of Spin Waves by Pure Spin Currents 339

11.4  ontrol of the Propagation Length of Spin

C
Waves by Pure Spin Currents
In addition to the excitation of spin waves, STT phenomena can
also be utilized in magnonic devices for compensation of the spin-
wave propagation losses. While the geometry of traditional spin-
torque devices operating with spin-polarized electric current is not
well suited for implementation of the spatially distributed spin-
wave amplification, the spin torque induced by pure spin currents
generated by the spin-Hall effect can be exerted over large spatial
areas providing the possibility to compensate spin-wave losses
over the entire propagation path of waves. The possibility to reduce
losses associated with the propagation of spin waves can provide
significant benefits for the development of advanced magnonic
devices capable of efficient selective long-range signal transmission
and even local on-chip amplification.
The possibility to reduce the decay of the propagating spin
waves appears to be a straightforward consequence of the damping
reduction by SHE [46–49]. However, only moderate effects have
been experimentally observed in the first works addressing the SHE-
based control of propagating spin waves [17, 18]. These studies have
focused on micrometer-thick insulating YIG films, where the effects
of pure spin currents are known to be relatively weak because
of the interfacial nature of STT induced by the pure spin current.
The first demonstration of the sizable effect of pure spin currents
on propagating spin waves was reported for all-metallic magnetic
heterostructures [19, 20].

11.4.1 S HE Spin-Wave Control in All-Metallic Magnonic

Waveguides
Figure 11.4 shows the schematic of an experiment with all-metallic
SHE-controlled magnonic waveguides. A waveguide with the width
of 1.5 µm consists of the 5 nm thick Co40Fe40B20 magnetic layer
guiding spin waves and 8 nm thick nonmagnetic Pt layer serving as a
source of the spin current. The SHE induced by the electrical current
in the Pt layer results in the injection of the pure spin current into
340 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

the CoFeB layer, exerting spin-transfer torque on its magnetization,

as illustrated by the inset in Fig. 11.4. Positive current, as defined
in Fig. 11.4, produces spin current flowing normal to the Pt/CoFeB
interface, with magnetic moments of electrons antiparallel to the
static magnetization in CoFeB. The resulting dynamic STT causes the
compensation of the magnetic damping in the magnetic layer.

Figure 11.4 Schematic of the experiment on the spin-wave amplification

by SHE. Inset shows schematically the injection of the spin current and the
resulting spin torque T exerted on the magnetization M.

The damping compensation leads to two different effects on

spin waves. First, it results in the increase of dynamic magnetic
susceptibility of the waveguide material leading to the increase in
the coupling of the dynamic magnetic field created by the inductive
antenna with the dynamic magnetization in the waveguide. In other
words, for the same power of the microwave signal applied to the
antenna, one obtains larger amplitudes of excited spin waves. This
excitation enhancement is illustrated in Fig. 11.5a, which shows
the spin-wave excitation curves measured for different applied dc
currents. As seen from these data, the application of the current
results in a significant (note the logarithmic scale of the vertical
axis) increase in the spin-wave intensity. This enhancement is
further characterized by Fig. 11.5b showing the dependence of the
maximum detected BLS intensity on the current strength. These
data show that the STT produced by the SHE enables an increase in
the intensity of the excited spin waves by more than a factor of 2 at a
fixed microwave power applied to the antenna.
 Control of the Propagation Length of Spin Waves by Pure Spin Currents 341

Figure 11.5 (a) Spin-wave excitation curves recorded at different dc currents,

as labeled. Curve for I = 0 was recorded at H0 = 300 Oe, while the curve for I
= 10 mA was recorded at H0 = 327 Oe to compensate for the Oersted field of
the dc current. f0 marks the frequency of the quasi-uniform ferromagnetic
resonance. (b) Maximum detected BLS intensity normalized by its value at I
= 0 vs. dc current. Symbols are experimental data, line is a guide for the eye.
© (2015) IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [6].

In addition to the increase in the excitation efficiency, the

compensation of the dynamic damping also causes an increase of
the spin-wave propagation length. This effect is demonstrated by
Fig. 11.6a, which shows the measured spatial dependences of the
spin-wave intensity along the waveguide axis for different currents.
Both curves show a clear exponential decay of the spin-wave
intensity with a small modulation caused by the mode interference
[50]. From the shown data, one obtains the values of the spin-wave
propagation length, x, which is equal to 0.8 µm in the absence of
current and increases to 1.4 µm, when a dc current of 10 mA is
applied. The enhancement of the propagation length was found
to depend strongly on the spin-wave frequency. This dependence
is quantitatively characterized by Fig. 11.6b, which shows the
propagation length enhancement corresponding to the current of 10
mA versus the frequency. As seen from Fig. 11.6b, the enhancement
remains relatively small at frequencies below f0 corresponding to
the propagating edge modes [51], and starts to abruptly increase
in the vicinity of f0. It continues growing at frequencies above f0
corresponding to the propagating center modes [50], and exhibits
a maximum of 1.7 at the frequency of 6.3 GHz. We note that the
efficiency of the propagation-length enhancement does not remain
constant at frequencies above f0. This result indicates that this
efficiency also depends on the wavelength of spin waves.
342 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

Figure 11.6 (a) Dependences of the BLS intensity on the propagation coordinate
recorded for I = 0 and 10 mA by moving the laser spot along the waveguide
axis. Excitation frequency is 6.4 GHz. Symbols are experimental data, lines are
exponential fits (note the logarithmic scale of the vertical axis). (b) The ratio
between the spin-wave propagation lengths measured at I = 10 mA and I = 0
vs. the excitation frequency. f0 marks the frequency of the quasi-uniform
ferromagnetic resonance. © (2015) IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from
[6].

11.4.2 S HE Spin-Wave Control in YIG-Based Magnonic

Waveguides
One of the most important advantages of pure spin currents is the
possibility to implement spin-torque devices based on insulating
magnetic materials, such as YIG. In the past years, the applicability
of this material for spin-torque devices was limited by the large
micrometer-range thickness of high-quality YIG films. Since STT
produced by the spin current is the interfacial phenomenon, the
large thickness of the active magnetic layer caused a low efficiency
of devices and resulted in the moderate effect of spin current on the
propagation characteristics of spin waves. Only recently, with the
developments in preparation of nanometer-thick low-damping YIG
films [52–55], the implementation of insulator-based spin-torque
devices became practically feasible [56, 57]. In particular, recent
experiments have shown a highly efficient control of the spin-wave
propagation length in SHE systems based on 20 nm thick YIG films.
In contrast to all-metallic structures, where the spin current-induced
variation of the propagation length did not exceed a factor of 2, a
nearly 10-fold increase in the propagation length was observed in
YIG-based systems [21].
 Control of the Propagation Length of Spin Waves by Pure Spin Currents 343

The layout of the samples used in these experiments is similar

to that shown in Fig. 11.4, except that 20 nm thick YIG film is used
as the magnetic layer of the magnonic waveguide. Since high-quali-
ty YIG cannot be produced on top of the Pt layer, in contrast to the
all-metallic SHE waveguides, the Pt layer serving as a source of the
spin current, is deposited on top of the YIG layer. The width of the
YIG/Pt waveguide is chosen to be 1 µm, which provides a single-
mode propagation regime of spin waves within a broad range of
frequencies.
Figure 11.7 characterizes the observed effects of the spin current
on the propagation characteristics of spin waves excited by the
inductive antenna. The measurements are performed by applying
a microwave signal at the frequency corresponding, for the given
conditions, to a spin wave with the wavelength of about 5 µm, which
can be efficiently excited by the used 3 µm wide inductive antenna
and possess sufficiently large group velocity. The propagation of
spin waves is mapped by rastering the probing laser spot over the
surface of the YIG waveguide. In Fig. 11.7a, we show a representative
map of the BLS intensity, proportional to the local intensity in the
spin wave, obtained for the dc electric current in the Pt layer I = 2.55
mA. As seen from these data, the spin wave propagates along the
waveguide nearly uniformly without changing its transverse profile
(inset in Fig. 11.7a). The intensity of the wave decreases by only 60%
over the propagation path of 10 µm.
To characterize the propagation length of spin waves and its
dependence on the current, we plot in Fig. 11.7b the dependences of
the spin-wave intensity on the propagation coordinate obtained for
different dc currents in the Pt layer. These data show that spin waves
in the waveguide experience well-defined exponential decay (note
the logarithmic vertical scale) ~exp(–2y/x). The propagation length
x strongly increases with the increase of the dc current, as expected
for the effect of the spin current on the effective magnetic damping.
Figure 11.8 summarizes the results of the spatially resolved
measurements. The propagation length (up-triangles) monotonously
increases with the increase of I < IC and then shows an abrupt
decrease at I > IC, where IC is the critical current, at which the damping
is completely compensated by the spin current resulting in the onset
of current-induced magnetization auto-oscillations [21]. We note
344 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

that at I > IC, the magnetic damping should be overcompensated by

the STT, which is expected to result in a spin-wave amplification.
In contradiction to this naive expectation, the propagation length
decreases rapidly at I > IC, so that already at I = 2.65 mA, the BLS signal
from the spin wave excited by the antenna completely vanishes. This
experimental observation can be attributed to the strong nonlinear
scattering of coherent spin waves from large-amplitude current-
induced magnetic auto-oscillations due to the nonlinear magnon–
magnon scattering processes, which are known to be highly efficient
in low-damping YIG films [58].

Figure 11.7 (a) Normalized spatial intensity map of the propagating spin
wave excited by the antenna. The map was recorded for I = 2.55 mA. The
mapping was performed by rastering the probing spot over the area 1.6
by 10 µm, which is larger than the waveguide width of 1 µm. Dashed lines
show the edges of the waveguide. Inset shows the transverse profile of the
spin-wave intensity. (b) Dependences of the spin-wave intensity on the
propagation coordinate for different currents, as labeled, in the log-linear
scale. Lines show the exponential fit of the experimental data. Reprinted
from [21], with the permission of AIP Publishing.

To characterize the variation of the propagation length with

current in detail, we plot in Fig. 11.8 its inverse value—the decay
constant (down-triangles), which is proportional to effective Gilbert
damping constant αeff. In agreement with the simple theoretical
model assuming the linear variation of αeff with current, the
 Control of the Propagation Length of Spin Waves by Pure Spin Currents 345

decay constant shows a linear dependence on I. Additionally, one

expects the linear dependence in Fig. 11.8 to cross zero at I = IC,
which corresponds to an infinitely large propagation length under
conditions of the complete damping compensation. The data of Fig.
11.8 show, however, that the linear fit yields the intercept value larger
than IC. This disagreement can be attributed to the contribution of the
nonlinear scattering of propagating spin waves from spin current-
enhanced magnetic fluctuations [59]. Indeed, as shown in [21], even
at I < IC the intensity of magnetic fluctuations in YIG can increase by
more than one order of magnitude in comparison to the case, when
no spin current is applied, resulting in additional propagation losses
due to the magnon–magnon scattering.

Figure 11.8 Current dependences of the propagation length and of the decay
constant. Vertical dashed line marks the critical current IC, at which the
damping is completely compensated by the spin current. Solid line is the
linear fit of the experimental data at I < IC. The data were obtained at H0 =
1000 Oe. Reprinted from [21], with the permission of AIP Publishing.

As seen from the data discussed above, pure spin currents do

not allow one to completely compensate propagation losses of spin
waves. We note, however, that the maximum achieved propagation
length of 22.5 µm is nearly by a factor of two larger compared to
the value of 12 µm estimated for a waveguide made of a bare YIG
film without Pt on top (α = 5 ¥ 10–4). To further characterize the
significance of the achieved propagation-length control for the
performance characteristics of spin-wave transmission lines, we
calculate the intensity of the spin wave at the output of a transmission
line with the length 10 µm based on the experimental values of
the propagation length x(I) (Fig. 11.8). The results normalized by
the value at I = 0 are shown in Fig. 11.9. As one clearly sees from
346 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

these data, the achieved propagation-length control provides the

opportunity to increase the intensity of spin waves at the output of a
transmission line with technologically relevant length by more than
three orders of magnitude.
Normalized spin-
wave intensity
1000

100

10
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
I, mA
Figure 11.9 Current dependence of the intensity of the spin wave at the output
of a 10 µm long transmission line calculated based on the experimentally
measured propagation length. The intensity is normalized by the value at I
= 0. Reprinted from [21], with the permission of AIP Publishing.

11.5 E xcitation of Spin Waves by Pure Spin

Currents
In spite of the quick developments in the excitation of coherent
localized magnetization dynamics by pure spin currents [38, 56,
57, 60–66], excitation of propagating spin waves by this mechanism
remained an unsolved problem for a long time. One of the main
difficulties was associated with the limitations imposed by the
geometry of spin-current devices based on the spin-Hall effect,
which place significant constraints on their compatibility with
magnonic devices. Only with the demonstration of the novel type
of nanooscillators driven by pure spin currents created by the
nonlocal spin injection mechanism [67–69], the efficient excitation
of propagating spin waves with large propagation length by pure
spin currents became practically possible [8, 22].

11.5.1 Excitation of Continuous Propagating Spin Waves

The schematic of the NLSI-based magnonic system is shown in Fig.
11.10. It consists of a 5 nm thick Permalloy (Py) active magnetic
 Excitation of Spin Waves by Pure Spin Currents 347

film separated from the 8 nm thick CoFe spin injector by a 20 nm

thick layer of Cu. The electric current is injected into the multilayer
through a 60 nm circular nanocontact fabricated on the CoFe side.
Because of the large difference in the resistivities of the materials
comprising the device, most of the current is drained through the
Cu layer, while only 3% of the current is shunted through the active
Py layer. The arrow in Fig. 11.10 shows the corresponding flow of
electrons. The injected electrons become spin polarized due to the
spin-dependent scattering in CoFe and at the Cu/CoFe interface,
resulting in spin accumulation in Cu above the nanocontact. Spin
diffusion away from this region produces a spin current flowing into
the Py layer, exerting STT on its magnetization. The magnetizations
of both CoFe and Py layers are aligned with the saturating static in-
plane magnetic field H0. For positive driving electric currents, as
defined by the arrow in Fig. 11.10, the magnetic moment carried by
the spin current is antiparallel to the magnetization of the Py layer,
resulting in the STT compensating the dynamic magnetic damping.
When damping is completely compensated by the spin current,
the magnetization of the Py layer exhibits highly coherent auto-
oscillations in the spatial area with the size of about 300 to 400 nm
determined by the spin current injection region [67, 68].

Figure 11.10 Schematic of a NLSI-based system enabling excitation of

propagating spin waves by pure spin currents. The inset illustrates the
dipolar field HD in the stripe waveguide caused by uncompensated magnetic
charges at its edges. Reprinted from [76], with the permission from Elsevier.

To convert these localized magnetization oscillations into a

propagating spin wave with a sufficiently large propagation length,
a 20 nm thick and 500 nm wide Py strip aligned perpendicular to
the direction of the static field H0 is fabricated on the surface of
348 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

the extended Py film. The waveguide is terminated at a distance

of 150 nm from the center of the nanocontact. This distance is
sufficiently small to ensure efficient dynamic coupling between the
current-induced magnetic auto-oscillations in the thin film and the
magnetization in the strip. Because of this coupling, the localized
oscillations are expected to excite a propagating spin wave, provided
that there are available spin-wave spectral states at the frequency of
the auto-oscillations.
Figure 11.11a shows the dispersion spectra of spin waves in an
extended Py film with the thickness of 5 and 25 nm (solid curves)
and for spin waves propagating in the stripe waveguide (symbols)
calculated for H0 = 1000 Oe. As seen from these data, the slope of
the dispersion curve, which is proportional to the spin-wave group
velocity, is significantly larger for thicker extended film. Since
the group velocity determines the propagation length, the latter
increases from less than 1 µm for a 5 nm film to several micrometers
for a 25 nm thick film. The slope of the dispersion curve calculated
for the 20 nm thick stripe waveguide manufactured on top of 5 nm
thick extended Py film is close to that of the thick extended Py film.
Therefore, one can also expect a large propagation length for the
spin waves in the waveguide. A distinct feature of the dispersion
spectrum of spin waves in the waveguide, which is of particular
importance for the possibility to achieve spin-wave radiation, is its
significant frequency downshift in comparison with the curves for
an extended film. This downshift originates from the reduction of
the internal static magnetic field in the waveguide caused by the
dipolar field HD produced by the uncompensated magnetic charges
at the waveguide edges (see inset in Fig. 11.10 and Ref. [70]). The
downshift of the spin-wave spectrum results in the appearance of
spin-wave spectral states at frequencies below the frequency of the
uniform ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) (dashed line in Fig. 11.11a),
which enables the radiation of spin waves by the localized current-
induced auto-oscillations, even though the frequency of the latter is
always smaller than the FMR frequency [22, 67].
The auto-oscillation characteristics of the NLSI oscillator
integrated into the hybrid spin-wave device described above are
 Excitation of Spin Waves by Pure Spin Currents 349

summarized in Fig. 11.11b, which shows the current dependence

of the frequency and the intensity of the auto-oscillations obtained
from BLS measurements with the probing laser spot located directly
at the position of the nanocontact. The integrated oscillator transits
to the auto-oscillation regime at the critical current IC = 3.6 mA,
which is close to that for stand-alone devices [67]. This indicates
that the oscillation characteristics are not adversely affected by the
integration of the oscillator into the magnonic system. The intensity
of the auto-oscillations gradually increases with increasing I > IC,
while their frequency decreases due to the nonlinear frequency
shift. We emphasize that the auto-oscillation frequency is below
the FMR frequency in the extended Py film (horizontal dashed line
in Fig. 11.11b) within the entire used range of current. As follows
from the data of Fig. 11.11a, there are no propagating spin-wave
states available in the Py film at the frequency of auto-oscillation,
and therefore the oscillation does not radiate spin waves into
the surrounding Py(5 nm) film. In contrast, the auto-oscillation
frequency range is well matched with that of the waveguide mode,
which should result in an efficient radiation of spin waves into the
waveguide.

Figure 11.11 (a) Solid lines: dispersion spectra of spin waves in an extended
Py film with the thickness of 5 and 25 nm, as labeled. Symbols: dispersion
spectrum of a spin-wave mode in a 500 nm-wide and 20 nm-thick stripe
waveguide manufactured on top of 5 nm-thick Py film. Calculations were
performed for H0 = 1000 Oe. Dashed horizontal line marks the FMR
frequency. (b) Current dependences of the auto-oscillation frequency
(point-down triangles) and the intensity (point-up triangles) of the NLSI
nano-oscillator. H0 = 1000 Oe. Reprinted from [76], with the permission
from Elsevier.
350 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

Figure 11.12a shows the spatial BLS intensity map recorded

by rastering the probing laser spot over a 3 µm by 1.2 µm region
encompassing the nanooscillator and the adjacent area of the
waveguide. It clearly shows two merged but distinct dynamical
regions. The first circular high-intensity region is centered on the
nanocontact. In this region, the magnetization oscillations are
excited by the spin current. It is merged with another arrow-shaped
increased-intensity region aligned with the strip waveguide, which is
indicated by a dashed contour in Fig. 11.12a. The increased intensity
is entirely confined to the waveguide, as shown by the transverse
section of the map, inset in Fig. 11.12b. These observations are
consistent with the directional propagation of a spin wave excited in
the waveguide by the spin current-induced oscillations.

Figure 11.12 (a) Normalized spatial map of the dynamic magnetization

recorded by BLS at I = 4 mA. Dashed line indicates the contour of the
waveguide. (b) Propagation-coordinate dependence of the spin-wave
intensity. Solid curve shows the result of the fit of the experimental data
(symbols) by the exponential function. Inset: transverse profile of the spin-
wave intensity at x = 2 µm. Reprinted from [76], with the permission from
Elsevier.

The propagation characteristics of the excited spin wave can be

analyzed based on the measured dependence of the BLS signals on
the propagation coordinate x, which is defined as the position along
the waveguide strip with the origin at the location of the nanocontact.
The point-down triangles in Fig. 11.12b show the BLS intensity
integrated across the transverse sections of the intensity map. These
data plotted on the logarithmic vertical scale show that the excited
spin wave exhibits a well-defined exponential decay ~exp(–2x/x)
 Excitation of Spin Waves by Pure Spin Currents 351

along the waveguide. By fitting these data with the exponential

function (curve in Fig. 11.12b), one obtains the propagation length x
= 3.0 µm, which is significantly larger than that obtained for devices
driven by spin-polarized currents [5] and is sufficiently large for the
practical implementations of magnonic nanosystems.
The BLS data also allow one to determine the efficiency of spin-
wave excitation in the waveguide due to the dynamical coupling to
the nano-oscillator. One can extrapolate the exponential spin-wave
decay curve to the position x = 150 nm corresponding to the edge of
the waveguide, and find the ratio between this value and the intensity
at the position x = 0 of the nanocontact, which characterizes the
energy of the localized auto-oscillation mode. From the data of Fig.
11.12b, one obtains the coupling of about 35%, which is superior to
the coupling efficiency of 2% achieved for traditional STNO devices
[5]. This significant improvement is likely due to the large size of the
auto-oscillation area in the NLSI oscillators providing a very efficient
coupling of localized oscillations to the propagating spin waves.

11.5.2 Excitation of Short Spin-Wave Packets

For the practical implementations of high-speed integrated
magnonic circuits, it is particularly important that the spin-
wave source is capable of generation of short wave packets. The
performance of the traditional inductive excitation technique is very
limited in this respect, since the externally generated microwave
signal has to be pulse-modulated by semiconductor switches, which
are generally characterized by a relatively low power efficiency, and
on-off times of at least several nanoseconds. The fastest spin-wave
excitation rate demonstrated so far was achieved by utilizing ultra-
short laser pulses [71–73]. However, this approach requires a high-
power femtosecond optical source, and therefore has significant
technological limitations. Recent experimental investigations of the
NLSI-based spin-wave generation have shown that this mechanism
is sufficiently fast to enable generation of short spin-wave packets
with the duration down to a few nanoseconds, close to the best
results achieved by using optical-pulse excitation [8].
Figure 11.13a shows the dynamic response of the NLSI oscillator
built into the magnonic system (Fig. 11.10) recorded by applying
driving electrical current I = 7 mA in the form of pulses with different
352 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

widths wd in the nanosecond range. As seen from these data, the

generated pulse of the dynamic magnetization maintains a nearly
rectangular shape and a constant peak intensity for wd down to 10 ns.
As wd is reduced to 3 ns, the dynamic-magnetization pulse becomes
almost Gaussian-shaped, and its peak intensity starts to decrease.
This width defines the characteristic time scale, at which the finite
response time of the NLSI oscillator starts to affect the excitation
efficiency. The dependence of the peak oscillation intensity on the
width of the driving-current pulse (Fig. 11.13b) shows that the
efficiency of the driving mechanism rapidly diminishes at wd < 3 ns.
In particular, at wd < 2.5 the intensity of the dynamic-magnetization
pulse falls below 50% of its maximum value achieved with long
pulses.

Figure 11.13 (a) Time dependencies of the auto-oscillation intensity

recorded by applying pulses of the driving current with the amplitude of
7 mA and different widths, as labeled. The data for the 3-ns wide pulse are
fitted by the Gaussian function. (b) Dependence of the peak intensity of
the auto-oscillation pulse on the width of the driving-current pulse. Curve
is a guide for the eye. The data were obtained at H0 = 1000 Oe. The auto-
oscillation frequency is 8 GHz. Reprinted from [8], with the permission of
AIP Publishing.

To estimate the shortest pulse achievable without an appreciable

loss of intensity, we note that the actual temporal width of the
generated pulse of the dynamic magnetization is smaller than
that of the driving-current pulse. For example, Gaussian fitting of
the magnetization pulse induced by the pulse of current with the
width wd = 3 ns (Fig. 11.13a) yields a half-maximum width of 2.1 ns.
Therefore, one can conclude that the NLSI mechanism allows one
to excite pulses of the dynamic magnetization with the width down
 Excitation of Spin Waves by Pure Spin Currents 353

to about 2 ns, without significantly compromising the efficiency of

the conversion of the dc current pulse into a microwave-frequency
signal. Generation of shorter microwave pulses can also be achieved,
but at the expense of the reduced power efficiency.
Figure 11.14 characterizes the spin waves excited in the
nanowaveguide by the pulses of current with the width wd = 3 ns and
amplitude 7 mA. The shown time-resolved BLS maps were recorded
by rastering the probing laser spot over a 4.5 µm ¥ 0.8 µm region
encompassing the NLSI oscillator and the waveguide. To better
visualize the spatial characteristics of the propagating spin-wave
packet, these maps are compensated for the spatial decay of spin
waves by multiplying the experimental data by exp(2x/x).

Figure 11.14 Normalized decay-compensated maps of the spin-wave intensity

recorded at delays of 1.6, 2.4, and 3.2 ns with respect to the start of the driving
current pulse, as labeled. Dashed lines indicate the contour of the nano-
waveguide. The data were obtained at H0 = 1000 Oe. The width of the driving-
current pulse is 3 ns and its amplitude is 7 mA. The spin-wave frequency is
8 GHz. Reprinted from [8], with the permission of AIP Publishing.

The maps shown in Fig. 11.14 demonstrate that the pulse of the
current-induced magnetization precession of the NLSI oscillator
efficiently couples to spin waves in the waveguide, producing a
propagating spin-wave packet. At t = 1.6 ns, a dynamic signal emerges
in the waveguide near its edge facing the NLSI oscillator. At t = 2.4
ns, the increased-intensity region spreads away from the oscillator,
indicating the propagation of the leading front of the spin-wave
354 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

packet. Finally, at t = 3.2 ns the packet occupies almost the entire

analyzed length of the waveguide. We note that the studied wave
packet has a small temporal width of about 2.1 ns, but a large spatial
width of more than 4 µm comparable to the size of the measured
maps. The relation between these characteristics is determined by
the large group velocity of spin waves in the waveguide vg = 2.5 µm/
ns, which is advantageous for the reduced spatial propagating losses,
but complicates the analysis of the propagation characteristics in the
spatial domain.
Figure 11.15 shows the results of the analysis of the wave packet
propagation in the time domain. We fit the temporal profiles of the
spin-wave packet recorded at different distances from the NLSI
oscillator by a Gaussian function (Fig. 11.15a), and determine the
dependence of the temporal width of the packet (Fig. 11.15b) on
the propagation coordinate x. The obtained dependence reveals
an intriguing behavior. Based on the general theory of waves in
dispersive media, one can expect that the short wave packet should
experience a temporal broadening due to the different velocities of its
spectral components. Contrary to these expectations, the data of Fig.
11.15b demonstrate that the wave packet experiences a noticeable
compression from the temporal width of 2.06±0.05 ns at the edge of
the guide, to 1.73±0.05 ns at the distance of 1.5 µm from the edge.
The initial compression is followed by a monotonic broadening at
larger propagation distances. The only known mechanism that
can be responsible for the observed temporal compression is the
dynamic magnetic nonlinearity, which under certain conditions can
counteract the dispersion broadening and lead to the formation of
spin-wave solitons [74, 75]. This interpretation is consistent with the
observed dependence on the propagation distance: the compression
is observed only at the initial stage of the packet propagation,
where the amplitude of the dynamic magnetization in the spin
wave is sufficiently large. As the amplitude of the propagating
wave decreases due to damping, the nonlinear effects disappear,
and the wave packet starts to broaden due to the expected effects
of dispersion. We emphasize a significant potential of the observed
nonlinear phenomena for applications, where they can be utilized to
further reduce the width of the generated wave packets, improving
the information transmission capacity of magnonic nanocircuits.
 Conclusions 355

Figure 11.15 (a) Temporal profile of the wave packet at x = 0, fitted by the
Gaussian function. (b) Propagation-coordinate dependence of the temporal
width of the spin-wave packet. The data were obtained at H0 = 1000 Oe. The
width of the driving-current pulse is 3 ns and its amplitude is 7 mA. The
spin-wave frequency is 8 GHz. Reprinted from [8], with the permission of
AIP Publishing.

11.6 Conclusions
In conclusion, we would like to emphasize the large importance
of the advancements in current-induced excitation and control of
spin waves for the development of the research field of magnonics,
which until recently has evolved independently from the field of
spin-torque phenomena. Although the limitations imposed by
the geometry of traditional spin-torque devices have discouraged
researchers from using them in magnonic circuits, we believe that
recent advances in studies of pure spin currents will dramatically
accelerate the integration of spin-torque and magnonic devices. An
additional encouraging benefit of pure spin currents for magnonics
is the possibility to excite and control spin waves in magnetic
insulators such as yttrium iron garnet, which is presently viewed as
the most suitable material for future nanomagnonic circuits.

Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge A. Anane, J. Ben Youssef, V. Bessonov,
P. Bortolotti, M. Collet, V. Cros, B. Divinskiy, M. Evelt, K. Garcia-
Hernandez, T. Kendziorczyk, O. Klein, T. Kuhn, J. Leuthold, R. Liu,
G. de Loubens, M. Munoz, V. V. Naletov, J. L. Prieto, G. Reiss, A. B.
356 Excitation and Amplification of Propagating Spin Waves by Spin Currents

Rinkevich, A. Telegin, H. Ulrichs, S. Urazhdin, and G. Wilde for their

contributions to this work. This work was supported in part by the
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the program Megagrant N°
14.Z50.31.0025 of the Russian Ministry of Education and Science.

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A., Van Waeyenberge, B., and Kruglyak, V. V. (2013). Direct excitation of
propagating spin waves by focused ultrashort optical pulses, Phys. Rev.
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73. Iihama, S., Sasaki, Y., Sugihara, A., Kamimaki, A., Ando, Y., and Mizukami,
S. (2016). Quantification of a propagating spin-wave packet created by
an ultrashort laser pulse in a thin film of a magnetic metal, Phys. Rev. B,
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Chapter 12

Propagating Spin Waves in Nanocontact

Spin Torque Oscillators

Randy K. Dumas, Afshin Houshang, and Johan Åkerman

Department of Physics, University of Gothenburg, Origovägen 6B,
Gothenburg 412 96, Sweden
[email protected]

12.1 Introduction
Spin torque oscillators (STOs) comprise a diverse class of
nanomagnetic devices that exhibit ultrawide operating frequencies
and modulation rates. Furthermore, their manufacturing processes
are compatible with radio frequency (RF) complementary metal-
oxide semiconductor (CMOS) fabrication standards, which makes
them particularly well-suited for easy integration into existing
and future technologies. STOs combine several spintronic and
nanomagnetic phenomena for their operation, such as giant
magnetoresistance (GMR), tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR),
spin transfer torque (STT), and, depending on device architecture
and the constituent magnetic materials employed, a plethora of
possible fundamentally intriguing magnetodynamic modes.

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
364 Propagating Spin Waves in Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators

Central to the operation of an STO is the phenomenon of

STT, which was first theoretically postulated just over 20 years
ago in two seminal papers by Slonczewski [1] and Berger [2].
In its most basic manifestation an electron spin current can be
thought of as a flow of angular momentum, given each constituent
electron carries a quantized unit of spin with it. When this
spin-polarized current enters, or reflects from, a nonmagnetic-
ferromagnetic interface the constituent spins will begin to
precess if the spin polarization is not collinear with the local
magnetization. Furthermore, over a very short distance, typically
on the scale of a few atomic lattice spacings, the average spin
angular momentum in the direction transverse to the local
magnetization direction within the ferromagnet is lost. Owing to
the conservation of angular momentum in a closed system,
such a change in angular momentum must be accompanied by a
corresponding torque, which then acts on the local magnetization.
Depending on the sign of the current and spin polarization this
so-called in-plane torque has a component that is either parallel
or antiparallel to the intrinsic damping torque, which acts to
align the local and magnetization along the local effective field.
When predominantly antiparallel to the damping toque the
time-averaged STT acts to reduce the magnetic damping and, if
strong enough, can destabilize the magnetization, thus exciting
large angle dynamics, or oscillations, of the magnetization,
typically in the gigahertz frequency range for most applied field
strengths. In the interest of completeness, it is important to note
that this in-plane torque is generally accompanied by an out-of-
plane torque that has the same symmetry as an effective field.
While this out-of-plane torque is small for all-metallic STOs,
which will be our primary focus here, it can be substantial in
devices with tunnel barriers [3, 4], where it, for example, plays
an important role in promoting mutual STO synchronization [5].
A more rigorous treatment of the STT can be found in the
seminal work of Ralph and Stiles [6].
How is a spin-polarized current generated? There are several
ways in which initially spin-unpolarized electrons can become
partially, or in some cases completely, spin polarized. We will
briefly discuss two methods. The first, and in many ways the most
straightforward, is by a process simply known as spin filtering.
Here, the spin current arises directly from the unequal population
 Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators 365

of spin-up and spin-down electrons at the Fermi surface of a

ferromagnetic metal. In short, when an unpolarized charge current
flows through a ferromagnetic layer it will exit partially (~40%
for Fe, Ni, and Co) spin polarized and the generated spin current
is accompanied by a charge current. Interestingly, and very topical
today, is that spin currents do not require any charge current
to flow. If one utilizes the spin Hall effect (SHE) [7, 8] by passing
a charge current longitudinally through a material with a large
spin-orbit coupling (e.g., Pt, Pd, W, etc.) a transverse pure spin
current is established, where spins of opposite signs move in
opposite directions, thus establishing a net flow of angular
momentum without a flow of charge (in that direction). STOs that
rely on the SHE are often referred to as spin Hall nano-oscillators
(SHNOs) [9–13]. Pure spin currents are especially useful if one
wants to make an STO with insulating magnetic materials, such
as the ferromagnetic insulator yttrium-iron-garnet (YIG) [14, 15],
which possesses an ultralow damping, making it particularly
exciting for a variety of future technologies based on the
functionalization of spin waves, that is, magnonics [16–20].
A recent review [21] describes both spin torque and spin Hall
nano-oscillators, as well as their technological potential, at length.
The first experimental demonstration of STT-driven
magnetization precession was reported by Tsoi et al. in 1998
[22] using a device based on a mechanical point contact, where
a highly sharpened metallic tip was used to make electrical
contact, typically with an area of ~102 nm2, to an extended
multilayer film (see Fig. 12.1a). Such small contacts are necessary to
increase the charge current density and, therefore the resulting
spin current density, needed for the STT to stabilize steady-
state magnetization dynamics in the nearby ferromagnetic layer.
Interestingly, these early point contact devices can be thought
of as the predecessors of nanocontact STOs (NC-STOs) [23–27]
that are the primary focus of this chapter.

12.2 Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators

As advances in nanofabrication techniques evolved, the ability
to reliably fabricate STOs with nanoscopic dimensions became a
366 Propagating Spin Waves in Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators

reality. Typical fabrication techniques for defining nanocontacts

(NCs) with nanodimensions are electron-beam lithography
or hole colloidal lithography techniques [28]. These techniques
combined with argon ion milling, reactive ion etching, and optical
lithography can produce NCs with well-defined sizes, cross
sections, and array geometries within an insulating layer, as shown
schematically in Fig. 12.1b. In both point contact and NC devices,
Figs. 12.1a and 12.1b, respectively, it is only the current injection
site that is confined to a nanoscopic region, and the underlying
layers can be thought of as being effectively infinite in extent
for most practical purposes. The current density is largest close
to the NC, and therefore at the top of the multilayer film stack.
As the electric current enters the extended multilayer structure it
spreads out dramatically decreasing in density and is ultimately
collected by a ground contact far from the NC.

Figure 12.1 Schematic representation of (a) point contact and

(b) nanocontact spin torque oscillators highlighting the multilayer
composition.

The most oft-utilized layer structure relies on a fixed layer/

spacer/free layer trilayer where both fixed and free layers
are magnetic. The fixed layer serves two purposes. First, it
provides the necessary spin polarization through reflections at
the spacer/fixed layer interface. The reflected electrons will be
preferentially spin polarized in a direction opposite to the spin
polarization of the fixed and free layer. Second, the fixed layer
provides the necessary GMR, for a conductive spacer such as Cu,
 Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators 367

necessary for electrical detection of the STT-induced oscillations

in the free layer. As the device is current biased, the oscillating
magnetization will manifest itself as a microwave voltage across
the device, which can routinely be measured after amplification
in the time domain using an oscilloscope or in the frequency
domain using a spectrum analyzer. Note that insulating spacer
layers can be employed where the typically much larger TMR effect
leads to larger microwave voltages and therefore higher output
powers [29–31]. The free layer is typically thin (2–5 nm) to
lower the necessary drive currents needed to sustain oscillations.
In the interest of completeness, we should also mention that
STT-driven oscillations have also been observed in NC-STOs
with only a single free magnetic layer [32–34]. Here, the spin
polarization is established by unequal spin populations on
either side of the free layer facilitated by asymmetric top/bottom
interfaces, and the resulting microwave voltage is generated by
the anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) effect.
The materials, and resulting easy magnetization directions
of the constituent fixed and free layers found in NC-STOs can
vary greatly. For example, in all-perpendicular devices [35, 36]
both fixed and free layers have perpendicular magnetic anisotropy
(PMA). Typical materials of choice include both Co/Ni and Co/
Pt multilayers. Such all-perpendicular devices show particular
promise for STO operation in zero applied fields but are not optimal
for maximizing output power. An interesting compromise has
been to consider STOs with a tilted free layer [37–41] where the
magnetization has both in-plane and out-of-plane components
and can therefore work in a zero field, while maintaining
relatively high output powers [42]. Yet another material
combination establishes an orthogonal equilibrium direction of
the magnetizations of the fixed and free layers [43, 44]. For example,
a fixed/free layer combination of Co, which naturally has an
in-plane anisotropy, and Co/Ni multilayers with PMA has recently
generated significant attention as such an arrangement allowed
for the first experimental demonstration [45] of dissipative
magnetic droplets [46–50]. However, both the original
experiments and the devices discussed in this chapter rely on all
in-plane devices where both fixed and free layers have a dominant
in-plane anisotropy. More specifically, an 8-nm-thick Co layer
368 Propagating Spin Waves in Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators

fixed layer will be separated from a 4.5-nm-thick permalloy

(Ni80Fe20) free layer by an 8 nm Cu spacer [51–53].

12.3 Magnetodynamical Modes

NC-STOs exhibit a diversity of fundamentally different dynamical
modes that depend greatly on the device architecture, constituent
magnetic layers, applied field strength, and applied field angle.
Here, we focus on the types of modes commonly exhibited by NC-
STOs where the fixed and free layers have an intrinsic in-plane
anisotropy. This is best described by considering the out-of-plane
angular dependence, that is, the angle of the applied field with
respect to the film plane, of these excitations. The initial experiments
[26, 54, 55] using in-plane fields revealed a strongly nonlinear
solitonic bullet mode, as later described by both analytical
calculations [56] and micromagnetic simulations [57]. However,
when a field of sufficient strength orients the free layer
out-of-plane an exchange-dominated propagating spin wave is
excited, as originally predicted by Slonczewski in 1999 [58]. The
wave vector of the excited propagating spin waves is inversely
proportional to the NC radius. The first direct experimental
observation of such propagating spin waves was made in 2011
by Madami et al. [59] using microfocused Brillouin light
scattering (m-BLS), a technique described in detail in the previous
chapter. For intermediate angles the initial calculations [60],
simulations [61], and experiments [54] showed that the solitonic
bullet mode can only be generated for applied field angles up to
a certain critical angle, qC, and the propagating spin wave mode,
while technically possible for any applied field angle, should
not coexist with the bullet mode. The reasoning behind this
“winner takes all” interpretation is that the bullet mode has a
substantially lower threshold current since radiative losses do not
have to be compensated for. However, these initial considerations
for oblique applied field angles did not properly take into account
the critically important Oersted field generated in NC-STOs.
For example, a simple application of Ampère’s law reveals that
for typical drive currents and NC dimensions, the Oersted field is
 Magnetodynamical Modes 369

on the order of 0.1 T at the NC edge. This is a significant fraction

of the externally applied field and cannot be considered an
inconsequential perturbation. The remainder of this chapter will
therefore be devoted to the consequences of the Oersted field on
the magnetodynamics.

12.3.1 Role of the Oersted Field

The Oersted field has three important consequences on the
fundamental spin wave excitations that were not considered in
the initial studies [51]: (i) localization of the propagating mode
at low applied field angles, (ii) multimode coexistence, and
(iii) asymmetric spin wave propagation. The first two consequences
can be easily observed in the angular dependence of the
electrically measured microwave frequency spectra, as shown in
Fig. 12.2. Three distinct angular regions can be identified. For
qex > 60° a single spin wave mode lies well above the ferromagnetic
resonance (FMR) frequency (solid white line) of the Ni80Fe20
free layer and corresponds to a propagating spin wave, as
originally theorized by Slonczewski [58]. For qex < qC = 60° the
threshold current of the Slavin–Tiberkevich solitonic bullet
mode [56, 60] becomes finite, and we enter an angular range
where both the propagating mode and the bullet mode can be
excited by the STT. However, for these intermediate angles it is
difficult for these two modes to coexist as they spatially overlap,
and we do not observe a “winner takes all” situation. Instead, the
primary feature observed for these intermediate angles is a broad
low-frequency ( f < 3 GHz) signature, consistent with the relatively
slow stochastic switching between modes, consistent with mode
hopping [62]. As the applied field angle is lowered further, the
Oersted field now acts to localize the propagating spin wave mode.
It is clearly shown in Fig. 12.2 that for qex < 45° the propagating
mode frequency now becomes smaller than the FMR frequency
and can therefore be considered self-localized. Furthermore,
micromagnetic simulations reveal that the Oersted field acts
to spatially separate the bullet mode and the now-localized
propagating mode. This spatial separation then ensures that
these two modes can now coexist, and the low-frequency
370 Propagating Spin Waves in Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators

mode-hopping signature in the microwave frequency spectra

disappears. Some of the most interesting consequences of the
Oersted field on the STT-driven dynamics in NC-STOs can be
observed for the propagating spin wave mode and are not
immediately apparent by just analyzing the electronically
measured microwave spectra shown in Fig. 12.2.

Figure 12.2 Experimentally measured angular dependence of the

frequency spectra for an NC-STO with an NC diameter of 90 nm and a
bias current of –20 mA. Three distinct angular regimes are indicated,
each exhibiting unique magnetodynamics. © (2016) IEEE. Reprinted, with
permission, from [21].

12.4 Asymmetric Spin Wave Propagation

In Fig. 12.2 the FMR frequency was superimposed on the
measured microwave spectra. However, the magnetic field used
to calculate this FMR frequency only utilized the large (~1 T)
external field applied by an electromagnet and neglects the
spatially inhomogeneous current induced Oersted field in
the vicinity of the NC. Therefore, the FMR frequency shown in
 Asymmetric Spin Wave Propagation 371

Fig. 12.2 is strictly only valid in the far field, that is, at a
considerable distance from the NC. It is important to instead
think in terms of a spatially varying FMR frequency, calculated
on a cell-by-cell basis, that takes into account all relevant
magnetic fields. Such an FMR frequency spatial map near an NC
is shown in Fig. 12.3a. For this particular geometry, the in-plane
component of the external field points to the right and the flow
of electrons is into the plane of the page, establishing the sense
of the indicated Oersted field shown in Fig. 12.3b. Therefore,
regions near the top (bottom) of the NC experience a smaller
(larger) effective field and the FMR frequency varies, as indicated
in Fig. 12.3a. Clearly, the current-induced Oersted field has
dramatic consequences on the local FMR frequency [63], which
shows variations on the order of 6 GHz. The regions with a
higher local FMR frequency will tend to block the propagation of
spin waves in that direction, downward in this case. The spatial
variation of the power of the simulated spin wave propagation
is shown in Fig. 12.3b for an applied field angle of qex = 70°.
A clear spin wave beam is observed, with the majority of the spin
wave energy travelling upward toward the regions with locally
smaller FMR frequencies.

Figure 12.3 The calculated FMR frequency landscape for a single NC with
a diameter of 90 nm. The inhomogeneous FMR frequency landscape
promotes the formation of spin wave beams, as shown in the micromagnetic
simulations (b).
372 Propagating Spin Waves in Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators

Figure 12.4 (a) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of an NC-STO

device showing the ground (G) and signal (S) top contacts. The location
of the NC and the sense of the Oersted field are also highlighted.
The m-BLS beam is scanned over the 2 × 1 µm2 area indicated. The
experimentally measured spin wave intensity maps are shown in (b) and
(c) for two opposite orientations of the external field (|µoHext| = 0.7 T),
where the in-plane component points either to the left or to the right,
respectively. Reprinted with permission from Madami et al. [52].

To experimentally observe such asymmetric spin wave

propagation directly, a scanning microscopy probe is necessary.
As discussed at length in the previous chapter, scanning m-BLS
is an ideal probe for spin wave excitations in general and in STOs
[64]. However, the NC-STO geometry poses several challenges for
m-BLS measurements; most notably the top contact used to
supply current to the NC is usually very thick (~micrometers),
which is much more than the propagation length of the probing
light. It is therefore necessary to alter the device architecture
 Spin Wave Beam–Driven Synchronization 373

slightly to allow for the probing light to more efficiently probe

the magnetodynamically active Ni80Fe20 free layer. In the original
study [59], which definitely and directly probed propagating
spin waves in NC-STOs, this was done by using a focused ion
beam to open a window in the top contact. More recently we have
slightly modified our top contact geometry to allow for a
considerable space above the NC for the laser to probe, as shown in
Fig. 12.4a. The NC-STOs studied only generate STT-driven dynamics
for a single current polarity corresponding to electrons flowing
into the plane of the page. Therefore, in the scanned region
above the NC, the Oersted field will always point predominantly
to the left, as indicated in Fig. 12.4a–c. However, the in-plane
component of the external field (HIP) provided by an electromagnet
can easily change sign. When the Oersted field and HIP point in
opposite directions there is a local field minimum, and therefore
FMR frequency minimum in the scanned region and spin waves
are clearly observed (Fig. 12.4b). However, when the sign of
HIP is reversed, a local FMR frequency maximum thwarts spin
wave propagation upward and little to no BLS signal is observed
(Fig. 12.4c). This work [52] was the first to experimentally probe
the asymmetric propagation of spin waves in NC-STOs, having
only been shown using simulations before.

12.5 Spin Wave Beam–Driven Synchronization

The synchronization of coupled nonlinear oscillators is a common
natural phenomenon, and STOs provide an ideal playground
to study synchronization at the nanoscale. Synchronization in
NC-STOs has been relatively straightforward, and two seminal
works were published in 2005 [65, 66], demonstrating the
successful synchronization of two oscillators, just one year after
the first experimental demonstration of what we now refer to as an
NC-STO. The necessary coupling is achieved by pattering
multiple NCs on top of a shared free layer. It was then shown
that propagating spin waves in the free layer are the dominant
coupling mechanism [67]. The necessary coupling needed to
enforce synchronization has typically been described as being
mutual in nature, with each oscillator playing a more or less
equal role. Interestingly, since these early demonstrations of NC-
374 Propagating Spin Waves in Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators

STO synchronization, progress in synchronizing more than two

oscillators had remained relatively slow. Only in 2013 was
the successful synchronization of three high-frequency NC-
STOs mediated by spin waves published [28]. The most recent
advancements in synchronization of NC-STOs has focused on
taking advantage of the highly directional spin wave beams
discussed in the prior section [53].
The critical importance of spin wave beams on synchronization
can be easily understood by considering Fig. 12.5a–d, where
the NCs are fabricated in what is called a horizontal geometry,
where HIP points along the direction joining the two oscillators
(Fig. 12.5a). Figure 12.5b shows the calculated FMR frequency
landscape in the vicinity of the two NCs and Fig. 12.5c the
resulting simulated propagating spin wave emission pattern.
As can be clearly seen, in the horizontal geometry the majority
of the spin wave energy propagates in a direction away from the
other NC or oscillator. It is therefore not surprising that
synchronization can prove to be difficult in this geometry. Figure
12.5d shows the experimentally measured microwave spectra
measured as a function of bias current. Over the entire current
range two distinct modes, corresponding to each oscillator, are
observed and synchronization is never achieved. It is important
to note that in this horizontal geometry, which is in fact the same
geometry used in many of the initial experiments, synchronization
is sometimes observed but with a relatively low success rate.
The solution to robustly synchronizing multiple oscillators
also now seems relatively obvious, namely one should fabricate
the NCs in a vertical geometry such that the spin waves travel
in a direction toward the other NC (Fig. 12.5e–h). We note a
dramatically different spin wave emission pattern (Fig. 12.5g)
and have successfully observed synchronization at distances up
to 1300 nm (Fig. 12.5h), which is not only a record distance for
NC-STOs but also consistent with the finite propagation length
typically observed for Ni80Fe20 free layers. Yet another interesting
consequence of this spin wave beam–mediated synchronization
is that the character of the synchronization can no longer be
considered mutual in nature but is instead driven. That is, the
frequency of the bottommost oscillator sets the frequency of the
synchronized pair.
 Spin Wave Beam–Driven Synchronization 375

Figure 12.5 SEM images (a, e), calculated FMR frequency landscapes
(b, f), simulated spin wave intensity maps (c, g), and experimentally
measured frequency spectra (d, h) of two NC-STOs spatially arranged so
the in-plane component of the external field is either parallel or
orthogonal to the line joining the NCs, that is, either a horizontal (left
panels) or a vertical (right panels) array geometry. Due to the asymmetric
spin wave beam propagation, synchronization is much more preferred
in the vertical array geometry and can be observed for NC separations
up to 1300 nm. Adapted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd:
Nature Nanotechnology [53].
376 Propagating Spin Waves in Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators


Figure 12.6 (a, top) Experimentally measured frequency spectra of 5
NC-STOs in a vertical array geometry showing robust synchronization
over the entire range of bias currents. When the in-plane component
of the applied field is rotated by 30°, synchronization is broken (a, bottom).
By comparing the integrated power and linewidth (b) of the fully and
partially synchronized states shown in (a) it can be concluded that there
exists pairwise synchronization of four of the oscillators and a single
unlocked oscillator in (a, bottom). Reprinted by permission from Macmillan
Publishers Ltd: Nature Nanotechnology [53].

The results shown in Fig. 12.5e–h for a vertical NC geometry

can be extended to an even larger number of NCs by simply daisy-
chaining them together, as shown in Fig. 12.6a (upper panel) for
 Conclusions and Future Directions 377

five such NC-STOs. As the synchronization is driven in nature,

from the onset of auto-oscillations the system is in a synchronized
state and only a single mode is observed over the entire current
range. To break the synchronization, the in-plane angle of HIP is
rotated by 30° so that the spin waves propagate in a direction
away from the other NCs (Fig. 12.6a, lower panel). Note, that complete
desynchronization is not observed. However, after analyzing the
mode power and linewidths (Fig. 12.6b), we conclude that four
of the oscillators are pairwise synchronized and one oscillator is
independent.

12.6 Conclusions and Future Directions

In conclusion, this chapter summarizes some of the most recent
work since the first experimental observation of propagating spin
waves in NC-STOs was published in 2011 [39]. A central theme
has been the critical role of the inhomogeneous Oersted field on
the magnetodynamics, which has shown to give rise to not only
spin wave localization but also asymmetric spin wave
propagation. This asymmetric spin wave propagation has far-
reaching consequences. For example, synchronization mediated
by such spin wave beams cannot be considered mutual in nature
but is instead driven by the NC from which the spin waves originate.
In addition, one can daisy-chain any number of NC-STOs and extend
the spin wave propagation length, forming a type of spin wave
repeater capable of transporting information over much larger
distances than the intrinsic propagation length would ordinarily
allow.
Taking advantage of the directionality of the spin waves,
one can also envision techniques to further manipulate and control
the synchronization state in a simple two-dimensional array of
NC-STOs by changing the direction of the in-plane applied field,
thereby steering the spin wave beam in a particular direction,
as was also shown in Fig. 12.6a (lower panel) to break the
synchronization of the 5-NC chain. This concept is schematically
shown in Fig. 12.7, in which the NCs with the same color are
synchronized and the arrows indicate the spin wave propagation
direction under different in-plane applied field directions.
378 Propagating Spin Waves in Nanocontact Spin Torque Oscillators

In a different context, STOs can also act as potential

building blocks for next-generation neuromorphic computing
architectures that aim to mimic the neurobiological functionality
found in the human brain [68]. Biological neurons can be modelled
as nonlinear oscillators that adjust their rhythms in response to
external stimuli. Furthermore, neurons form massively parallel
and interconnected networks of coupled oscillators where the
coupling is mediated by adaptable and programmable synapses.
In analogy to spintronic nano-oscillators, neural networks can
self-synchronize and can play a key role in, for example,
associative memory tasks. In fact, if properly harnessed, spintronic
nano-oscillators, which work on nanometer length scales and at
gigahertz frequencies, may even be more scalable than biological
neurons, which work on much larger (~micrometers) and
slower (~10 Hz) scales. Recently, simulations have shown that
pulse-coupled STOs with dynamic synapses can show various
cooperative phenomena such as synchronous, clustered, and
coherent states based on synaptic interactions [69]. Furthermore,
recent experiments showed the realization of the first magnetic
tunnel junction (MTJ)-based memristor, which paves the way for
bioinspired magnetic neural computing [70]. Finally, non-Boolean
computation with artificial oscillatory neural networks, which
operate using the frequency domain representation of an analog
signal where the frequency, phase, and amplitude play the role
of information carriers, is projected to be much more energy
efficient than its present, and even future, Boolean counterpart.

Figure 12.7 Schematic representations of synchronization in a simple

two-dimensional triangular array of NC-STOs. By controlling the direction
of the in-plane component of the applied field (HIP), synchronization
(indicated by circles with the same color) can be controlled between
the bottommost and (a) upper-left, (b) upper-right, or (c) all three
oscillators.
 References 379

Acknowledgments
This work was supported, in part, by the Swedish Research
Council (VR), the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research
(SSF), and the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. It was also
partially supported by the European Research Council (ERC)
grant no. 307144 “MUSTANG” and the European Commission
FP7-ICT-2011 contract no. 317950 “MOSAIC.” We would also
like to thank M. Madami for the m-BLS measurements presented
in this chapter.

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Chapter 13

Parametric Excitation and Amplification

of Spin Waves in Ultrathin
Ferromagnetic Nanowires by Microwave
Electric Field

Roman Verba,a Mario Carpentieri,b Giovanni Finocchio,c

Vasil Tiberkevich,d and Andrei Slavind
aInstituteof Magnetism, 36b Vernadskogo Blvd., Kyiv 03680, Ukraine
bDepartment of Electrical and Information Engineering, Politecnico di Bari,
via E. Orabona 4, Bari I-70125, Italy
cDepartment of Mathematical and Computer Sciences, Physical Sciences and

Earth Sciences, University of Messina, V.le F. d’Alcontres 31, Messina I-98166, Italy
dDepartment of Physics, Oakland University, 2200 N. Squirrel Road, Rochester,

MI 48309, USA

[email protected]

Electric field control of magnetization of ferromagnets via

magnetoelectric effects attracts a lot of attention as it makes possible
the development of novel magnetic devices with ultralow power
consumption. In particular, it could allow energy-efficient excitation
and processing of spin wave signals in ferromagnetic films and
nanowires. In this chapter we focus on the application of the voltage-

Spin Wave Confinement: Propagating Waves (2nd Edition)

Edited by Sergej O. Demokritov
Copyright © 2017 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd.
ISBN 978-981-4774-35-2 (Hardcover), 978-1-315-11082-0 (eBook)
www.panstanford.com
386 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

controlled magnetic anisotropy (VCMA) effect to excite, amplify,

and control propagating spin waves in magnetic nanostructures by
means of an externally applied microwave electric field.
It is shown that a microwave electric field signal of a certain
frequency applied to a nanoscale VCMA gate can parametrically
excite half-frequency spin waves, propagating from the gate. It is
also shown that a similar microwave electric field signal applied to
a “control” VCMA gate, situated along the propagation path of the
excited half-frequency spin wave, can effectively parametrically
amplify the propagating spin wave if the initial wave amplitude is
sufficiently small, or can stabilize the amplitude of the propagating
wave if the initial wave amplitude is sufficiently large. In addition,
we discuss the effect of the interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya
interaction (IDMI) on the parametric amplification of spin waves
and demonstrate that IDMI can be used for the improvement of
the operational characteristics of the spin wave signal processing
devices based on the VCMA effect.

13.1 Introduction
The research field of magnonics has attracted growing attention
due to the potential applications of propagating spin waves (SW)
(or magnons) in the next generation of signal-processing devices
as information carriers replacing the electrons that are used
for this purpose in traditional CMOS devices [8, 26, 28]. SWs as
carriers of information have several important advantages: (i) small
wavelengths, , down to tens of nanometers [1], (ii) the possibility
to vary SW dispersion both by the patterning of a ferromagnetic
film [11, 41] and by dynamic manipulation of the external bias
magnetic field [7, 26], (iii) the possibility to achieve nonreciprocal
SW propagation [16, 24, 54, 63], and (iv) the possibility to control
SWs by various nonlinear and parametric processes [16, 31]. All
these features allow one to design nanoscale devices for both digital
and analog data processing [12, 21, 46].
One of the important drawbacks of the existing SW technology is
that the excitation and control of SW are performed using external
magnetic fields, which are, usually, created by electric currents in
adjacent conducting lines. The generation of microwave currents
 Introduction 387

leads to substantial Ohmic losses, limits the minimum time constants

of the devices due to the finite inductance of the conducting lines, and
complicates device miniaturization and compatibility of SW devices
with conventional voltage-controlled CMOS microelectronics.
Modern methods of magnetization manipulation using spin-
polarized dc current [23, 51] or pure spin current produced using
the spin-Hall effect [9, 10, 29] can be used at nanoscale, but have
insufficient energy efficiency.
A possible way to create energy-efficient nanoscale SW devices
lies in the use of magnetoelectric effects, which, in general, allow one
to manipulate the magnetization of a ferromagnet or the effective
field in it directly by the application of an electric field or voltage.
Several different magnetoelectric effects are now intensively
investigated for this purpose, e.g., stress-mediated effects in
piezoelectric-piezomagnetic heterostructures, magnetoelectric
effect in multiferroic materials, spin flexo-electric interaction, etc.
[15, 33, 36, 49].
In this chapter we focus on the recently discovered effect of
voltage-controlled magnetic anisotropy (VCMA) [13, 42, 60]. This
effect takes place at the interface between a ferromagnetic metal (e.g.,
Fe, CoFeB) and a nonmagnetic insulator (e.g., MgO) and originates
from the different rates of filling of d-like electron bands in response
to electric field applied perpendicularly to the interface [13]. Since
electrons in different bands contribute unequally to the uniaxial
perpendicular magnetic anisotropy at the interface, the electric field
can be used to modulate perpendicular magnetic anisotropy of a
ferromagnetic metal. The VCMA effect has many attractive features,
including linearity (variation of the anisotropy energy is directly
proportional to the applied voltage) [13], absence of a hysteresis
[17], possibility of relatively large variations of the anisotropy field
[32, 39], and vanishing inertia (at least, in the gigahertz frequency
range) [43, 65]. These features make VCMA promising for various
practical applications. In particular, the VCMA effect has been
already proposed for use in magnetic recording [47, 59], control of
motion of domain walls [2, 45] and skyrmions [64], phase control of
SWs [40], and linear and parametric excitation of standing SWs in
ferromagnetic nanodots [6, 43, 48, 65].
In this chapter we demonstrate several principles, which could be
used for SW signal processing using VCMA effect, following, mainly,
388 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

Refs. [55–58]. First, in Section 13.2, the excitation of SWs in ultrathin

ferromagnetic nanowires by microwave electric field is considered.
It is known that ultrathin ferromagnetic films and nanowires can
exist in the out-of-plane-magnetized or in-plane-magnetized ground
state depending on their thickness [18, 61], and both these cases
are discussed below. It is shown that in both above mentioned cases
the SW excitation is possible only via the parametric mechanism,
when the SW frequency is one-half of the frequency of the applied
voltage. Then, in Section 13.3, the amplification and stabilization
of SW amplitude by microwave voltage is demonstrated. Finally, in
Section 13.4, we discuss the effect of the SW nonreciprocity induced
by the interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction (IDMI) [14,
38] on the amplification of SWs, and show how it can improve the
characteristics of SW signal-processing devices.

13.2 Excitation of Spin Waves

As it has been already pointed out and will be explained in more detail
below, the SW excitation by VCMA microwave signal in the absence
of an external magnetic field is possible only via the parametric
excitation mechanism. The parametric excitation is the threshold
process—SWs are excited only when the amplitude of the driving
signal (microwave voltage in our case) at the double SW frequency
exceeds a certain threshold level [16]. This excitation threshold
depends on the geometry of the ferromagnetic nanowire and on the
wavenumber and structure of the excited SW, as discussed in Section
13.2.1. In the supercritical regime, when the amplitude of the driving
voltage exceeds the threshold value, the nonlinear interactions
between the excited SWs become important and determine the
amplitudes of the excited SWs and stability of the parametric
excitation. This regime is briefly discussed in Section 13.2.2.

13.2.1 E fficiency of the Parametric Interaction and

Excitation Threshold

13.2.1.1 Perpendicularly magnetized nanowire

A layout of a device for the excitation of SWs by electric field via
the VCMA effect is presented in Fig. 13.1. A ferromagnetic metal
 Excitation of Spin Waves 389

(Fe) strip of the width wy and thickness h grown, typically, on the

GaAs(100) substrate is covered by a thin dielectric layer (MgO).
The microwave-frequency voltage applied between the top gate
electrode of the length Lg and the Fe strip causes the variation of the
magnetic anisotropy at the Fe/MgO interface. The variation of the
surface anisotropy constant Ks is linearly proportional to the electric
field E at the interface: ΔKs = βE, where β is the magnetoelectric
coefficient [13]. Since VCMA is a purely interfacial effect, it is more
pronounced in ultrathin ferromagnetic metal films (h ≈ 1 nm), in
which the perpendicular surface magnetic anisotropy significantly
affects the magnetic ground state [18, 61]. In the absence of a
bias magnetic field, which is very desirable for applications, the
direction of the static magnetization of a magnetic film depends on
its thickness—below some critical value (~ 0.78 nm for Fe film) the
static magnetization is out-of-plane, while above this value, it is in-
plane. We shall start our discussion with the first case.

Figure 13.1 A layout of a device for the VCMA-induced parametric excitation

of propagating SWs.

Only the perpendicular anisotropy can be modulated via the

VCMA effect. In the considered case of a perpendicular static
magnetization this leads to the modulation of the perpendicular
(z) component of the effective field inside the ferromagnet at the
frequency of the applied voltage, i.e., the microwave component of
the effective field is parallel to the static magnetization. It is known
that in such a case the linear excitation of SWs (when the frequency
of the excited wave is equal to the frequency of the driving voltage)
is impossible, since the linear excitation requires the non-zero
component of the microwave field to be perpendicular to the static
magnetization [16].
At the same time, the geometry of an unbiased magnetic strip
(Fig. 13.1) is ideally suitable for the parametric excitation of SWs,
when the frequency of the excited wave is two times smaller than
390 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

the frequency of the applied microwave electric field. This is a so-

called geometry of a parametric “parallel pumping” [16, 31], when
the external microwave field (or the effective field, as in our case) is
parallel to the static magnetization. The mechanism of the parametric
excitation can be described as follows. Owing to the thermal
fluctuations, the magnetization of the film performs stochastic
precession around the equilibrium direction M0 = Msez (Ms is the
saturation magnetization of the ferromagnetic film). If the precession
of magnetization with the frequency ωk (Fourier component of the
stochastic precession) goes over an elliptic trajectory (e.g., due to the
shape or crystallographic anisotropy), it creates a modulation of the
longitudinal (mz) magnetization component with double frequency
2ωk. The externally driven time-varying effective anisotropy field
ΔBan(t) = ΔBan(t)exp[–iωpt] couples to these out-of plane oscillations
of the film magnetization and pumps energy into the magnetic
system of the film. This pumping process is efficient (resonant) if
the pumping frequency is close to ωp ≈ 2ωk. When the pumping
amplitude exceeds a certain threshold ΔBan,th, determined by the
magnetic damping in the film material and the radiation losses, it
excites a propagating SW of the frequency ωp/2.
The parametric excitation of SWs by both spatially uniform
and localized parallel pumping has been extensively discussed
in literature [16, 31, 34]. In general, the magnetization dynamics
in a ferromagnetic nanowire is described by the well-known
Landau–Lifshitz equation [16], in which the effect of VCMA can
be taken into account by time-dependent effective anisotropy
tensor Nan (t ) = (e z ƒ e z )b E (t )/( m0Ms2h) with the anisotropy axis
ez. Representing the nanowire magnetization as a sum of static
magnetization and a series of propagating SWs having wavevector
k = kex, frequency ωk, damping rate Γk and vector structure mk(y) =
mk,xex + mk,yey,

 (c m e ( )
È i kx -w k t )
˘
M (r , t ) = M s Íe z + k k + c.c. ˙ , (13.1)
ÍÎ k ˙˚
one can obtain the following equation for the SW amplitude ck under
the action of a parallel parametric pumping [34]:
dck Lg
dt
+ iw k ck + G k ck = Âi l
k¢ x
Vkk ¢ bk + k ¢ e
- iw pt *
ck ' . (13.2)
 Excitation of Spin Waves 391

Here bk is the Fourier image of the spatial profile of the effective
pumping magnetic field bp(x), which, in our case, is equal to the
voltage-induced anisotropy field bp(x) = ΔBan(x) = 2βE(x)/(Msh), Lg
and lx are the lengths of the gate electrode and the magnetic nanowire
in the x direction, respectively, and the superscript * denotes the
complex conjugation. For a spatially uniform gate of the length Lg the
Fourier profile bk = sinc[kLg /2] , and the parametric pumping most
efficiently couples to the SWs having opposite wavevectors k and –k,
which is a consequence of the momentum conservation law.
Note that, in general, the SW spectrum of a nanowire consists of
infinitely many SW modes, which differ by the mode profile along
the nanowire width (i.e., mk = mk,n(y)). However, since the pumping
is uniform along the nanowire width, it does not couple the SW
modes having different width profiles, and the dynamics of each SW
mode is described by the same Eq. 13.2) (with replacement ωk Æ
ωk,n, etc.). Below we shall restrict our attention to the case of the
lowest SW mode n = 0 of the nanowire, which has a uniform profile
along the nanowire width. Notes on the excitation of higher-order
SW modes are given in Section 13.2.1.3.
The parameter Vkk’ describes the efficiency of the parametric
coupling of SWs with the pumping. In this case, when the condition
of exact parametric resonance ωk = ωp/2 is satisfied for a certain SW
wavevector k, the coupling parameter is equal to
m*k ◊ m*k
Vk( - k ) = Vkk = -g , (13.3)
2 A k
where γ is the gyromagnetic ratio of the ferromagnetic material,
angular brackets mean averaging over the nanowire width, and
A k is the norm of the SW mode (see Appendix A, which provides
details on the calculation of the SW spectrum and the mode vector
structure mk). Noting that for a perpendicular static magnetization
the SW mode structure can be represented as mk = |mk,x|ex + i|mk,y|ey,
one can easily find that the parametric interaction efficiency
is proportional to the difference of the squares of the dynamic
magnetization components, Vkk ~ (|mk,x|2 – |mk,y|2). In other words,
|Vkk| depends on the ellipticity of magnetization precession. So, for
circular precession, when |mk,x| = |mk,y|, the parametric coupling is
equal to zero, and this coupling increases with the increase in the
precession ellipticity.
392 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

The ellipticity of SW depends on the nanowire geometry and on

the SW wavenumber k, resulting in the dependence of Vkk on these
parameters. The dependence of Vkk on the SW wavenumber k for the
lowest mode (n = 0) is shown in Fig. 13.2b. At small wavenumbers
k, the precession ellipticity is determined mainly by the in-plane
shape anisotropy of the nanowire and the long axis of the precession
ellipse is directed along the nanowire length. Naturally, this shape
anisotropy is higher for narrower nanowires, which results in
larger parametric interaction efficiency of long-wavelength SWs
in narrower nanowires. With an increase in k (decrease in the SW
wavelength) the dynamic demagnetization along the x axis increases
and, at a certain wavenumber k0, the precession becomes circular,
leading to zero parametric interaction efficiency. This compensation
of ellipticity occurs at smaller k0 for wider nanowires. Above the
compensation point k > k0 the precession is also elliptical, but with
the long axis of the precession ellipse directed along the y axis, which
is a consequence of the increased dynamic demagnetization in the x
direction. Finally, at even higher k the properties of the SW mode are
mainly determined by the exchange interaction, which is isotropic,
leading to vanishing of the SW ellipticity and parametric interaction
coefficient Vkk.

Figure 13.2 Eigenfrequency fk = ωk/2π (a), parametric interaction efficiency

Vkk/γ (b), and minimum threshold electric field for the parametric excitation
of SW Eth (c) as functions of SW wave number for the lowest mode of a
ferromagnetic nanowire. Calculations were made for a Fe nanowire of
thickness h = 0.75 nm and widths wx = 20 nm (solid lines) and wx = 100 nm
(dashed lines). The material parameters are μ0Ms = 2.1 T, exchange length
λex = 3.4 nm, constant of surface perpendicular anisotropy Ks = 1.36 mJ/m2,
Gilbert damping αG = 0.004, non-uniform line broadening Δωnu = 2π×230
MHz, magnetoelectric coefficient b = 100 fJ/Vm [42, 52, 61].
 Excitation of Spin Waves 393

As it was mentioned above, the parametric excitation starts

when the energy transfer from the pumping to SWs overcomes the
total losses. The total losses consist of the losses associated with
the intrinsic SW damping and the radiation losses due to the SW
propagation outside of the pumping region. The minimum possible
threshold is achieved when the pumping region is significantly
larger than the SW propagation length. In that case, the threshold
is determined only by the intrinsic damping rate Γk = αGωk +
Δωnu, which consists of the homogeneous damping αGωk and the
nonhomogeneous line broadening characterized by the parameter
Δωnu. As one can show from Eq. 13.2, taking into account only the
SWs having opposite wavevectors k and –k (since bk Æ d (k ) for an
infinitely large pumping region), the pumping threshold amplitude
is given by the simple expression bp,th = Γk / Vkk. Above this level,
bp > bp,th, the SW amplitudes start to grow exponentially, which
means that the parametric excitation of SWs takes place [16, 31].
The exponential growth of SWs is limited by nonlinear interactions
between the excited SWs, and this nonlinear regime is considered
below in Section 13.2.2.
The threshold electric field can be found as Eth = bp,thMsh/2β, and
Fig. 13.2c demonstrates this threshold electric field as a function
of SW wavenumber k. Due to the existence of the point of circular
polarization k = k0, in which the threshold becomes infinite, the
dependence Eth(k) has two local minima, one at k = 0 and another
one at a certain large k > k0 (for wx = 20 nm the second minimum
is out of the plot region). As one can see from Fig. 13.2c, in narrow
nanowires the minimum parametric excitation threshold is achieved
for relatively long SWs (small k). In contrast, for a sufficiently wide
nanowire, the second local minimum at k > k0 becomes deeper than
the minimum at k = 0, meaning that the excitation of relatively short
SWs becomes more efficient. However, one should be aware of the
possibility of excitation of higher-order modes in wide nanowires
(see Section 13.2.1.3).
Typical magnitudes of the threshold electric field are about 1
V/nm, which is readily achievable in experiment. Note that here
we used the parameters of a common VCMA material: Fe/MgO
multilayer (β ≈ 100 fJ/Vm). Recent studies have found more effective
VCMA structures like Cr/Fe/MgO multilayer with β ≈ 300 fJ/Vm [44].
394 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

Another possibility to decrease the threshold is to use materials with

ultralow damping, e.g., CoFeB/FeZr (αG = 0.0027) [22].
For real applications, of course, the gate size Lg should be of the
order of or, better, much smaller than the SW propagation length,
so that the excited SWs can propagate away from the gate to be
processed and received by other gates. In this case the excitation
threshold becomes higher due to increased radiation losses. To find
the threshold theoretically it is convenient to introduce envelope
amplitudes of SWs a1,2 (t , x ) = S k 'ck ' (t )exp[iw k 't + i(k ' ∓ k )x ] , which
can be defined as the complex amplitudes of SW packets having
the mean wavevectors k (a1) and –k (a2), respectively. Using this
representation in Eq. 13.2, one can derive the following equation,
which describes temporal and spatial evolution of the SW envelope
amplitudes under the resonant (ωp = 2ωk) parametric pumping:
Ê ∂ ∂ ˆ * *
ÁË ∂t + v ∂x + G ˜¯ a1 = -iVkk bp ( x )a2 - iVkk a bp ( x )a1 , (13.4)

and the second equation is obtained by the replacement a1 ´ a2

and v Æ –v. Here v = ∂ω/∂k is the SW group velocity, bp(x) describes
spatial profile of the pumping and a ∫ b2k /b0 is the so-called
pumping non-adiabiticity parameter. These equations are often
called the Bloembergen equations [20, 34].
As one can see, the nonadiabatic term (last term on the right-
hand side of Eq. 13.4) describes the interaction of pumping with two
SWs having the same wavevector, while the adiabatic term (first term
on the right-hand side) describes the interaction of pumping with
counter-propagating SWs. The non-adiabatic term is proportional
to the Fourier component of the spatial pumping profile b2k . As a
result of the momentum conservation law, the pumping can split
into 2 SWs with wavevector k only if it has the wavevector equal to 2k
(i.e., has non-zero Fourier component at 2k). In the considered case
of a piecewise uniform pumping (bp(x) = bp under the gate and bp(x)
= 0 otherwise) the coefficient |α| = sinc[kLg], i.e., the non-adiabatic
term is significant only if the pumping length is comparable to the
SW wavelength.
To find the excitation threshold, one should calculate the
amplification rate for one of the SWs (which is done below in Section
13.3.1), and find the pumping amplitude at which the amplification
rate becomes infinite, which means that any small fluctuation will
 Excitation of Spin Waves 395

grow from the thermal level up to stationary level determined by

nonlinear interactions [20]. The threshold can be calculated from
the following implicit equation:

| Vkk bth |2 - (G- | aVkk bth |)

2
È 2 Lg ˘
= - tan Í | Vkk bth |2 - (G- | aVkk bth |) ˙.
G- | aVkk bth | Î v ˚
 (13.5)
In the limiting case of a small gate length (ΓLg/v << 1), the above
equation is simplified to Vkkbth = arccos(|α|)(1– |α|2)–1/2v/Lg [34].
The dependence of the threshold on the normalized pumping
localization length is shown in Fig. 13.3. The threshold increases
rapidly (as 1/Lg) when the gate length becomes smaller than half
of the SW propagation length v/Γ. The pumping non-adiabaticity
leads to the decrease in the threshold, which is a consequence of
the additional parametric interaction of co-propagating SWs. For
ΓLg/v>>1 the threshold approaches the value bth = Γ/(1+|α|). Note,
however, that the level of pumping nonadiabaticity α also depends
on the gate length (which is not accounted for in Fig. 13.3), so in
a real situation of a uniform pumping created by a long gate, the
threshold amplitude is bth Æ Γ/Vkk. Of course, if the pumping profile
under the gate in nonuniform, the trend will be different, but this
situation lies out of the scope of this chapter.

Figure 13.3 The dependence of the parametric excitation threshold on the

length of the pumping localization at different levels of the pumping non-
adiabaticity.

It should be also noted that there is no direct relation between the

SW wavenumber and the gate length Lg in Eq. 13.5. The parametric
396 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

pumping can excite SWs having the wavelength of the order of Lg

or larger, as well as SWs with the wavelength that is much smaller
than the gate size. This is a substantial advantage of the parametric
excitation in comparison to the more common linear excitation of
SWs by microwave antennas. In the linear case the excitation of SW
with wavelength λSW = 2π/k < Lg by a single strip-line antenna of
width Lg is almost impossible.

13.2.1.2 Nanowire with in-plane static magnetization

Here we shall consider the case of nanowires having the thickness
that is above the critical one, in which the static magnetization of
a nanowire in the absence of an external magnetic field is directed
along the nanowire (x direction in Fig. 13.1). As it was mentioned
above, VCMA is purely interfacial effect, so its overall efficiency
decreases with the nanowire thickness. At the same time, the thicker
nanowires are usually easier to fabricate, and they have better
uniformity. Therefore thicker wires have a lower inhomogeneous
broadening of the SW linewidth [52]. Also, due to the vanishing
static demagnetization fields in the in-plane case, it is possible to
achieve in that case higher SW frequency at zero bias field.
At a first glance, it may seem that in this case it is possible to
excite SWs in the linear regime, since the microwave electric field
creates the variation of the perpendicular anisotropy, while the static
magnetization lies in the nanowire plane. However, a microwave
variation of the anisotropy is not equivalent to the appearance of a
microwave magnetic field. Microwave electric field E(t) ≈ cos[ωpt] at
the frequency ωp leads to the variation of the perpendicular surface
anisotropy ΔKs = βE. The effective magnetic field associated with the
surface anisotropy can be calculated as Beff = –δW/δM, where W =
–∫ Ks Mz2/(hM2s ) dxdy is the anisotropy energy, and is equal to
2b E (t , r ) M z (t , r )
DBeff (t , r ) = ez . (13.6)
hMs2
Note that Mz(t) is the dynamic magnetization component having
zero static value and oscillating at the SW frequency ωk if SW is
excited. Thus, there are no terms proportional solely to the external
force E(t), varying at the pumping frequency ωp and directed
perpendicularly to the static magnetization. Consequently, the linear
SW excitation in the case of the in-plane static magnetization (for any
 Excitation of Spin Waves 397

in-plane direction, not only along the nanowire) is also impossible.

It could be shown that the linear excitation becomes possible if a
nanowire is magnetized at a finite angle to the surface θ ≠ 0, π/2,
as it was experimentally realized in Ref. [65] (indeed, in this case
Mz contains both static and dynamic component and Beff has term
at ωp, which is not orthogonal to dynamic magnetization). One can
also see from Eq. 13.6 that if the frequency of the electric field is ωp ≈
2ωk, the effective magnetic field DBeff contains a resonant term at the
SW frequency ωk, which indicates the possibility of the parametric
excitation of SWs.
Using the standard expansion of magnetization in a series of
SW modes Eq. 13.1 (with a proper direction M0 = Msex of the static
magnetization) in the Landau–Lifshitz equation, one can obtain the
same Eq. 13.2 describing the dynamics of SW amplitudes. The only
change is in the efficiency of the parametric interaction, which in the
in-plane case becomes

(m )
2
Vkk = g *
k ,z /2 A k . (13.7)

For the lowest (uniform) SW mode, this expression is simplified

to Vkk = γ|mk,z|/(4|mk,y|). As one can see, the parametric interaction
efficiency is proportional to the out-of-plane magnetization
component, but not to the ellipticity of magnetization precession, as
in the common case of a parallel pumping discussed above. This is
a consequence of different coupling mechanisms—the coupling of
field (or effective field) to the longitudinal magnetization component
in the out-of-plane case and the coupling of dynamic anisotropy field
with dynamic magnetization component in the in-plane case.
The wavenumber dependence of the parametric interaction
efficiency for the lowest SW mode is shown in Fig. 13.4b. Vkk increases
as the SW becomes shorter, and saturates at the value γ/4 in the
high-k range, in which, due to the dominant role of the isotropic
exchange interaction, the SW polarization becomes circular, |mk,y| =
|mk,z|. Thus, in the case of an in-plane magnetization there are no
principal limits on the wavenumber of the excited SW, in contrast
to the case of an out-of-plane magnetization, for which Vkk could be
equal to zero at a certain wavenumber, and vanishes at high k. At a
small k the interaction efficiency is higher for narrower nanowires,
as they have stronger in-plane (y) dynamic demagnetization
398 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

fields resulting in a larger out-of-plane component of the dynamic

magnetization.

Figure 13.4 Eigenfrequency (a), parametric interaction efficiency (b), and

minimum threshold electric field for parametric excitation (c) as functions
of the SW wavenumber for the lowest SW mode of a ferromagnetic nanowire
with in-plane static magnetization. Parameters: Fe nanowire of thickness h
= 1 nm and widths wx = 20 nm (solid lines) and wx = 100 nm (dashed lines),
material parameters being the same as in Fig. 13.2.

Figure 13.4c shows the wavenumber dependence of the minimum

threshold of a parametric SW excitation Eth = ΓkMsh/(2βVkk). It is
clear that in a wide nanowire it is easier to excite relatively short
SWs, while the excitation of SWs with k Æ 0 requires a higher electric
field pumping. In a narrow nanowire this difference becomes less
and less pronounced. Consequently, the use of narrow nanowires
with width of the order of 10–20 nm gives advantages only when
the excitation of SWs with a small k, (i.e., close to the ferromagnetic
resonance frequency) is required. Away from the ferromagnetic
resonance (at a distance of several gigahertz) the difference in the
nanowire width is practically insignificant. In the case of an out-
of-plane static magnetization, in contrast, the dependence on the
nanowire width is more complex (see Fig. 13.2).
It also should be noted that the minimum threshold values in the
in-plane case are similar to that in the out-of-plane case and are of
the order of 0.5 V/nm. However, in the in-plane case the range of the
excited SW frequencies is much larger. For example, for a nanowire
of the 20 nm width the threshold electric field varies insignificantly,
and is below 0.5 V/nm in the whole considered frequency range fk =
ωk/2π = 6 – 45 GHz (see Fig. 13.4ac). For the case of an out-of-plane
static magnetization, the excitation of SWs even at 20 GHz requires
the electric field amplitude of about 2 V/nm (see Fig. 13.2; note that
 Excitation of Spin Waves 399

the material parameters are the same as in Figs. 13.2 and 13.4). Thus,
one can conclude that in the case of the in-plane static magnetization
the parametric excitation of SWs by microwave VCMA is more
effective than in the case of the out-of-plane magnetization. This
is related to the different mechanisms of coupling of the pumping
with SWs—via precession ellipticity in the case of the out-of-plane
magnetization, and via perpendicular dynamic magnetization
component in the case of the in-plane magnetization.

13.2.1.3 Notes on multimode waveguides

Above, we considered only the lowest SW mode, uniform across the
nanowire width. This is a natural assumption for a narrow nanowire,
since higher-order SW modes have much higher frequencies and do
not satisfy the condition of a parametric resonance. However, when
the nanowire width increases, the SW spectrum becomes denser,
and the condition ωp = 2ωk,n can be satisfied for several SW modes
simultaneously. An example of such a situation is shown in Fig.
13.5a,c: one can see that only in a narrow frequency range there are
no degenerate SW modes (3.6–4.8 GHz for 100 nm wide nanowire
with the out-of-plane static magnetization, Fig. 13.5a, and 3.8–6.1
GHz for the case of in-plane magnetization, Fig. 13.5c). Within this
range the parametric pumping excites only the lowest SW mode.
However, above this range the resonance condition is satisfied for
two or more modes with different width profiles simultaneously. It
is important to find out which mode will be excited in this case.
When the pumping amplitude gradually increases from zero, the
first excited mode is the mode with the lowest threshold. Moreover,
with a further increase in the pumping amplitude, the subsequent
mode with a higher threshold (calculated in a linear approximation
as above) will not be excited at this slightly higher threshold. This
happens due to the energy transfer from the pumping to the first
excited mode and nonlinear interaction between the modes, which
results in an increase in the excitation threshold for the next mode.
Often, the second mode is excited only when the first one is close to
its saturation due to nonlinear processes [31]. Thus, in most cases
the only mode that can be excited by parametric pumping is the
mode with the lowest excitation threshold.
400 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

Figure 13.5 SW spectrum (a, c) and parametric interaction efficiency

as functions of the SW frequency (b, d) for different width modes of a Fe
nanowire of the width 100 nm. (a, b) Out-of-plane static magnetization (h =
0.75 nm); (c, d) in-plane magnetization (h = 1 nm). Material parameters are
the same as in Figs. 13.2 and 13.4, and free boundary conditions are used for
the calculation of the SW profile.

As already mentioned, the excitation threshold depends on

the SW damping rate, radiation loses, and the efficiency of the
parametric interaction. The damping rate for all the degenerate
modes with the same frequency is almost the same. For ultrathin
nanowires the group velocity of SWs is mainly determined by the
exchange interaction, and is approximately given by v ≈ 2ωMλex2k.
Thus, the group velocity is smaller for higher-order SW modes and,
consequently, the radiation losses Γrad = v/Lg at a given length of the
pumping localization also decrease with an increase in the mode
number n.
The behavior of the parametric excitation efficiency depends
on the direction of static magnetization. For the in-plane static
magnetization the coupling coefficient Vkk is higher for higher-order
SW modes (see Fig. 13.4d), which is explained by the increased out-
 Excitation of Spin Waves 401

of-plane dynamic magnetization component due to the additional

dynamical stiffness in the y direction. Consequently, both factors—
the highest Vkk and the lowest group velocity—are achieved for
the highest SW mode at a given frequency. Thus, in the in-plane
magnetized case, the parametric pumping excites the highest SW
mode that satisfies the condition of parametric resonance.
For the out-of-plane static magnetization the behavior of Vkk
is much more complicated (see Fig. 13.5b). In a certain frequency
range, the maximum parametric interaction efficiency is achieved for
the highest mode (for f < 9.75 GHz in Fig. 13.5b). In contrast, in other
regions, it is achieved for the lowest SW mode (see the interval 9.75–
10.75 GHz in Fig. 13.5b). Depending on the material and geometrical
parameters, the modes with intermediate mode numbers may have
the higher interaction efficiency than the lowest and the highest SW
modes. Thus, in the out-of-plane magnetization case, the largest Vkk
and the lowest group velocity may be achieved for two different SW
modes. Consequently, depending on the pumping localization length
(gate length), which determines the influence of radiation loses on
the excitation threshold, different SW modes can be excited by the
pumping of the same frequency.
Finally, it is important to note, that the use of ferromagnetic
nanowires or waveguides is crucially important. Indeed, if a
continuous two-dimensional film or a strip having a large width
(larger than SW propagation length) is used, the SW spectrum
becomes two-dimensional, containing a continuum of degenerate
SW modes having the same frequency and different propagation
direction. The lowest threshold of the parametric excitation
corresponds to the SW mode, which propagates along the gate (in
the y direction in Fig. 13.1 if wy is extended to infinity), since this SW
mode never leaves the pumping region, and has, consequently, zero
radiation losses. Such a situation is not suitable for applications,
since the parametrically excited SWs should leave the excitation gate
region to be processed and received by another gate. Thus, in order
to guarantee a definite propagation direction of the excited SWs, one
should use ferromagnetic nanowires or strips with a sufficiently
small width for the formation of discrete SW modes propagating
along the nanowire.
402 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

13.2.2  onlinear Spin Wave Dynamics under Parametric

N
Pumping: Stationary Amplitudes of Excited Spin
Waves
It has been shown above that using VCMA microwave pumping, it
is possible to overcome the threshold of the parametric excitation
of propagating SWs. It should be noted, however, that overcoming
the parametric excitation threshold does not guarantee a stable
excitation of the propagating SWs. In an externally driven
parametric process, the excitation of monochromatic half-frequency
propagating SWs could be hindered by many parasitic nonlinear
phenomena, such as modulational instability, auto-oscillations, and
even developed turbulence of parametrically excited SWs [31]. The
exact manifestation of these nonlinear phenomena depends on the
strength of the microwave driving signal, SW spectrum of a magnetic
sample, and peculiarities of the parametric interaction between the
driving signal and parametric SWs in a given sample geometry.
The conditions necessary for a stable parametric excitation of
SWs were studied in detail for two- and three-dimensional geometry
in the case of spatially uniform parametric pumping in the framework
of the so-called L’vov–Zakharov–Starobinets “S-theory” [31, 62]. The
S-theory shows that the amplitudes of the excited SWs are limited
by the “phase mechanism,” which manifests itself as a reduction of
the phase correlation between the pumping signal and the excited
SWs due to the nonlinear interaction between the SWs. The S-theory
allows one to calculate the stationary SW amplitudes in the above-
threshold regime, and, thus, can be used for theoretical estimation of
the parametric excitation efficiency. Unfortunately, the conclusions
of the conventional S-theory [31] cannot be directly applied to our
case of VCMA-induced parametric excitation of SWs, where the
ferromagnetic sample is quasi-one-dimensional (nanowire) and
the microwave parametric pumping is localized in a relatively small
region under the VCMA gate electrode.
In order to verify if and when the stable parametric excitation
of SWs is possible, the micromagnetic simulations using GPMagnet
solver [30] were performed. Below, we present a micromagnetic
study for the case of Fe nanowire of 20 nm width, 1 nm thickness,
which has an in-plane static magnetization in zero magnetic field.
 Excitation of Spin Waves 403

A similar study for the case of the out-of-plane magnetization is

presented in [57], and shows the same features. In our simulation
we used the same material parameters as in Fig. 13.4, except the
effective Gilbert constant, which was equal to αG = 0.033. This
value was chosen to give the magnitude of the total SW damping
rate (Gilbert damping plus nonuniform damping) in the studied
frequency range similar to the one used in the Fig.13.4. The gate
length was Lg = 100 nm, and the thermal fluctuations corresponding
to the temperature of 1 K were taken into account.
For these parameters the FMR frequency of the nanowire
is equal to f0 = ω0/2π = 6 GHz, which is the lowest SW frequency
in the spectrum (see Fig. 13.4). When the pumping frequency
is above the double FMR frequency, fp > 2f0, the micromagnetic
simulations showed that propagating SWs were excited at a certain
threshold pumping amplitude. The frequency of the excited SW
is exactly half of the pumping frequency. Above the threshold, the
amplitude of the excited SW monotonically increases from the
thermal level, as one can see from Fig. 13.6, where the amplitude
of the dynamic magnetization at the center of the pumping gate
is shown. The simulations demonstrated that the parametric SW
excitation remains stable even for pumping amplitudes significantly
exceeding the threshold value. This is confirmed by the presence
of a single narrow peak in the frequency spectrum of the excited
magnetization dynamics, linewidth of which is several times smaller
than the linewidth of linear SW excitation. Thus, the micromagnetic
simulations confirmed that a microwave VCMA pumping can be
used for stable parametric excitation of monochromatic SWs in
ferromagnetic nanowires.
The SW wavenumber k is determined by the pumping frequency
(through the relation ωk = ωp/2), and increases with an increase in
ωp, as one can see from Fig. 13.7. The SW wavenumber also depends
on the excitation amplitude due to the nonlinear frequency shift. One
can also see from Fig. 13.7, the excited SWs propagates away from
the gate, symmetrically in both directions, and can be detected at
distances several times larger than the gate length. Further increase
in the pumping frequency results in the excitation of shorter SWs
having larger propagation lengths. For the parameters of our
simulations, the maximum SW propagation distance is about 1 µm
for an SW having the wavenumber of k ≈ 0.2 nm–1.
404 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

Figure 13.6 Amplitudes of the excited SWs (normalized magnetization my

= My/Ms at the center of the excitation gate) as functions of the pumping
amplitude at different pumping frequencies fp (see legend). Symbols: results
of the micromagnetic simulations. Lines: theoretical fit by Eq. 13.8.

Figure 13.7 Profiles of parametrically excited SWs in a nanowire with in-plane

static magnetization (micromagnetic simulations). Gate region is shown by
a black rectangle. Excitation frequency and amplitude are fp = 11.6 GHz, bp =
80 mT (a), fp = 12.2 GHz, bp = 94 mT (b), fp = 12.6 GHz, bp = 110 mT (c), and
fp = 12.8 GHz, bp = 120 mT (d).

The simulations have also shown parametric excitation of SWs

in the case when the pumping frequency was slightly below the
double FMR frequency (see curve for fp = 11.6 GHz in Fig. 13.6), but
in this case the excitation is of a subcritical type: the amplitude of
the excited SW has a large finite value at the threshold of excitation.
The excitation in this frequency range becomes possible due to
a negative nonlinear frequency shift T < 0: an increase in the SW
amplitude leads to a decrease in its frequency ωk(|ck|2) = ωk,0 + T|ck|2,
and finite-amplitude SWs can satisfy the parametric resonance
condition ωk(|ck|2) = ωp/2 even when half of the pumping frequency
lies outside the linear SW spectrum. The corresponding SW mode
has an evanescent character and does not propagate away from the
gate (see Fig. 13.7a). This nonlinear SW mode has a frequency which
lies below the spectrum of linear propagating SWs and, therefore, is
nonlinearly localized in the region close to the excitation gate.
 Excitation of Spin Waves 405

In Ref. [57] we developed an approximate analytical theory

describing the evolution of SW amplitudes in a nonlinear supercritical
regime, and allowing one to calculate stationary amplitudes of the
excited SWs. Detailed consideration of the supercritical regime lies
out of the scope of this chapter, and we present below only the main
qualitative features of the theory developed in [57] and the final
result.
The two main nonlinear processes which affect supercritical
regime of the parametric excitation in nanoscale quasi-1D samples
are (i) nonlinear shift of SW frequency, described by the coefficient
Tk: ωk(|ck|2) = ωk,0 + Tk|ck|2, and (ii) 4-wave (4-magnon) interaction
between the parametrically excited pairs of SWs having wavevectors
k and –k, which is described by the Hamiltonian H = ΣkSk|ck|2|c–k|2.
The magnitudes of the nonlinear coefficients T and S can be evaluated
using the formalism developed in Ref. [27]. For the lowest, SW mode,
uniform across the nanowire width, these coefficients are equal to Tk
= –Ak + Bk2ωM(4λex2k2 – F0xx + F2kxx)/(2ωk2), Sk = –Ak + Ak2ωM(4λex2k2
– F0xx + F2kxx)/(2ωk2), where Ak = γBint + ωM(2λex2k2 + Fkyy+Fkzz)/2,
Bk = ωM(Fkzz+Fkyy)/2, Bint is the static internal field in the nanowire,

and Fk is the dynamic demagnetization tensor of the nanowire (see
Appendix A). These expressions are derived for a nanowire with in-
plane static magnetization (in x direction) at zero external magnetic
field. For the case of the out-of-plane static magnetization, one
should make a cyclic replacement of indices (x, y, z) Æ (z, x, y).
In bulk samples the 4-magnon interaction of SW pairs, described
by the coefficient Sk, is the only important mechanism limiting (or
determining) the amplitudes of the parametrically excited SWs. Due
to this interaction phases of SWs with opposite wavevectors deviate
from the optimal condition φk + φ–k = φp – π/2, which reduces the
efficiency of energy transfer from pumping to the excited SWs and
limits the growth of the SW amplitudes at a certain stationary level.
This mechanism is still important in nanoscale samples.
However, we have found an additional limiting mechanism,
associated with nonlinear frequency shift, which does not play a
significant role in bulk samples, and becomes essential only for
localized pumping at a submicrometer length scale. As it was pointed
out above, the nonlinear frequency shift leads to the change of the
SW wavenumber with an increase in the SW amplitude (through the
406 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

relation ωk,0 + Tk|ck|2 = ωp/2). Variation in SW wavevector may lead

to a change of all the SW characteristics, e.g., damping, parametric
interaction efficiency, group velocity. Among these characteristics
only the SW group velocity v changes significantly with the
wavenumber variation. In our case the nonlinear frequency shift
coefficient is negative, Tk < 0 (both for in-plane and out-of-plane
static magnetization). Thus, with an increase in the SW amplitude
the SW spectrum shifts down, and half of the pumping frequency
will now correspond to a higher SW wavenumber and, therefore, to
a higher value of the SW group velocity. Thus, with an increase in the
SW amplitude the radiation losses also increase, which leads to the
additional limitation of the amplitude of the excited SWs.
Accounting for both these nonlinear limiting mechanisms, one
can obtain following expression for the stationary amplitudes of
excited SWs ai (defined as in Eq. 13.4) [57]:
1/2
C È 2 2 2  ˘
ai max
= Í Vkk bp - Vkk bth + T - T ˙ , (13.8)
2| S k | Î ˚
where T = w 2 lex
2
( )( )
Cv C 2 | Tk | / L2g | S k | , the coefficient Cv decreases
from Cv = π for extended to infinity pumping to Cv = 1 for strongly
localized nonadiabatic pumping, and C ≈ 1–2 is the fitting coefficient
of the approximate model which describes effect of non-uniform
SW profiles within the pumping region (C = 1 for extended pumping
and increases to C ≈ 2 for strongly localized pumping). Close to the
threshold Eq. 13.8 can be simplified to
Lg 2 2
ai max
= Vkk bp - Vkk bth . (13.9)
2lex 2w 2Cv | T |
It is important to note that nonlinear variation of SW group
velocity leads to different dependence of SW amplitude on the
pumping amplitude (square root of (b2 – bth2), while in bulk samples
it is fourth-order root).
Using Eq. 13.8, one can describe the dependence of the excited
SW amplitudes on the pumping amplitude, obtained from the
micromagnetic simulations, making common conversion from
SW envelope amplitude ai to dynamic magnetization component
(see details in [57]). As one can see from Fig. 13.6, Eq. 13.8 gives
a good quantitative description of the results of our micromagnetic
 Amplification of Spin Waves by Parametric Pumping 407

simulations and, thus, can be used for the estimation of parametrically

excited SW amplitudes (except in the case fp = 11.6 GHz < 2f0, for
which our model is not applicable).
Finally, let us discuss the issue of stability of the SW parametric
excitation. As was shown, the only important nonlinear interactions
between the excited SWs are the 4-wave processes responsible
for “self-action” (described by the nonlinear coefficient T) and the
processes of the interaction between the SW “pairs” (described
by the nonlinear coefficient S). All the other 4-wave scattering
processes, which could lead to SW instability, are weak due to quasi-
one-dimensional geometry of the nanowire. The 3-wave processes
in this geometry are prohibited as long as the static magnetization
is aligned with one of the symmetry axes of the nanowire [27].
The 2-magnon scattering processes, which could take place due to
defects presented in a nanowire, in the studied case of ultrathin
magnetic nanowires should be weak, since the characteristic size of
the possible defects in the nanowire material (nm) is substantially
smaller than the characteristic SW wavelength (~100 nm). Finally,
the non-adiabatic character of the applied parametric pumping
fixes not only the sum of phases of the excited SWs, but also the
difference of these phases [34]. All these peculiarities of parametric
SW excitation in nanowire geometry make the excitation process
stable with respect to the appearance of secondary instabilities,
such as, e.g., magnetization auto-oscillations [31]. This means that
parametric VCMA cells can serve as reliable and tunable sources of
high-amplitude propagating SWs in ultrathin magnetic nanowires.

13.3  mplification of Spin Waves by Parametric

A
Pumping

13.3.1 Linear Regime of the Parametric Amplification

It has been shown above, that parametric VCMA pumping can
excite propagating SWs if the pumping amplitude exceeds a certain
threshold. However, the parametric pumping with the amplitude
smaller than the excitation threshold also interacts with SWs. In
particular, if SW propagates through a region of parametric pumping,
the interaction with the pumping leads to a partial compensation
408 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves References

of SW propagation losses or an amplification of a propagating SW.

Another consequence of such a sub-threshold parametric process is
the formation of an idler SW with an opposite wavevector –k. In the
case of a reciprocal SW spectrum this idler SW is counter-propagating
to the incident signal SW (the case of a nonreciprocal spectrum
is considered in Section 13.4). As in the case of the parametric
excitation, the parametric amplification is the most efficient if the
resonance condition is satisfied: ωk + ω–k = 2ωk = ωp.
The parametric pumping is a well-known method for the
amplification of SWs. Its main advantage is the frequency selectivity,
since the amplification rate decreases fast with the frequency
mismatch (ωk – ωp/2). The parametric amplification in the linear
regime, when the amplitudes of both incident and amplified SWs are
small enough to neglect nonlinear SW interaction, is well studied [20,
31, 34]. The only specific feature of the VCMA parametric pumping in
ferromagnetic nanowires is the value of the parametric interaction
efficiency (Eqs. 13.3, 13.7), so here we shall briefly describe the main
results from the existing literature.
The amplification rate can be calculated from Eq. 13.4, setting the
boundary conditions as a1(x = 0) = a0, which determines the incident
SW amplitude, and a2(x = Lg) = 0, which corresponds to the absence
of the incident idler SW (recall that it propagates in the opposite, –x,
direction). In the case of exact parametric resonance and adiabatic
pumping (α = 0) the amplification rate is [20]
-1
È G ˘ 1 2
K = Ícosk Lg + k sink Lg ˙ ,k= Vkk bb - G 2k . (13.10)
Î vk ˚ v
The dependence of the amplification rate K on the pumping
amplitude bp is shown in Fig. 13.8. At zero pumping bp = 0 the rate
(Eq. 13.10) equals to exp[–ΓkLg/v] < 1, which corresponds to a partial
decay of the SW due to the propagation losses across the pumping
region. With an increase in bp, the parametric pumping partially
compensates the SW propagation losses. At a certain pumping
amplitude the losses are fully compensated (K = 1) and, with further
increase in bp, amplification of the signal SW is achieved. Finally, at
bp = bth the amplification rate becomes infinite, which corresponds
to the threshold of the parametric excitation—any small-amplitude
fluctuation will grow into a finite-amplitude excited SW. To use the
VCMA gate as the parametric amplifier one should, of course, operate
 Amplification of Spin Waves by Parametric Pumping 409

in the subthreshold regime bp < bp,th; otherwise the excited SWs will
significantly distort the incoming signal SW. As one can see from Fig.
13.8, when the ratio ΓLg/v is large (wide pumping gate), the region
of proper amplification • > K > 1 is rather narrow, and it might
be difficult to operate in this regime given the uncertainties of the
experimental parameters of nanoscale VCMA gates. Thus, the use of
narrow VCMA gates ΓLg/v < 1 is preferable in practical applications.
If the incident SW does not exactly satisfy the parametric resonance
condition, the amplification rate decreases. This frequency
mismatch Δω = ωk – ωp/2 can be accounted for by the replacement
Γk Æ Γk –i Δω, in Eq. 13.10 [20].

Figure 13.8 The dependence of the amplification rate on the pumping

amplitude (Eq. 13.10) for different lengths of the pumping localization
region. Vertical dotted lines show the parametric excitation thresholds.

In the case of a non-adiabatic pumping (α ≠ 0) the solution

becomes more complex. The amplification rate becomes dependent
on the phase of the incident SW with respect to the pumping phase
[34]. The minimum and maximum (with respect to the variation of
the incident SW phase) amplification rates are given by Eq. 13.10 with
the replacement Γk Æ Γk ± |αVkkbp| [34]. In conventional amplifiers
the phase dependence of the amplification gain is undesirable, and
should be excluded by a proper choice of the gate length and SW
wavenumber so that α = sinc[kLg] << 1. Note, however, that the
phase dependence of the amplification rate can be used in various
applications, e.g., for phase stabilization of phase-coded signals and/
or for the conversion of the phase-coded signals into the amplitude-
coded ones [5].
410 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

13.3.2  mplification of Large-Amplitude Spin Waves:

A
Stabilization of Spin Wave Amplitudes
Equation 13.10 is valid if both amplitudes of the incident and
amplified SWs are sufficiently small to neglect the nonlinear
interaction between the SWs. Clearly, when the amplification rate
becomes large enough, this assumption does not work anymore.
Also, it is possible to excite large-amplitude propagating SWs by
a microwave VCMA pumping, as it was shown above, or by a spin
current. In such a case nonlinear processes will always affect the
parametric amplification process and, in particular, should result
in the dependence of the amplification rate on the amplitude of the
incident SW.
Similarly to the parametric excitation, one should expect a
decrease in the amplification rate with an increase in the incident
SW amplitude. Indeed, both the nonlinear frequency shift and
the pairwise 4-magnon interaction (S-term) result in a spatial
dependence of the SW phases within the pumping area and,
consequently, less effective transfer of energy from the pumping to
SWs due to the partial phase decoherence. Also, due to the amplitude
dependence of the SW group velocity, the radiation losses increase
with an increase in the SW amplitude (for negative nonlinear
frequency shift T), which should also result in a decrease in the
amplification rate.
Accounting for all these effects in a theoretical model is a
complicated task that goes beyond the scope of this chapter.
Therefore, here we present the results of a micromagnetic study
of the parametric amplification of large-amplitude SWs, which
provides a qualitative understanding of the process. For this
purpose, we performed micromagnetic simulations in the in-plane
magnetized geometry (parameters are the same as in Fig. 13.4). SWs
were linearly excited by a microwave field away from the parametric
amplification gate at the frequency of 8.23 GHz, which corresponds
to the SW wavelength of 100 nm. The microwave electrical field of
the frequency of 16.46 GHz was applied at the amplification gate of
the length Lg = 500 nm (pumping non-adiabaticity is negligible for
such a wide gate).
The dependence of the output SW amplitude (just after the
amplification gate) on the input SW amplitude (just before the
 Amplification of Spin Waves by Parametric Pumping 411

gate) is presented in Fig. 13.9 for different pumping amplitudes

bp. For the chosen parameters, the parametric excitation threshold
is equal to bp = 64 mT. As one can see, in the range of small SW
amplitudes the transmission characteristics are linear, meaning
that the amplification rate K is constant, and is determined only
by the pumping amplitude. Then, the transmission characteristics
bend, which corresponds to a decrease in the amplification rate, as
expected. With the further increase in the incident SW amplitude
the parametric amplification becomes less and less efficient, and,
finally, the signal SW becomes almost insensitive to the presence of
pumping (this region is not shown in Fig. 13.9).

Figure 13.9 Transmission characteristics of the parametric amplifier at

different pumping amplitudes (micromagnetic simulations). SW amplitudes
are described by a normalized dynamic magnetization component my = My/
Ms. Straight line corresponds to the amplification rate K =1 (my,out = my,in).

Figure 13.9 illustrates another interesting feature of a

nonlinear parametric amplification—namely, at a certain incident
SW amplitude a0, which depends on the pumping strength, the
amplification rate K = 1, which corresponds to the equal amplitudes
of the incident and the output SWs. As one can see, the derivative of
the transmission characteristics daout/dain in this point is less than
1. Then, if the incident SW near this point has an average amplitude
a0 with a certain amplitude spread Δain, ain = a0 + Δain, the output SW
will also have the same mean amplitude a0, but a smaller amplitude
spread: aout = a0 + Δaout, where Δaout = Δain(daout/dain) < Δain.
Consequently, the parametric amplifier in this regime can be used
for the stabilization of the output SW amplitude, which is a necessary
operation for the processing of SW signals with phase coding. As one
412 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

can see from Fig. 13.9, the stabilization properties are better (i.e., a
smaller derivative, daout/dain, can be achieved) for larger amplitudes
bp of the parametric pumping.

13.4 E ffect of Interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya

Interaction on Parametric Processes
Above we have considered the parametric excitation and
amplification in the case of a reciprocal SW spectrum, when the SWs
having opposite wavevectors have the same frequency, ωk = ω–k. The
reciprocity of the SW spectrum results in two features, which may be
undesirable for certain applications. First, the parametric excitation
is symmetric. SWs propagate symmetrically from the excitation gate,
while it may be desirable to achieve a unidirectional SW excitation.
Second, in the parametric amplification and stabilization processes,
the idler SW, counterpropagating to the signal SW, is created. This
idler SW can affect the SW signal processing devices placed before
the parametric amplification gate, and, thus, may be undesirable.
A way to resolve these issues is to use ferromagnetic structures
with a nonreciprocal SW spectrum, where ωk ≠ ω–k. There are several
ways to achieve the SW nonreciprocity. It can be achieved using the
surface Damon–Eshbach mode in a ferromagnetic film with different
bottom and top adjacent layers [16, 24, 35] or using collective SW
modes in arrays of dipolarly coupled magnetic nanoelements [54].
However, these methods, in which the nonreciprocity arises from
the magnetodipolar interaction, require rather thick ferromagnetic
structures (of the order of 100 nm and thicker), and, therefore, are
not compatible with the VCMA-based SW excitation method, which
is effective only in ultrathin ferromagnetic films and nanowires.
The only known phenomenon that can create SW nonreciprocity
in ultrathin structures is the interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya
interaction (IDMI) [37, 63].

13.4.1 S pin Wave Nonreciprocity Induced by Interfacial

Dzyloshinskii–Moriya Interaction
The IDMI is the antisymmetric exchange interaction resulting
from the symmetry breaking at the interface of a ferromagnetic
 Effect of Interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya Interaction on Parametric Processes 413

material. This effect is the most pronounced at the interface

between a ferromagnetic material and a heavy metal having a large
spin-orbital coupling, e.g., at the Fe-W, Mn-W, and Co-Pt interfaces
[4, 50]. The energy density of the IDMI can be expressed as
( )
e IDMI = Ddi (M z (— ◊ M) - (M ◊ — )M z )/ M s2h , where D is the modulus
of the Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya vector and di is the thickness of the
interface atomic layer of the ferromagnetic film. Correspondingly,
the effective magnetic field created by the IDMI is equal to
( )
BIDMI = -de IDMI /d M = -2Ddi ((— ◊ M)e z - —M z )/ M s2h .
As one can see, BIDMI depends on the first spatial derivative of the
magnetization distribution, which results in the SW nonreciprocity.
The maximum SW nonreciprocity is achieved for a ferromagnetic
nanowire covered from one side by a heavy metal layer and
magnetized in-plane in the direction perpendicular to the direction of
the SW propagation [63]. In Fig. 13.1 this configuration corresponds
to the static magnetization directed along the y axis, which can be
achieved by the application of an external bias magnetic field or
using a stray field from a closely placed magnetically hard layer. The
SW spectrum in this geometry is given by (for the lowest SW mode,
uniform across the nanowire width) [25, 37]

wk = (w H + w M ÎÈlex
2 2
)(
k + Fkxx ˚˘ w H + w M ÎÈlex
2 2 zz ˘
k + Fkzz - Nan ) *
˚ - wM D k
.

 (13.11)
Here k = kx, ωH = γBint, Bint is the static internal field in the
nanowire, tensors Fk and Nan are defined in the Appendix A, and D* =
2Ddi/(μ0Ms2h).
It is clear from Eq. 13.11 that the SW spectrum of a ferromagnetic
nanowire in the presence of IDMI is nonreciprocal, ωk ≠ ω–k. If the
IDMI is sufficiently strong, then the minimum of the SW spectrum
is located at a non-zero wavevector kmin ≠ 0 and is monotonic for
the positive SW wavevectors k, while being nonmonotonic for the
negative values of k (or vice versa). The sufficient condition for the
appearance of the spectrum minimum at kmin ≠ 0 is D* > h(ωH + ωM)/
(4ω0), which is derived in the approximation that the waveguide
width in substantially larger that the magnetic film thickness wy
>> h. An example of a SW spectrum having minimum at kmin ≠ 0 is
shown in Fig. 13.10. This spectrum was calculated for a permalloy
nanowire deposited on a platinum substrate. The parameters for
414 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

this calculation (nanowire thickness h = 0.7 nm, width wy = 100 nm,

μ0Ms = 1 T, external field Be = 0.2 T, λex = 4 nm, D = 3 mJ/m2, di = 0.248
nm, damping constant αG = 0.01) were taken from Refs. [25]. We use
these parameters for all the numerical calculations described below,
but all the qualitative features of the presented results are applicable
to any other materials, as long as the minimum of SW spectrum is
located at kmin ≠ 0.

13.4.2  arametric Amplification of Nonreciprocal Spin

P
Waves
Similarly to Section 13.3.1, we consider evolution of a spectrally
narrow SW packet having the central frequency ωs, wavevector ks
> 0, and describe it by the envelope amplitude as(x). Naturally, in
the absence of the parametric pumping the amplitude decreases
in the propagation direction as as(x) = as(0) exp[–Γsx/vs], where
Γs and vs are the damping rate and the group velocity of the signal
SW, respectively. The parametric pumping leads to the coupling of
the signal SW with idler SWs. If the pumping region is sufficiently
large (see condition below) and the pumping field is almost uniform
within this region, the signal SW is efficiently coupled with only
one idler SW having the wavevector –ks. Due to the IDMI-induced
SW non-reciprocity the frequencies of the signal and idler SWs
are different, ωks ≠ ω–ks, and the parametric interaction is the most
efficient (resonant) if the pumping frequency satisfies the condition
ωp = ωks + ω–ks. Also, as one can see from Fig. 13.10, in a large range of
the wavevectors of the signal SW, k s Œ(0, -kmin ) , the group velocities
of both the signal and the idler SWs have the same sign, vsvi > 0.
This means that both SWs propagate in the same direction, and the
counterpropagating idler SW vanishes. Moreover, if the wavevector
of the signal SW is opposite to the wavevector position of the spectral
minimum, ks = –kmin, the group velocity of the idler SW vanishes, and
this idler wave becomes evanescent outside the pumping region (see
Fig. 13.11). It is clear that this is the best situation for the effective
use of the SW parametric amplifier, as energy losses of the idler SW
are minimized and possible parasitic influence of the idler SW on the
other SW signal processing devices is negligible.
 Effect of Interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya Interaction on Parametric Processes 415

Figure 13.10 SW spectrum of a permalloy nanowire on a platinum substrate.

Red arrows show the positions of the signal SW at ks = 0.01 nm–1, main idler
SW at –ks, and 2 nonadiabatic idler SWs at k̃ 1, k̃ 2. Green arrows show the
minimum of the SW spectrum kmin = –0.05 nm–1 and the corresponding
optimum position of the signal SW at –kmin = 0.05 nm–1.

For the quantitative description of the amplification rate

and profiles of the interacting SWs we use the same system of
Bloembergen equations (13.4) with a1 = as and a2 = ai being the
amplitudes of signal and idler SWs, respectively. We take into
account different group velocities vs and vi of the signal and idler
SWs and neglect the non-adiabatic term (α = 0). For the proper
description of the case of vanishing group velocity of the idler SW, vi
Æ 0, one has to take into account the dispersion of the group velocity
by adding the term +i(s i /2)∂2ai* /∂x 2 to the left-hand side of Eq. 13.4
for idler SW amplitude ai* , where s i = ∂2w k /∂k 2 . The dispersion of
group velocity σ is not important for the signal SW, since its group
velocity is not vanishing. For simplicity, we use identical damping
rates for the signal and idler waves Γs = Γi = Γ = αGωs. The parametric
interaction efficiency is given by Eqs. 13.3 or 13.7, depending on how
the pumping is created—microwave magnetic field with polarization
in the y direction or VCMA-induced microwave variation of the
perpendicular anisotropy.
The calculated amplification rate K = as(Lg)/as(0) in a
stationary regime is shown in Fig. 13.11a. The pumping intensity
is characterized by the supercriticality parameter ξ = (Vkkbp/Γ – 1).
The value ξ = 0 corresponds to the damping compensation for an
416 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

infinitely extended pumping. For the parameters of our calculation,

this is achieved for the effective pumping field bp ≈ 10–15 mT,
depending on the value of the signal SW wavenumber. For a finite
gate length Lg the threshold value of ξ, required to compensate the
damping of the signal SW, increases with the reduction in the length
Lg of the pumping region, similarly to the reciprocal case (Section
13.3.1). The amplification rate is, naturally, proportional to ξ and
depends inversely on the group velocity vi of the idler SW, since the
smaller values of vi correspond to lower radiation losses for the idler
SW. The highest amplification rate at a given pumping amplitude
can be achieved for the case when vi = 0, when the idler SW is not
propagating at all.

Figure 13.11 (a) Amplification rate of the signal SW as a function of the

pumping localization length at different supercriticalities ξ. Dashed lines
correspond to the wavevector of the signal SW ks = 0.01 nm–1, and green
solid lines to the optimum case ks = –kmin = 0.05 nm–1. (b, c) Profiles of the
signal (solid lines) and idler (dashed lines) SWs for the wavenumber of the
signal SW ks = 0.01 nm–1 (b) and for the optimum case ks = 0.05 nm–1 (c).
Shaded area shows the pumping region; the pumping supercriticality ξ =
1.5.

It should be noted that for a finite pumping length Lg and any

finite pumping amplitude, the amplification rate K remains finite if
the group velocities of the signal and idler SWs satisfy the condition
vsvi > 0. In this case the SW parametric instability could develop in
space, but not in time [3]. The analysis of initial equations shows
that in the case vi = 0 the amplification rate is also always finite. Thus,
the resonant parametric excitation of SWs from the thermal level is
impossible in this case, in contrast to the case when the signal and
 Effect of Interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya Interaction on Parametric Processes 417

idler SW are counterpropagating. The condition vsvi < 0 is satisfied

for a certain pair of SWs only away from the parametric resonance
(at a given pumping frequency ωp < ωkmin + ω–kmin), meaning that
the parametric excitation of these SWs requires much stronger
pumping. The absence of the parametric excitation is an important
feature of the parametric interaction of nonreciprocal SWs, because
one can achieve practically arbitrary SW amplification gain without
risk of starting spurious SW generation.
The profiles of the signal and idler SWs in a nonreciprocal
parametric amplifier are shown in Fig. 13.11b,c. In the case (c),
when vi = 0, the profile of the idler SW is almost symmetric with
respect to the center of the pumping gate and, at the center of the
gate, can even exceed the signal amplitude as. Outside of the pumping
region, the amplitude of the idler wave exponentially decays with
the localization length li, determined by the dispersion of the group
velocity: li ≈ (σi/Γ)1/2. For the parameters of our calculations, li ≈ 80
nm, which is rather small compared to the mean free path of signal
SW (in order of 1 µm).
Now we consider the limits of applicability of the presented
results. Above, we used the adiabatic approximation in the description
of the parametric interaction, assuming that only the SWs with the
wavevector ks and –ks are coupled parametrically. In a general case,
the resonant parametric pumping leads, also, to the coupling with the
other 2 SWs having frequencies ωks, ω–ks and wavevectors k̃ 1, k̃ 2 (see
Fig. 13.10). Note that these SWs have negative group velocities, i.e.,
they are counterpropagating to the signal SW. Thus, they may lead
to the formation of a nonvanishing reversed idler SW, in particular
the one having the frequency equal to the frequency of the signal
wave, which is undesirable. The wavevectors of these idler SWs can
be estimated as k̃ 1,2 ≈ 2kmin ± ks. The interaction efficiency with these
idler SWs is proportional to Vkkb̃ ks+k̃ 1 and Vkkb̃ –ks+k̃ 2, respectively [34],
where b̃ k is the Fourier image of the pumping profile. It is clear that
interaction with these idler SWs can be neglected if the length of the
pumping gate Lg is much larger than 1/kmin (20 nm in our case).
The non-adiabatic parametric processes, which create
counterpropagating spin waves, are undesirable for the parametric
amplification of SWs. At the same time, these processes allow
one to achieve parametric excitation of nonreciprocal SWs, since
counterpropagating waves create a feedback necessary for the
418 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

operation of any auto-oscillatory system. Thus, nonreciprocal SWs in

thin ferromagnetic films with IDMI can be both excited and amplified
by parametric VCMA pumping. The choice of operation is dictated by
the length Lg of the pumping gate: narrow “non-adiabatic” gates Lg
≈ 1/kmin can be used for the SW excitation, while wide “adiabatic”
gates Lg >> 1/kmin are ideal for the parametric amplification.

13.5 Summary
In this chapter we described several phenomena, which can be used
for the excitation and processing of SWs in ultrathin ferromagnetic
nanowires using microwave electric field via the VCMA effect.
First, it has been shown that microwave pumping using the
VCMA effect can excite propagating SWs. In the absence of an
external magnetic field for both in-plane and out-of-plane ground
states only the parametric excitation is possible, when SWs are
excited at half the driving frequency. The in-plane magnetized
geometry is more effective for parametric excitation, since in this
geometry the excitation efficiency is proportional to the out-of-plane
magnetization component, rather than the SW precession ellipticity,
which determines the threshold in the case of the out-of-plane
magnetization. Consequently, in the in-plane magnetized case it is
possible to excite SW in a significantly wider frequency range with
the magnitudes of the threshold electric fields below 1 V/nm (for a
typical Fe/MgO structure). We have also considered a nonlinear stage
of parametric excitation and have shown that excited SW amplitudes
are determined by two mechanisms: (i) 4-magnon “pair” interaction
and (ii) amplitude dependence of SW group velocity, resulting from
non-zero nonlinear frequency shift. The last mechanism becomes
important only at the nanoscale.
Second, it has been shown that the application of a parametric
pumping at a certain location along the path of a propagating SW
leads to the compensation of the propagation losses and, if the
pumping is sufficiently large, to the amplification of a propagating
SW. If the amplitude of the incident SW becomes sufficiently large,
the nonlinear SW interaction leads to a decrease in the amplification
rate. It is also shown that in a certain range of the SW amplitudes
the parametric amplifier can be used for the stabilization of SW
 Calculation of Spin Wave Dispersion and Vector Structure 419

amplitude. The output SWs can have the same mean value, but
significantly smaller amplitude spread compared to the input SWs.
Finally, it has been shown how the IDMI-induced nonreciprocity
can improve the characteristics of a VCMA SW parametric amplifier.
Under certain conditions, the signal and idler SWs in a parametric
amplifier are co-propagating, which removes the disruptive influence
of the idler SW on the operation of all the preceding SW processing
gates. At the optimal conditions, the idler SW has a nonpropagating
evanescent character, which minimizes both the energy losses of the
idler SW and its parasitic influence on other gates in a SW processing
device. Also, it has been found that the parametric excitation of co-
propagating SWs is impossible in the case of spatially extended
(“adiabatic”) pumping, which prevents spurious noise generation in
the parametric amplifier.
All the described features make the VCMA-based processing
of SWs in ferromagnetic nanowires (especially in the ones with
IDMI) attractive for applications in the SW-based microwave signal
processing devices at the nanoscale.

Appendix A. C
 alculation of Spin Wave
Dispersion and Vector Structure
The vector structure of SWs in ferromagnetic nanowires and SW
dispersion relation can be calculated using the general formalism
of linear collective SW excitation [53]. The SW frequency ωkx and
vector structure mkx (which describes ellipticity) can be determined
from the following equation:
- kx mkx = ¥ Wkx ◊ mkx , (A.1)
where μ is the unit vector in the direction of static magnetization
and

( )
2
 
Wkx = g B + w M lex k x2 + k 2y - w M Nan + w M Fkx (A.2)
 
is the Hamiltonian tensor. Here B =  ◊ (Be - w M F0 + w M Nan ) is
the static internal magnetic field, Be is the external field, ky is the
effective wavenumber describing the SW profile across the nanowire
width, ωM = γμ0Ms. The uniaxial anisotropy tensor is defined as

Nan = (e z ¢ ƒ e z ¢ )K an /( m0 M s ) , where Kan is the anisotropy constant,
420 Parametric Excitation and Amplification of Spin Waves

which, in our case, is related to the surface anisotropy constant Ks by

the expression Kan = Ks/h, and z’ is the anisotropy axis (z axis in our

case). The dynamic demagnetization tensor Fkx , which depends on
the nanowire height and width, is defined by the expression:
2 Ê f (kh)k x2/k 2 f (kh)k x k y /k 2 0 ˆ
 1 sky Á ˜
 Fkx =
2p Ú wy
Á f (kh)k x k y /k 2
Á
f (kh)k 2y /k 2 0 ˜ dk y ,
˜
ÁË 0 0 1 - f (kh)˜¯

 (A.3)
where σky = ∫g(y)exp[–ikyy]dy is the Fourier transform of the
normalized SW profile g(y) across the nanowire width, f(kh) = 1– (1–
exp[–kh])/(kh) and k2 = kx2+ky2 (note that in the main text we used
brief notation k = kx, which is not applicable here). For the lowest SW
mode with uniform profile g(y) = 1 the function σky = sinc[kywy/2]. In
the approximation of free boundary conditions normalized profiles
of higher order modes are given by g(y) = 21/2cos[πny/wy], n = 2,
4, 6 … for even modes and by g(y) = 21/2sin[πny/wy], n = 1, 3, 5 …
for odd modes. In more complex cases, one should use theoretical
formalism from [19] for calculation of the mode profiles. The norm
of a SW mode, used in Eqs. 13.3 and 13.7, is equal to Ãk = imk*·μ×mk.

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 Index

addition theorem 177 BLS technique 51, 54–55, 57, 70,

adiabatic STT 300–301, 309, 140
315 micro-focus 332, 334
AESWS, see all-electrical Brillouin light scattering (BLS)
spin-wave spectroscopy 31, 48, 78, 80, 86, 88, 105,
all-electrical spin-wave 140, 145, 150, 235, 332,
spectroscopy (AESWS) 204 334, 350, 368, 372
angular momentum 14, 251, bulk spin wave modes 231, 233,
364–365 235
antenna gaps 305–306, 317 bullet mode 334, 368–369
antennae 305 BVMSW, see backward volume
antidot lattices 209 magnetostatic spin-wave
antidots 2, 4, 139, 144–153,
155–156, 161–162, 165,
172
antiparallel, oriented 281–282, CISWDS, see current-induced
285 spin wave Doppler shift
artificial spin ice (ASI) 5, 100, configurational anisotropy 108,
222, 230, 241–243, 250 114
ASI, see artificial spin ice coplanar waveguide (CPW)
auto-oscillations 348–349, 377, 102–103, 106, 200,
402 202–208, 210–212,
277–278
coupled magnetic stripes 51, 53,
55, 57
backward volume magnetostatic spin waves in 51, 53, 55
spin-wave (BVMSW) 207 coupled spin waves in magnonic
BLS, see Brillouin light waveguides 47–48, 50, 52,
scattering 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68,
BLS maps 54, 57, 70, 147, 156 70, 72
BLS spectra 80, 82, 84–85, 88, coupling 15, 19, 49–51, 54, 56,
109–110, 113, 115, 60–61, 64–65, 89, 99, 108,
123–124, 243 110–111, 245, 335, 340,
BLS spectroscopy 105–106, 348, 351, 378, 391, 397,
123–124, 332 399, 414, 417
428 Index

coupling coefficient 49–51, 63, dispersion relation

66, 400 magnetostatic 27
coupling configuration 119, magnon 266–267, 288
129–130 dispersive modes 3, 78, 88, 90,
coupling direction, interdisk 92
101, 109 domain walls 4–5, 22, 24–25,
coupling orientations 101, 31, 221, 231–235, 240,
109–111 247–248, 281–288, 300,
CPW 387
see coplanar waveguide Doppler effect 296–298,
integrated 102–103, 205 303–304, 318, 321
current densities 271, 280, 309, Doppler shift for spin waves 297,
316, 365–366 299
current-induced spin wave dynamic magnetization 54, 57,
Doppler shift (CISWDS) 59, 70, 87, 90–91, 111, 227,
295–300, 302–304, 306, 238, 267, 285, 319–320,
308, 310, 312, 314, 316, 340, 350, 352, 354,
318, 320, 322, 324–325 397–398, 403
cylindrical inclusions 175–176, dynamic magnetization
179, 188–189 amplitude 86, 91, 145
cylindrical wave functions 177 dynamic magnetization
components 49, 391, 397,
399, 401, 406
Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya
demagnetizing field 18, 141, interaction 18
151, 153–154, 159, 161, Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya
164, 174, 242, 266, 270 interaction, interfacial
dipolar field 110, 113, 117, 125, 412–413, 415, 417
248, 347–348
dipolar interaction 100–101,
108, 111, 117–119, 127,
130, 142, 161, 228, EBL, see electron-beam
264–266 lithography
neighboring 99, 101–102 edge modes 2, 113, 116,
dipolar interaction strength 238–239, 246
100–101, 130 eigenfrequencies 210, 212–213
dispersion 4, 12, 15, 17–18, 22, eigenmodes 51–52, 54, 179–180,
48, 53, 56–57, 59, 61, 69, 83, 188, 239, 244
89, 91, 142–144, 164, 189, electron-beam lithography (EBL)
207, 221, 265–267, 269, 200–202, 277, 366
279, 285, 354, 415, 417 element spins 249
 Index 429

excitation frequencies 30, 54, 58, forward-volume magnetostatic

105, 146, 149, 156, spin wave (FVMSWs) 4,
165, 227–230, 233, 235, 173–174, 178
238, 267–269, 272–275, frequencies
282–283, 308–309, 342, angular 17, 298
404 auto-oscillation 335, 337, 349,
excitation threshold 388, 394, 352
399–401, 404, 407 radio 102, 363
parametric 393, 395, 402, 409, spin wave 4, 17, 296, 299, 316,
411 320–321
excited spin waves 80, 212, 303, frequency-selective tunable spin
340, 350, 402 wave channeling 67, 69,
71
frequency shift, nonlinear 335,
349, 403, 405, 410
Fano transducer 19–21 frequency splitting 239–240,
FEM, see finite element 324
FVMSWs, see forward-volume
method
magnetostatic
ferromagnetic films 141,
spin wave
153–154, 173–174, 190,
192, 280, 302–303, 332,
385–386, 390, 412–413
ferromagnetic ground states
Gaussian function 352, 354–355
122, 124–125, 128, 130
graded magnonic index 11, 15,
ferromagnetic matrix 4,
18–19, 21, 24–27, 30–33,
172–173, 175, 178, 188
37
ferromagnetic metal 365, Green function 178, 181–182
387–388 unperturbed 183
ferromagnets 264, 364, 385, ground-signal-ground (GSG)
387, 389 102, 205–206
field initialization 100, 102, group velocity 17, 26–30, 60,
120–121, 126 147–149, 154, 161,
field pulse 224–225, 245 163–164, 207–209,
finite element method (FEM) 48, 225–226, 276, 303, 306,
51, 54–56 308–309, 316, 318, 325,
FMR frequency 104, 348–349, 348, 400, 406, 414–416
369–371, 403 group velocity directions 27–28,
local 21, 23, 25, 32, 371 148
FMR spectroscopy 104, group velocity vectors 30, 149,
106–107 227–230
430 Index

GSG, see ground-signal-ground LD magnonic waveguide 67–68

guided spin waves 5, 331, 335, line defect (LD) 67–68, 209
337 local magnetic fields 270–271,
273, 275, 277, 279–280

Happ direction 109–110, 116,

130 magnet coils 205–206
Happ range 113 magnetic field 141–142, 159,
homogeneous film 51, 64, 264, 270, 284, 288,
162–164, 183, 220 396–397, 413
bias 17, 19, 26–27, 29, 33, 129,
389
dipolar 264, 336
IDMI, see interfacial static internal 52–53, 419
Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya uniform microwave 22, 25
magnetic force microscopy
interaction
(MFM) 120–122, 125
IFDRLs, see iso-frequency
magnetic ground states 100,
dispersion relation lines
119, 123, 125, 128–130,
interfacial Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya
389
interaction (IDMI)
magnetic inclusions 173, 188,
220–221, 226, 230, 288,
192–193
320, 386, 388, 412–413,
magnetic induction 175, 178
415, 417–419
magnetic insulators 331, 355
interference 4, 34, 78, 139, 147,
magnetic moments 15, 107, 126,
165, 229–230, 234, 262, 213, 247, 263–264,
269, 334 268–269, 271, 274, 276,
interference patterns 229–230, 282, 340
267–268 magnetic multilayers 2
interferometer 35–36, 107 magnetic nanowires, ultrathin
iso-frequency dispersion 407
relation lines (IFDRLs) magnetic properties 129, 158,
142, 144, 147–148, 198–199, 320
152–154, 162–163 magnetic quantum cellular
isofrequency curves 16–17, automata (MQCA) 100
27–30 magnetic structures, patterned
18
magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ)
378
L-shaped NWs 78, 80, 88–90 magnetic waveguides, coupled
LD, see line defect 54–55
 Index 431

magnetization magnon multiplexer 5, 277,

equilibrium 298, 304, 319–320 279–280
in-plane 397, 399–400 magnon propagation 5, 262, 264,
local 299–300, 315, 364 270, 276, 279, 281
out-of-plane 397, 399, 403, 418 magnon spintronics 12, 198,
magnetization configuration 215
235, 275, 277 magnon transport 5, 56,
magnetization dynamics 60, 82, 262–263, 265–272, 276,
99–102, 104, 106, 108, 110, 278, 280, 286, 288
112, 114, 116, 118, 120, magnon waveguide 267,
122, 124, 126, 128, 130, 270–273, 278, 280–282,
223, 305–307, 330, 390 287
reconfigurable 118–119, 121, hybrid 275–277
123, 125, 127 magnon wavevector 268,
magnetization oscillations 271–273, 288
333–334, 338, 350 magnonic applications 69, 265,
magnetization reversal 100 335
magnetization vector 83, 141, magnonic band structures 245
223 magnonic bands 86–87, 129,
magneto-optical Kerr effect 244–245
(MOKE) 123, 126–127, lowest 161–162, 164
306 magnonic channels 71–72
magnetodynamical modes magnonic couplers 3, 48
368–369 magnonic crystal array (MCA)
magnetoelectric effects 385, 387 69–72
magnetostatic interaction magnonic crystals (MCs) 4, 12,
143–144 18, 47–49, 51, 56–57,
magnetostatic spin waves 16–17, 59–61, 63–67, 69–70, 72,
27, 33, 182, 184 78, 92, 99–102, 104, 106,
magnetostatic surface spin wave 108, 110, 112, 114, 116,
(MSSW) 49, 52–53, 57, 62, 118, 120, 122, 124, 126,
65–66, 143, 304, 318–320 128, 130, 161, 172, 197
magnon band 272–273, 275, 285 magnonic devices 2–3, 25,
magnon beams 267–269, 279 31–33, 35, 208, 335, 339,
counter propagating 267–268 346, 355
magnon conduits 276, 278, 280 magnonic grating couplers
magnon dispersion 262, 199–201, 212–213
264–265, 272, 277–278, magnonic index 12, 18, 29
280 magnonic logic gates 35,
magnon intensities 267–269, 262–263
272–273, 275–276, magnonic NAND gate 35–36
278–279, 282–283, 287 magnonic networks 3, 48
432 Index

magnonic waveguides 33, 47–48, microwave frequencies 1, 6, 21,

50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 329
64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 265–271, MOKE, see magneto-optical Kerr
332–333, 343 effect
microscopic 331–332 MQCA, see magnetic quantum
magnonics 2, 7, 11–14, 31–32, cellular automata
35, 37, 56–60, 69, 77, 91, MSSW, see magnetostatic surface
100, 161, 197–198, 207, spin wave
220–221, 252, 261–262, MSSW interactions 145, 149
288, 307, 329–330, 355, MTJ, see magnetic tunnel junction
365 multilayer magnonic crystals
graded-index 12, 269 60–61, 63, 65
magnons multiple-scattering method
secondary 263 174–175, 177, 179
steering 261–262, 264, 266,
268–270, 272, 274,
276–278, 280, 282, 284,
nanocontact 296, 347–351
286, 288
nanocontact spin torque
steering and multiplexing
oscillators 363–368, 370,
270–271, 273, 275, 277,
372, 374, 376, 378
279
propagating spin waves in
MCA, see magnonic crystal array
363–364, 366, 368, 370,
MCs, see magnonic crystals
372, 374, 376, 378
MFM, see magnetic force
nanodisk array 210, 212,
microscopy
214–215
micromagnetic simulations 19, nanodisks 101, 115, 209–213,
26, 33, 48, 54–55, 78, 80, 215
83, 92, 107, 141, 158, 222, coupled 108–109, 111, 113,
224, 227, 230–231, 115, 117
233–234, 236, 238, 242, Py 210, 213
252, 281, 284–285, nanomagnets 100–102,
287–288, 317, 368–369, 106–108, 120–121, 123,
371, 402–404, 406, 411 127–128
microwave 6, 140, 202, 269, nanometer-thick YIG film, optics
302–303, 334–335, 386, of spin waves in 157, 159,
388, 396, 402, 410 161, 163
microwave antenna 144, 149, nanowaveguide 3, 337–338, 353
157, 199, 233, 235, 263, nanowires 3, 77, 79, 92,
267, 269, 271–273, 277, 336–337, 385, 388,
281–282, 396 391–392, 396–398,
excitation efficiency 272–273 401–405, 407, 412–413
 Index 433

ferromagnetic 388, 390, 392, parametric pumping 215,

398, 401, 403, 408, 413, 419 390–391, 394, 399,
magnetic 336, 391 401–402, 407–409,
narrow 393, 398–399 411–412, 414, 417–418
Py 79–81 patterned YIG micrometer films
wide 393, 398–399 145, 147, 149, 151, 153, 155
Néel walls 236–237, 281–282, Permalloy 13, 19, 21, 25, 29, 77,
284 79, 81, 265, 277, 311–312
non-adiabatic spin transfer perpendicular magnetic
torque parameter 315, anisotropy (PMA) 231,
317 286, 367
noncollinear spin textures 5, PMA, see perpendicular magnetic
262–264, 266, 268, 270, anisotropy
272, 274, 276, 278, 280, propagating mode frequencies
282, 284, 286, 288 233, 369
nonlinear interactions 263, 388, propagating spin wave modes
393, 395, 399, 402, 410
21–22, 368–370
nonlinear spin wave coupling in
propagating spin wave packet
magnonic crystals 56–57,
353
59
propagating spin wave
nonreciprocity parameter
spectroscopy (PSWS) 302,
208–209
304, 309, 319
propagating spin waves 1, 3,
5–6, 18, 20, 22–23, 26–27,
31–32, 34–35, 89, 172, 180,
Oersted field 270–272, 276,
297, 304, 321–323, 341, 204–205, 221, 297,
368–370, 372–373 329–332, 334–336,
338–340, 342, 344–348,
350–352, 354, 356,
368–369, 373, 377,
parametric amplification 386
407–408, 410–412, propagation, nonreciprocal 222,
417–418 224, 238
parametric amplifier 408, 411, propagation-length control
414, 418–419 345–346
parametric excitation 6, PSWS, see propagating spin
387–388, 390, 392–393, wave spectroscopy
396, 398, 401–402, 405, pure spin currents 6, 330–331,
408, 410, 412, 417–419 339, 341–343, 345–347,
parametric processes 386, 402, 349, 351, 353, 355, 365
408, 412–413, 415, 417 Py film 282, 336–337, 349
434 Index

rhomboid nano-magnet (RNMs) spin torque oscillators (STOs)

100, 119–128, 130 100, 363–368, 370,
RNMs, see rhomboid 372–374, 376, 378
nano-magnet spin transfer torque (STT) 220,
274, 296–297, 299–301,
330, 339–340, 342, 344,
347, 363–365, 369
SHNOs, see spin Hall spin wave band structure 77, 80,
nano-oscillators 172
spin currents 251, 286, 325, spin wave beams 4, 27, 29–30,
329–332, 334, 336, 338, 33, 371, 374, 377
340, 342, 344, 346, 348, spin wave channeling 232,
350, 352, 354, 356, 365 234–235
spin Hall effect 220, 251, 365 spin wave control 15, 355
spin Hall nano-oscillators spin wave dispersion 12, 15, 17,
(SHNOs) 365 23, 221, 243, 419
spin ice 222, 247 spin wave Doppler experiments
spin-orbit coupling 220, 251, 325
315 spin wave Doppler shift
spin-orbit interaction 311, 313 measurements 312–313
spin polarization 299, 303, spin wave edgemodes 172–173
305–306, 309–314, spin wave eigenmodes 3–4, 173,
316–317, 323, 325, 364, 192, 231, 244
366–367 spin wave emission 20, 22,
24–25, 335
degree of 303, 305–306,
spin wave excitation 3, 12,
309–314, 323, 325
18–19, 21–23, 32–33,
spin-polarized currents 335,
189–190, 202–203, 220,
337, 351
251, 332, 339–341, 349,
spin structures 219–220, 222,
351, 353, 372, 388–389,
224, 226, 228, 230, 232,
391, 393, 395, 397, 399,
234, 236, 238, 240, 242,
401, 403, 405
244, 246, 248, 250, 252
spin wave excitation transfer,
spin waves on 219–220, 222,
distant 192
224, 226, 228, 230, 232,
spin wave Fano resonances 11,
234, 236, 238, 240, 242,
13, 15, 37
244, 246, 248, 250, 252
spin wave Fano resonances in
spin textures 230, 237, 262, magnetic structures 11–12,
264, 288 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28,
spin-torque devices 342 30, 32, 34, 36, 38
spin-torque nano-oscillators spin wave frequency 337, 341,
(STNO) 335–338 353, 355
 Index 435

spin wave frequency shifts 319, excitation of propagating 6,

321, 323 331, 335, 346
spin wave grating coupler 22, forward-volume magnetostatic
209, 211, 213 4, 173
spin wave group velocity 17, nonreciprocal 417–418
207–208, 305 propagation characteristics of
spin-wave intensity 333, 342–343
340–341, 343–344, 350, propagation length of 339, 341,
353 343, 345, 377
spin wave modes 83, 214, 242, propagation of 3–4, 172, 221,
245, 301, 308–309, 349 339, 343, 371
degenerate 399, 401 radiation of 181, 226, 348
higher-order 391, 399–400 short-wavelength 20, 198–199,
localized 221 212
spin wave nonreciprocity 388, spintronic nano-oscillators 378
412–413 static magnetization 1, 20, 28,
spin wave optics in patterned 31, 35, 221, 340, 389–391,
garnet 139, 142, 144, 146, 396–402, 404–407, 413,
148, 150, 152, 154, 156, 419
158, 160, 162, 164, 166 STNO, see spin-torque
spin wave power flow 227–228 nano-oscillators
spin wave propagation 3–4, 6, STOs, see spin torque
13, 18, 26, 30, 37, 48, oscillators
54–55, 67, 69, 72, 78–79, stripe waveguide 267, 347–348
151, 172–173, 178–179, STT, see spin transfer torque
209, 225, 227, 238, STT devices 330
304–305, 331–333, 393,
413
spin wave relaxation,
current-induced T-scattering operator 4, 173,
modification of 296–297 182–183, 185, 192
spin wave ripple 225 two-current model 309–311,
spin wave scattering 172–173, 313
182–184, 187, 192–193
spin wave steering 25, 27, 29
spin wave vector 304, 309, 316,
318 ultrathin films 32, 224, 226–227
spin wave wavelength 334
spin waves
dispersion spectra of 348–349
excitation of 52, 57, 388–389, VCMA, see voltage-controlled
396–398, 418 magnetic anisotropy
436 Index

vector network analyzer (VNA) 212, 226, 229–231,

48, 53, 57, 59, 69, 104, 242–243, 263, 265,
205–208 267–268, 279, 390–391,
VNA, see vector network 394, 405, 414, 416–417
analyzer opposite 391, 393, 405, 408,
voltage-controlled magnetic 412
anisotropy (VCMA)
386–387, 389–390, 396,
408
YIG, see yttrium-iron garnet
YIG film 52, 64, 140–144, 153,
157, 160–161, 213
waveguide thin 143, 157–158, 160–161,
coplanar 102, 200, 202, 215, 212
277–278 yttrium-iron garnet (YIG) 32–33,
curved 276 51, 53, 67, 69–70, 139–140,
waveguide modes 267, 269, 144–145, 149, 157,
336–337, 349 159–163, 165, 172,
wavevectors 141–142, 148–149, 199–201, 208–209,
152, 154, 156, 158–159, 211–215, 263, 302, 330,
163–164, 207–208, 210, 342, 345, 365