EST

New Course
Session (2)

Dr. Ahmed Nada

 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

Topic 1: Punctuation
I. Semicolons

1. Semicolons connect independent clauses (two complete sentences).

EX. London is an old city; it has many new buildings.

2. Before conjunctive adverbs such as however and moreover when they

are used to begin a clause

EX. London is an old city; however, it has many new buildings.

EX. London is an old city; therefore, it has buildings from many different eras.

3. Semicolons also act like “super commas:” Semicolons are not only used
to link main clauses. They can also be used in complicated lists. Elements in a
list are usually separated by commas. But if the elements themselves contain
commas, semicolons are used to separate them.

EX. We stopped in many places along our journey, including Louisville, Kentucky,
Branson, Missouri, and Gonzales, Louisiana, the Jambalaya Capital of the World.
(……………)

EX. We stopped in many places along our journey, including Louisville, Kentucky;
Branson, Missouri; and Gonzales, Louisiana, the Jambalaya Capital of the World.
(……………)

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

II. Commas
Use Examples
1. Before a coordinating conjunction EX. London is a very old city,
to join two full sentences. but some parts of it are extremely
 Coordinating Conjunctions modern.
(FANBOYS): For, And, Nor, EX. London is a very old city, and it
But, Or, Yet, So is very appealing to tourists as a
result.

Note: "and" and "but" are the two most popular

conjunctions; so and yet appear rarely, and or and nor almost
never do.

Use Examples
2. Between a dependent clause and EX. The audience applauded when
an independent clause when the Aretha Franklin appeared on stage.
dependent clause comes first.
EX. Franklin smiled as the audience
 Dependent clauses are clauses
cheered.
that cannot stand on their own as
full sentences.
EX. As soon as I heard she was
 They begin
coming, I rushed to buy tickets for my
with subordinating conjunction
whole family.
 Commonly used subordinating
Conjunctions:
1. After 10. even if 19. since
2. although 11. even though 20. so that
3. as 12. if 21. than
4. as if 13. in order that 22. though
5. as long as 14. just as 23. unless
6. as soon as 15. like 24. until
7. as though 16. once 25. when
8. because 17. provided 26. whenever
9. before 18. rather than 27. while
Note: A dependent clause can be placed either before or after an
independent clause to form a complete sentence.

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

Use Examples
3. Around non-essential words and EX. London, which is a very old
phrases. city, has some extremely modern
 A non-essential clause is simply a parts.
clause that can be removed from a
EX. London is a very old city. It does,
sentence without affecting its
however, have some very modern
essential meaning. When the
information between the commas
is crossed out, the sentence still
makes grammatical sense.
Note: names and titles with commas around them should be treated like any
other non-essential clause. Simply cross out the name or title, and see whether
the sentence makes sense in context without the name or title.

Use Examples
4. To separate items in a list. EX. Hiking, skiing, and white-water
rafting have always been some of my
favorite activities.

Note: the comma before the word and is not optional. As a result, you will be
tested on this usage.
EX. Hiking, skiing, and white-water rafting have always been some of my favorite
activities.

Use Examples
5. After introductory elements EX. Finally, the rumbling train pulled
(Prepositional Phrase, into the station.
Participles, … etc). EX. In the morning, I feel more
energetic.

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

Commas should NOT be used:

1. Between two full sentences (independent clauses)

When two stand-alone sentences are joined by a comma, the result is known as
a comma splice.
Incorrect: London is a very old city, it has some extremely modern parts.
Correct: London is a very old city. It has some extremely modern parts.
Correct: London is a very old city; it has some extremely modern parts.

2. Between two clauses with the same subject when

the subject is not repeated
Incorrect: London is a very old city, but has many modern buildings.
Correct: London is a very old city but has many modern buildings.

3. Between Subjects and Verbs

No comma should be used even when the subject is very long.

The oldest surviving bridge in London, is Richmond Bridge, which was completed
in 1777. (………)
The oldest surviving bridge in London is Richmond Bridge, which was completed in
1777. (………)

4. Between Compound Elements (Nouns, verbs,

adjectives, etc. linked by and)

Many tourists travel to London and Paris to visit museums, and monuments.
(………)
Many tourists travel to London and Paris to visit museums and monuments. (………)

5. Before or After a Preposition

Most common prepositions: of, to, by, from, about, with, in, on, at
Frida Kahlo is among the most famous artists, of Latin American origin. (………)
Frida Kahlo is among the most famous artists of, Latin American origin. (………)

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

Frida Kahlo is among the most famous artists of Latin American origin. (………)

6. Before or after the word “that”

EX. London is a city, that has many old buildings and monuments. (………)
EX. London is a city that, has many old buildings and monuments. (………)
EX. London is a city that has many old buildings and monuments. (………)
EX. The snow that is used to build an igloo must have enough strength to be
cut and stacked correctly. (………)
EX. The snow used to build an igloo must have enough strength to be cut and
stacked correctly. (………)

7. Between adjectives and nouns

EX. The Caribbean Sea contains some of the world’s most stunning coral reefs.
(………)
EX. The Caribbean Sea contains some of the world’s most stunning coral, reefs.
(………)

8. Before an open parenthesis

EX. The Caribbean Sea contains some of the world’s most stunning coral reefs,
(which are home to thousands of species of marine life), but many of them are in
danger because of overfishing and pollution. (………)
EX. The Caribbean Sea contains some of the world’s most stunning coral reefs
(which are home to thousands of species of marine life), but many of them are in
danger because of overfishing and pollution. (………)

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

Practice: (Do it YOURSELF)

1. The cause of plague is Yersinia pestis: a bacterium spread by fleas on rodents

and it is the same culprit behind one of the worst pandemics in human history:
the Black Death.
A. NO CHANGE
B. Yersinia pestis: a bacterium spread by fleas on rodents.
C. Yersinia pestis (a bacterium spread by fleas on rodents)
D. Yersinia pestis, a bacterium spread by fleas on rodents,

2. Tunnel walls were created: with layers of brick, ceramic blocks, tar-soaked felt
for waterproofing, and concrete.
A. NO CHANGE
B. created, with
C. created with
D. created with:

3. On the right side, after they have moved through history. The same workers
stand tall, radiating strength and confidence.
A. NO CHANGE
B. history; the
C. history, the
D. history—the

4. Rivera received various prestigious commissions while he was in the United

States.
A. NO CHANGE
B. various, prestigious,
C. various, and prestigious
D. various and prestigious,

5. In the mythology, of the Tswana people of South Africa, these same stars
represent three pigs.
A. NO CHANGE
B. mythology of the Tswana people, of South Africa
C. mythology, of the Tswana people, of South Africa
D. mythology of the Tswana people of South Africa,

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

IV. COLONS
 A colon must always follow a full sentence that makes sense as a complete
thought that logically sets up the information that follows.

 Unlike a semicolon, a colon can be followed by either a full sentence or a

fragment.

Use Examples
1. Before a list EX. Incorrect: On our trip to London, we visited:
museums, palaces, and monuments.
EX. Correct: On our trip to London, we visited
these tourist attractions: museums, palaces, and
monuments.
2. Before an explanation EX. When the Manchus took control in China
1644, the Great Wall ceased to have
military significance: the empire now extended
well north of the wall, and China’s new enemies
came from a different direction – across the sea.

V. DASHES

1. To indicate non-essential statements within a sentence

Grammatically, dashes are identical to commas when used this way.

EX. London – which is a very old city – has many new buildings.

2. Before a list, an explanation, or to create a deliberate pause in a

sentence

Grammatically, dashes are identical to colons when used this way

EX. London has many tourist attractions – museums, palaces, and monuments.

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

VI. Apostrophes
Apostrophes make nouns possessive.
Singular nouns Plural nouns
1. Always add apostrophe + -S 1. Always add -S + apostrophe, or -ES +

EX. The boy’s ball = The apostrophe if the singular version ends in
-S (e.g. dress)
ball belonging to the boy.
2. If the plural form of a noun does not end
in –S
(E.g. feet, children, geese), then add
apostrophe + -S only.
EX. These boys’ ball = The ball belonging to
these boys
EX. The dresses’ buttons = The buttons on
the dresses.

Pronouns: no apostrophe = possessive

It’s Its Its’/Its’s
 It is  Possessive form of it  Do not exist

EX. London is a city known for it’s (it is) many tourist attractions. (………)
EX. London is a city known for its many tourist attractions. (………)

EX. London is a popular tourist attraction; in fact, its among the most visited
cities in the world. (………)
EX. London is a popular tourist attraction; in fact, it’s among the most visited
cities in the world. (………)

Note: In the tests “it’s vs. its,” the answer is virtually always its because that is
the version that students tend to have the most difficulty using correctly.
They’re vs. their vs. There
They’re Their There
 they are  possessive form  a place
of they
 plural of its

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

EX. London and Paris are two of the most famous cities and Europe, and they’re
(they are) known for having many tourist attractions.

EX. London and Paris, two of the most famous cities in Europe, are known
for their many tourist attractions.

EX. In the nineteenth century, Paris was considered the capital of the art world
because so many famous painters lived and worked there.

Who’s vs. whose

Who’s Whose
3. Who is 4. Possessive of who

EX. Barbara McClintock is EX. Barbara McClintock is a

a scientist who’s (who is) best known scientist whose discovery of

for her discovery of “jumping” genes. “jumping” genes helped earn her the
1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine.

Note: whose, unlike who, can be used for both people and things/places.

Correct: London is a city whose many museums, palaces, and monuments make it a

popular tourist destination.

Practice (1):
1. Omar studied every day for the 2. It was very important for him to
big test he was taking the SAT that do well. High scores in all the
Saturday. subjects.
A) NO CHANGE A) NO CHANGE
B) test, he was taking B) well; high
C) test, he was taking, C) well: high
D) test; he was taking D) well, he wanted high

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

3. Whenever Omar had a 7. Some of those very selective

free moment—he was studying. schools' require really high score's.
A) NO CHANGE A) NO CHANGE
B) moment; he B) selective school's require really
C) moment, he, high scores'.
D) moment, he C) selective schools require really
high score's.
4. His top-choice schools
D) selective schools require really
were Harvard, Yale and Princeton.
high scores.
A) NO CHANGE
B) Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. 8. It's tough to get in to you're top-
C) Harvard, Yale, and, Princeton. choice schools.
D) Harvard Yale and Princeton. A) NO CHANGE
B) Its tough to get in to your
5. Omar, everyone seemed fairly C) Its tough to get in to you're
certain, was going to get into one of D) It's tough to get in to your
those schools.
9- The rescue team members
A) NO CHANGE
wondered if they should call for
B) Omar everyone seemed fairly
backup or try to attempt the rescue
certain
themselves?
C) Omar, everyone seemed fairly
certain A) NO CHANGE

D) Omar everyone seemed fairly B) themselves.

certain, C) themselves!
D) themselves,
6. Everyone hoped, he would get in,
after his brother and two sisters 10- Watch out? That bird is headed

had gone to their first-choice schools. straight for your head!

A) NO CHANGE A) NO CHANGE
B) hoped, he would get in, after his B) out. That
brother, and two sisters had C) out that
C) hoped, he would get in after his D) out! That
brother, and, two sisters had
D) hoped he would get in after his
brother and two sisters had

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

11- It's not a question of if my three 15- The archetype of the hero is
best friends will see the new Star often taught in literature classes
Wars movie, but when. through three key works; The
Odyssey Beowulf and The Divine
A) NO CHANGE
Comedy
B) when,
C) when; A) NO CHANGE
D) when— B) works: The
Odyssey, Beowulf, and The Divine
12- The oddest protester at the Comedy.
waterfront redevelopment rally was a C) works The
large foam duck. Odyssey, Beowulf, and The Divine
A) NO CHANGE Comedy.
B) duck? D) works; The
C) duck . . . Odyssey, Beowulf, and The Divine
D) duck— Comedy.

13- Does anyone know the difference

between regular, and fancy ketchup? 16- The engineer, William Barclay
Parsons accepted responsibility for
A) NO CHANGE
overseeing this project.
B) regular and fancy ketchup?
C) regular and fancy ketchup. A. NO CHANGE
D) regular, and fancy ketchup. B. engineer—William Barclay
Parsons
14- Chinese cuisine is more of a C. engineer William Barclay
science than an art, it Parsons,
requires experimentation, trial-and- D. engineer William Barclay
error, and years of experience. Parsons

A) NO CHANGE 17- The city was celebrating an

B) art: it requires, incredible engineering feat; the
C) art; it requires completion of the first section of the
D) art it requires New York City Subway.

A. NO CHANGE
B. feat, over
C. feat:
D. feat

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

Practice (2)
More and more of our lives are (1)
mechanized, and at some point, we have to A. NO CHANGE
start wondering, what's the limit of that B. were safe, but we know
mechanization? Many factory workers in the C. were safe; but we know
19th century thought their jobs 1 were safe D. were safe. But we know
but we know now that they were wrong. Many 2.

people 2 in today's world believe there A. NO CHANGE

B. in todays world believe their jobs
jobs are safe, but how safe are those jobs
C. in todays world believe they're
really? jobs
D. in today's world believe their
Studies abound that ask whether man jobs

or machine is better at particular tasks, and

3.
the results are not always so obvious. Sure, a A. NO CHANGE
machine is obviously 3 better at say, B. better at, say welding
welding huge pieces of steel together, but C. better at, say, welding
what would you say if someone told you people D. better at say welding
are more likely to open up to a machine than
to a psychologist? Or that a machine could
write a quicker, more efficient news story 4.
A. NO CHANGE
than an experienced reporter could?
B. your point of view), however,
These questions may seem overly
C. you're point of view), however,
pessimistic (or overly optimistic depending
D. you're point of view); however,
on 4 your point of view); however, some
recent studies have been truly remarkable. 5.
Take Ellie, a computer program used primarily A. NO CHANGE
to diagnose patients with 5 depression, PTSD B. depression, PTSD, and other
and other mood disorders. C. depression, PTSD, and, other
D. depression, PTSD, and other,
Many patients found it easier to talk
to "Ellie" than 6 to a real person: she didn't 6.

react in some of those seemingly judgmental A. NO CHANGE

B. to a real person, she
ways that a person would, and her
C. to a real person; but she
voice 7 never broke on top of that she could
D. to a real person she

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

help psychologists to diagnose mental

illnesses better than human observation
7.
could. She could detect facial movements or
voice tones that a person might have not A. NO CHANGE
B. never broke, on top of that,
heard or ignored.
C. never broke. On top of that,
Whether Ellie is the way of the future
D. never broke; on top, of that,
is yet to be determined. We can't know right
8.
now, but there is no question that she raises
some interesting questions, not only A. NO CHANGE
about 8 the work of psychologists', but also B. psychologists work
C. the work of psychologists
about all of what we think are definitively
D. the work of psychologist's
human activities.
On the other side of the discussion,
9.
however, there's some evidence that humans
may have the upper hand. In some of the A. NO CHANGE
more basic 9 tasks those learned before the B. tasks those learned before the

age of about 10 humans have a huge upper age of about 10, humans
C. tasks, those learned before the
hand. Computers can do the complex thinking,
age of about 10 humans
but one thing with which they have a lot of
D. tasks, those learned before the
trouble is, paradoxically, simplicity. Sure, a
age of about 10, humans
computer 10 can tell your washer's and
10.
dryer's what a perfect washing and drying
cycle is, but can it fold your laundry? Your A. NO CHANGE
B. can tell your washer and dryer
GPS can tell you the fastest route to the
C. can tell you're washers and
next state, but can it tell you the prettiest
dryers
way to go or the best restaurants along the
D. can tell you're washer and dryer
way? Not without humans!
11.
While the battle of man against
machine rages 11 on. The questions will A. NO CHANGE
B. on; the
persist. No matter who wins, though, humans
C. on—the
will almost assuredly find ways to adapt:
D. on, the
that's something we've been doing for
thousands of years, which is something that
no computer can say.

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 Dr. Ahmed Nada ACT, SAT& EST Notes

12.
A. NO CHANGE
B. Cinema, a three-dimensional
At Edinburgh’s Filmhouse 12 Cinema, a three- sculpted, scene
dimensional sculpted scene shows C. Cinema a three-dimensional
sculpted scene,
D. Cinema a three-dimensional,
sculpted, scene

13.
patrons sitting in 13 a movie theater as horse A. NO CHANGE
leaps out of the screen. B. movie theaters as horse’s leaps
C. a movie theater as horses leap
D. movie theater’s as horse leap

14.
A. NO CHANGE
At the Scottish Storytelling Centre, a 14
B. dragon—crafted from the pages
dragon crafted from the pages of a mystery
C. dragon, crafted from the pages,
novel was found nesting in a window.
D. dragon crafted from the pages,

15.
A. NO CHANGE
As a young boy, John Pollack dreamed of B. began, as Pollack is likely to
building a full-size boat made entirely of point out,
bottle corks. At the age of thirty-four, C. began, as Pollack is likely to
Pollack sailed his dream down the Douro River point out

in Portugal. It all 15 began as Pollack is likely D. began as Pollack is likely to point

out
to point out, with a single cork.

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