1−9 Uniform Circular Motion and Gravity

Frequency: How often a repeating event happens. Measured in revolutions per second.
Period: The time for one revolution. T = 1 Time is in the numerator.
v
f
Velocity: Direction and thus velocity are continuously changing in circular motion. The
magnitude of velocity and speed are not. You can measure an instantaneous velocity, which is

tangential to the curve. Tangential Velocity or speed v =

2π r Fc & ac
T
Centripetal Acceleration: Inertia would make a mass leave the circle following the tangential
velocity. Instead the direction of the mass is being changed toward the center. In other words

the mass is accelerated toward the center. Centripetal means center seeking. ac =
v2
r Fc & ac
Centripetal Force: If an object is changing direction (accelerating) it must be doing so because
a force is acting. Remember objects follow inertia (in this case the tangential velocity) unless
acted upon by an external force. If the object is changing direction to the center of the circle it

must be forced that way. Fc = mac

v2 v
Fc = m
r
Problem Solving Strategy
1. As always, ask what the object is doing. If it is moving in a circle, or even part of a circle, shown above right.
2. Draw a FBD. Remember Fc is the sum of force for circular motion. The sum of force is not shown in the FBD.
3. Set the direction of motion as positive. Toward the center is positive, since this is the desired outcome.
4. Identify the sum of force equation. In circular motion Fc is the sum of force. Fc can be any of the previous forces.
5. Substitute the relevant force equations and solve.

Example 9-1: Vertical Circular Motion

Fg TT
A ball at the end of a string is swung in a vertical circle. Any forces pointing to the center are positive,
while force vectors pointing away from the center are negative. Sum the forces. In circular motion Fc
is the sum of force. Find the tension in the string when the ball is at the top and at the bottom.
Fc = Fg + TT Fc = − Fg + T B
TB
TT = Fc − Fg T B = Fc + Fg
Fg
2 v2
TT = m
v
− mg TB = m + mg Fig 9.1
r r
Example 9-2: Horizontal Circular Motion
A penny on a circular disk rotating horizontally (or a car turning a corner). Something must Ffr
be keeping it going in a circle. Friction keeps it in place. If friction let go the penny would
move due to inertia in a direction tangent to the disk. Force centripetal is the sum of forces
for circular motion. Find a formula for the maximum velocity if the coefficient of
Fig 9.2
friction is known.
v2
Fc = F fr m = µ mg v = µ gr
r
Example 9-3: Top of a Loop and Apparent Weightlessness
Apparently weightless means that you are in freefall. The only force acting on you is Fg. To Fg
feel weightless at the top of the loop the roller coaster car can have no FN (no pressure from
the track). So for an instant at the top the car is not touching the track. What at the top of
the loop makes this possible?

v2
Fc = Fg m = mg Fig 9.3
r

Revised 8/29/06 31 © R H Jansen

Example 9-4: Conical Pendulum
m1 is suspended by a string that passes through a tube. At the other end of the tube m2 is T = Fg2
hanging from the same string. m1 is spun at a velocity that keeps m2 stationary.
Solve for the force centripetal. Force centripetal is the sum of force that points to the
m1
center of the circular motion. The two acting forces on m1 are causing the circular
motion, and they must sum together as force centripetal. If you add the two acting force Fg1
vectors tip to tail they form a force vector triangle, shown in Fig 9.4b.
m2
Fig 9.4a
T = Fc + F Fc = T − F
2 2 2 2 2
g1 g1

T = Fg2 Fg1
Solve for the tension in the rope. Both masses hang from the rope, so either one can be
used. Pick the easiest, in this case the vertically hanging mass. It’s FBD is shown in Fig Fc
9.4c. ∑ F = T − Fg 2 0 = T − Fg 2 T = Fg 2 Fig 9.4b

T
r Fg 2 − F
2 2 2
v Fig 9.4c m2
Fc = T 2 − Fg1 = Fg 2 − Fg1 v=
2 2 2 g1
m
r m Fg

Example 9-5: Gravitron

This is the ride at amusement parks where it spins and the floor drops down, leaving the occupants stuck Ffr
to the wall.
FN
Solve for the tangential velocity. You feel pressed against the wall because the wall exerts a normal
force toward the center. In other words the normal force is force centripetal, Fc = FN . In the vertical
Fg

dimension you are prevented from sliding down the wall by an upward and equal friction force,
Fig 9.5
Ffr = Fg . Friction depends on force normal. Ffr = µ FN . Put all these equations together, and
substituting for Fc and Fg.

F fr Fg v 2 Fg v 2 mg rg
Fc = FN Fc = Fc = m = m = v=
µ µ r µ r µ µ

Gravity: One of the fundamental forces. This force is a field force, and the field is g, the acceleration of gravity. Every
mass in the universe generates a gravity field. The gravity field is directed toward the center of mass. While the nature of the
m1m2
force is not understood the mathematics are detailed in Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation Fg = G where
r2
G = 6.67 ×10−11 N ⋅ m 2 kg 2 . This equation is the force between two masses. Remember the force between objects is equal and
m1m2 m
opposite. Combine this with the equation for weight Fg = mg to get mg = G 2
, which simplifies as g = G 2 .
r r
Each equation has its usefulness depending on the situation. The last equation is important for finding the gravity field value
g around any mass at a distance r. To find the gravity at a point in space near Earth, use the mass of
earth (which creates the gravity) and the distance from Earth’s center. r is not a radius, but is the
distance measured from center of a mass. r is used since gravity radiates in rays from the center of
mass in a spoke like manner. Viewed in this way every distance in gravity is a radius. If you calculate
g at a point in space near a mass you also know g for all points on a sphere of that radius
(equipotential, since all points have the same potential energy). r
Inverse Square Law: This can be used for both formulas with r2 in the denominator. If r
doubles (x2), invert to get ½ and then square it to get ¼. Gravity is ¼ its original value so Fg is ¼ of what it was and g is ¼
of what it was. Multiply the old Fg by ¼ to get the new weight, or multiply g by ¼ to get the new acceleration of gravity.

Revised 8/29/06 32 © R H Jansen

Example 9-6: Gravity on an Unknown Planet
Mars has roughly half the radius of Earth and has one-tenth the mass.
What is the gravity on the surface of Mars? Many students want to look up the radius and mass of Mars and plug into this
m
equation g = G . But there is another way. The problem gives us the relationship to Earth for a reason. We also
r2
m
already know the gravity on Earth 9.8 = G Earth2 . What if we just use some logic and the Inverse Square Law? The gravity
rEarth
on Mars is going to be Earth’s gravity adjusted by pretending Earth shrinks to half its radius and one-tenth its mass.

g Mars = G
( mEarth × 0.1) g Mars = G
mEarth ( 0.1)
×
m
and we already know that 9.8 = G Earth2 , so
( rEarth × 0.5 ) rEarth ( 0.5 )
2 2 2
rEarth

g Mars = 9.8 ×
( 0.1) g Mars = 3.92 m s 2 . Again, just pretend Earth shrinks to become Mars. This last line is
( 0.5 )
2

all the work you need to show.

Example 9-7: Superposition of Gravity Fields
Superposition is a term referring to the addition, or superimposing, of two or more force fields. In Fig 9.7a mass A and
mass B both create gravity at all points in space to infinity. If an object is positioned at point P it will feel the gravity of
both masses. The two gravities must be added together using vector addition. mA = 2.00×1020 kg, mB = 4×1020 kg, The
masses are 2.00×108 m apart. Point P is located at a point half way between the masses.
What gravity is felt at point P? First solve for the gravity of each
P
m 1 2
planet, at point P, separately. Use g = G 2
r Fig 9.7a
( 2.00 ×10 ) = 1.33 ×10
20

(
g = 6.67 × 10−11 ) −6
m s 2 toward m1 (left)
(1.00 ×10 )
2
8

-1.33×10-6 +2.67×10-6
(4.00 × 1020) = 2.67 ×10 P
( )
1 2
g = 6.67 × 10−11 −6
m s 2 toward m2 (right)
(1.00 ×10 )
2
8
Fig 9.7b

g is a vector, and vectors have direction. Assign a positive sign to the vector pointing right and a negative sign to the vector
( ) (
pointing left, as shown in Fig 9.7b. Then add the two vectors together −1.33 × 10 −6 + +2.67 × 10 −6 = +1.33 × 10 −6 .)
-6 2
The positive answer implies that the gravity at point P is 1.33×10 m/s directed toward the right.
If a 100 kg mass were to be positioned at point P, what would the force of gravity be? The beauty of finding g is that
( )
you can easily apply it to any mass at that location to find the force of gravity Fg = (100 ) 1.33 × 10−6 = 1.33 × 10−4 N

Potential Energy Revisited: There is another equation to find potential energy using the universal gravity constant.
Use the work formula and work energy theorem, Wg = ∆U g = Fg ∆r . Set the initial displacement as zero and it simplifies

m1m2 U mm mm
to U g = Fg r . Use this with Fg = −G 2
to get g = −G 1 2 2 . This simplifies to U g = −G 1 2 .
r r r r
Where did the minus sign come from? Suddenly it is added to Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. This is the formal
version of the law. It can be used with either a positive sign (simplified and common version) or a negative sign (formal
version) and is situational dependent. In formal physics a point at infinity is said to have zero potential energy. Since a
central point of zero potential energy cannot be located in the universe, it makes sense to pick infinity to be zero potential
energy. All points in the universe are the same infinite distance from infinity. However, this means that close to Earth’s
surface potential energy is negative. It is common practice when viewing planets from a great distance to set infinity as
Ug = 0, and when on a planets surface to set the lowest height as Ug = 0. These are just conventions used to make specific
problems easier to solve. Remember, the exact energy that an object has is not really important. What matters is how much
of that energy is usable to do work. And work is a change in energy. Therefore, we can really declare any point as zero
energy and measure changes from that point.
Revised 8/29/06 33 © R H Jansen
Revised 8/29/06 34 © R H Jansen
 1−10 Introduction to Rotation and Torque
Rotation: In rotation the entire object spins around its center of mass. Looking at the tangential velocities diagramed at the
right, we see that they are all in different directions and all vary in magnitude. Points near the
outer edge have to move through a larger circumference in the same period than those closer to
the center. The outer edge must be moving faster to cover the longer distance in the same
period or time. All of these points have one thing in common, they all travel through the same
number of degree or radians during a period. Rotational velocity measured in radian per second
is called angular velocity. However, All the equations for an object in circular motion hold
true if we are looking at a single point and only a specific point on a rotating object.
Rotating objects have rotational inertia and an accompanying angular momentum, meaning that a rotating object will
continue to rotate (or not rotate) unless acted upon by an unbalanced torque, discussed below.
(Note: Planets and satellites follow circular motion, as they are not attached. Inner planets move faster as they are closer to
the sun and must have larger tangential velocities. They also travel a shorter circumference. Thus they have shorter periods.)
Angular momentum: Depends on mass (like regular momentum) and it also depends on mass distribution. As an ice
skater brings their arms closer to the body they begin to spin faster, since the mass has a shorter distance to travel.
Angular momentum is conserved. The radius gets smaller, but angular velocity increases (vice versa as the skater
moves arms outward). A galaxy, solar system, star, or planet forms from a larger cloud of dust. As the cloud is pulled
together by gravity its radius shrinks. So the angular velocity must increase. These objects all begin to spin faster. That is
why we have day and night.
Torque: In rotation problems we look at the sum of torque (not the sum of force). But it is exactly the same methodology.
τ = rF sin θ Strongest when the force is perpendicular to the lever arm (since sin 90o equals one).

Balanced Torque: The sum of torque is zero. No rotation.

Unbalance Torque: Adding all the clockwise and counterclockwise torque does not sum to zero. So there is excess torque
in either the clockwise or counterclockwise direction. This will cause the object to rotate.
1. As always, ask what the object is doing. Is it rotating or is it standing still?
2. Set the direction of motion as positive. The convention when in doubt is that counterclockwise is positive. This
corresponds to projectile motion where angles measured from the horizon counterclockwise were positive. But, just like
in forces if you know the direction of motion call it positive. It will either rotate clockwise or counterclockwise. If you
pick the wrong direction your final answer will be negative. But, the answer will be correct nonetheless. If it is not
moving pick one direction to be positive, it really doesn’t matter. But the other must be negative, so the opposing
torques cancel.
3. Identify the sum of torque equation.
∑τ = ∑τ cw − ∑τ ccw or ∑τ = ∑τ ccw − ∑τ cw
4. Substitute the relevant force equations and solve (examples assume clockwise was positive direction)
Rotating: ∑τ = ∑ ( rF sin θ ) − ∑ ( rF sinθ )
cw ccw

Not Rotating: 0 = ∑ ( rF sin θ )cw − ∑ ( rF sin θ )ccw ∑ ( rF sin θ )cw = ∑ ( rF sin θ )ccw

Example 10-1: Torque and a Seesaw ?m

Three masses are positioned on a seesaw as shown in Fig 10.1. mA = 4.0
kg, mB = 2.0 kg, and m3 = 3.0 kg. Distances are shown in the diagram.
A
How far from the fulcrum must mB be positioned in order for the B C
system to balance? Keep in mind that measurements are made from the
center of mass. It is as though all the mass is mathematically located at a
point at the center of the object. It is not rotating, so the clockwise torques
must equal the counterclockwise torques.
2m 2m
∑τ cw = ∑τ ccw
Fig 10.1
τ A = τ B +τ C
rA ⋅ FA = rB ⋅ FB + rC ⋅ FC
rA ⋅ mA g = rB ⋅ mB g + rC ⋅ mC g
( 2)( 4) = rB ( 2) + ( 2)( 3) rB = 1.0m

Revised 8/29/06 35 © R H Jansen

Revised 8/29/06 36 © R H Jansen
 1−11 Rotation Detailed, Rolling, and Angular Momentum
Note: This detail on rotation is needed for AP Physics C: physical science majors, calculus based.
Center of Mass: Objects rotate around a central axis and around a center of mass. It is therefore important to be able to
locate the center of mass. The center of mass is each for shapes like squares, rectangles, circles, spheres, or equilateral
triangles. It is in the middle. The following equation will find the center of mass of a system of point masses or for a system
of geometric shapes (those just mentioned, that you can find the center of by inspection) rcm = ∑ mr ∑ m . Unusual
shapes can be found experimentally by hanging the object from two or more positions, drawing vertical lines from the point
of attachment of the string, and looking for an intersection. Or integral calculus can be used. For this course these last two
methods will not be discussed.

Example 11-1: Center of Mass 2m

Find the center of mass for the object in Fig 11.1a. It is a thin flat object composed of a
rectangle (2m by 4m in length, mass 5 kg) and a square (2m long sides, mass 3 kg). Set up 4m
a coordinate axis system. For convenience place the coordinate axis at one corner of the
object and divide the object into a rectangle and a square, as shown in Fig 11.1b. Find the
center of mass the rectangle, relative to the coordinate axis, by inspection, x = 1, y = 2 .
Find the center of mass the rectangle, relative to the coordinate axis, by inspection,
x = 3, y = 1 . Now you can pretend that the rectangle and square are point masses at 4m
these locations. The remainder of the problem is the method for solving for point Fig 11.1a
masses in two dimensions. You must work in each dimension separately.
4

xcm =
∑ mx
xcm =
m1 x1 + m2 x2
xcm =
( 5)(1) + ( 3)( 3) = 1.75m
∑m m1 + m2 ( 5 ) + ( 3) 2
rr
ycm =
∑ my
ycm
m y + m2 y2
= 1 1 xcm =
( 5)( 2 ) + ( 3)(1) = 1.63m 1
rs
∑m m1 + m2 ( 5 ) + ( 3)
1 2 3 4
The center of mass is located at rcm = 1.75im + 1.63 jm Fig 11.1b

2
1

1 2 3 4

Fig 11.1c

Rotation: Since every point on a rotating object experiences a different tangential velocity displacement, velocity, and
acceleration cannot be expressed in terms of meters. A particle on the outside edge of a rotating object covers a greater
distance in the same time interval than a particle closer to the center. The only quantity that both points share in any given
time interval is the angle through which they move, as shown to the right. In rotation we have to work in radians instead of
degrees. This means that for every variable in linear (translational) motion there is a corresponding variable for rotation.
And every equation in linear motion has a rotational counterpart. Displacement x is replaced by radians θ (radians).
Velocity v is replaced by angular velocity ω (radians per second). Acceleration a is replaced by angular acceleration α
(radians per second squared) The following three equations form a bridge between linear motion and rotation and should be
memorized. x = rθ v = rω a = rα . The chart below, and on the following pages, compares
rotation to linear motion. There is an analogous quantity and an analogous equation for rotation that parallels those learned
in linear translational motion. Keep the three equations listed above in mind and become familiar with the new quantities.

Revised 8/29/06 37 © R H Jansen

 Angular Linear
Position arc length
θ= x
r
Displacement ∆θ = θ − θ 0 ∆x = x − x0
Average Speed ∆θ ∆x v0 + v
ω= v= v=
∆t ∆t 2
Instantaneous ∆θ dθ ∆x dx
Speed ω = lim ω= v = lim v=
∆t →0 ∆t dt ∆t →0 ∆t dt
Slope of displacement - time graph
Average ∆ω ∆v
Acceleration α= a=
∆t ∆t
Instantaneous Tangential Acceleration ∆v dv
Acceleration ∆ω dω a = lim a=
∆t →0 ∆t
α = lim α= dt
∆t →0 ∆t dt Slope of velocity - time graph
Kinematic ω = ω0 + α t v = v0 + at
Equations
1 1
θ = θ 0 + ω 0t + α t 2 x = x0 + v0t + at 2
2 2
ω 2 = ω 0 2 + 2α (θ − θ 0 ) v 2 = v0 + 2a ( x − x0 )
2

Tangential 2π 2π r
Speed v = rω ω= v=
T T
Centripetal Radial Acceleration v2
Acceleration ac =
v2 r
ac = = ω 2 r Radial Acceleration is the
r
acceleration directed along a radial (spoke) line.
It is directed toward the center.
Inertia Moment of Inertia: Depends on mass and m
distribution and thus varies for each object
I = ∫ r 2 dm = ∑ mr 2
Since these vary from object to object they are
usually given. The three shown here are
commonly used. The first one is the common
shape for pulley, which are the most used.
Cylinder: 1
I = MR 2
2
Cylindrical hoop: I = MR 2
Sphere: 2
I= MR 2
5
Force and Torque: Unbalance torques cause rotation. Force: Unbalanced forces cause translation.
Torque
τ = r× F F
∑τ = τ net = Iα ∑ F = Fnet = m a
Kinetic Energy 1 2 1 2
K= Iω K= mv
2 2

Revised 8/29/06 38 © R H Jansen

 Angular Linear
Work W = ∫ F ⋅ dr
W = ∫ τ dθ
Area under force – distance curve
1 2 1 1 2 1
W= mv − mv0
2
W= Iω − Iω 0
2

2 2 2 2
Power dW dW
P= P = τω P= P = Fv
dt dt

Vector Product and Torque: Torque is a cross product of vectors. The magnitude of a cross product is the area of
the parallelogram formed by the contributing vectors. The direction of a cross product vector is determined by using
the right hand rule. So the direction of torque is out of the page for counterclockwise rotation, and into the page for
clockwise rotations.
Translation vs. Rotation: Hit an object with a force directed into or out of the center of mass and it will translate
(linear motion). Hit an object with a force perpendicular to a radial line extending from the center of mass and at the very
edge of the object, and the object will rotate. Hit and object with a force between the center of mass and the edge and it will
translate and rotate.
(Note: Planets and satellites follow circular motion, as they are not attached. Inner planets move faster as they are closer to
the sun and must have larger tangential velocities. They also travel a shorter circumference. Thus they have shorter periods.)
Angular momentum: Masses that experience linear motion (translation) have velocity and thus have linear momentum.
Rotating masses have angular velocity and thus have angular momentum. While linear momentum depends on mass and
velocity, angular momentum depends on mass, mass distribution, and angular velocity. Think about it. In rotating objects
the points of mass farther from the center are moving faster and thus have higher instantaneous momentum values than those
closer to the center. Lots of mass, far from the center of mass, means higher angular momentum than the same mass, near the
center of mass.
Angular momentum is conserved. The radius gets smaller, but angular velocity increases (vice versa as the skater
moves arms outward). A galaxy, solar system, star, or planet forms from a larger cloud of dust. As the cloud is pulled
together by gravity its radius shrinks. So the angular velocity must increase. These objects all begin to spin faster. That is
why we have day and night.

Angular Linear
Momentum L = r × p = Iω p = mv
Conservation of Li = L f pi = p f
Momentum
Iωi =Iω f mvi = mv f

Revised 8/29/06 39 © R H Jansen

Example 11-2: Compound Bodies and Pulleys with Mass A
A compound body consisting of, mA = 6.0 kg, mB = 8.0 kg, Mpulley = 1 kg,
Rpulley = 0.10 m, is shown in Fig. 11.1a.
What is the acceleration of the system?
There are three masses, so there are three FBD’s, shown in Fig 11.2b. Fig 11.2a
Make note of the interesting new FBD for a pulley. Gravity acts through B
the center and down, as usual. The normal force is created by the support
pushing the pulley away from the table, and it follows the direction of the
support through the center of the pulley. The tensions are tangent to the
pulley. These tensions are a distance R (radius of pulley) from the FN TB
center and they are perpendicular to the R. This provides the torque FN
TA TA
that rotates the pulley. Also note that there are two tensions. When we A B
work with real pulleys that have mass the rope connecting the masses
has different tensions in every separate segment. TB
Fg Fg Fg
Set up sum of force and sum of torque equations for relevant masses. As
before use the direction of motion to assign positives and negatives. The
direction of motion is to the right, clockwise, and then down. Fig 11.2b
∑ FA = TA ∑ τ = τ cw − τ ccw ∑ FB = Fg − TB
mA a = TA Iα = R ⋅ TB − R ⋅ TA mB a = mB g − TB A
+TA -TA +TB -TB
B
Fg

a
TA = mA a I = R ⋅ TB − R ⋅ TA TB = mB g − mB a
R Fig 11.2c
Combine the three equations above to get
a 1
I = R ( mB g − mB a ) − R ( mA a ) Substitute in the moment of inertia of a cylindrical disk (pulley) I = MR 2
R 2
⎛1 2⎞ a
⎜ 2 MR ⎟ R = R ( mB g − mB a ) − R ( mA a ) Cancel out the pulleys radius, group all expression with a, and simplify.
⎝ ⎠
1 1 mB g
Ma = mB g − mB a − mA a mA a + mB a + Ma = mB g a=
2 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ mA + mB + 2 M ⎟
⎝ ⎠
This looks familiar. If we did the problem the old way, with a massless pulley, we would look at it as linear, like Fig 11.2c
mB g
It would be ∑ Ftotal = FgB ( mA + mB ) a = mB g a=
( mA + mB )
This is identical except for the expression for half the pulley’s mass. Can we just do all pulley problems the old way and just
add a 1 M to all the regular masses in the denominator. It seems to work, but you might loose points for not showing work.
2
And the 1 M only works with pulleys that have a moment of inertia of I = 1 MR 2 . If it were a spherical pulley, would we
2 2
2 2
add M to the denominator, since its moment of inertia is I = MR . Verify it on your own and see.
2

5 5
Fig 11.2c shows the problem sketched linear. Any forces that are perpendicular to the direction of motion were removed
from this sketch. Vectors pointing in the direction of motion are noted with positive signs and those opposing motion are
negative. It is apparent that tension cancels as before. However, unlike previous work in forces the pulley is not erased as it
now has mass. It must be accounted for. Is there a shortcut method using this linear sketch that would show adequate
supporting work?

Revised 8/29/06 40 © R H Jansen