BALLISTICS

Is the science of the motion of the projectile and the

condition that affects their motion. It is a science in itself for
it is an orderly arranged knowledge, which is a product of
series of experimentation, observation and testing.

Projectile
- Is a generic term which refers to any metallic or non-metallic
objects propelled from firearms. It is an object that can be
fired or launched, such as bullet, artillery shell, or rocket.
Q: In crime scene you recovered projectile, the following are
projectile. EXCEPT. (August 2023, CLE) 3X LUMABAS
A. Bullet
B. Slug
C. Cartridge
D. Shot
Note:
Technically, all projectile propels from a small arm is
called bullets with the exemption of a shotgun projectile
which is referred to as shots or pellets. To the policeman, the
term bullets are commonly referred to as slugs. In artillery
firearms, projectiles that are too big and even designed for
explosions are aptly called missiles.
Motion
Refers to the mobility or movement of the
projectile from the time it leaves the shell empty, it
leaves the gun muzzle and until it reach its target or fall
in the ground.
 THREE (3) TYPES OF MOTION IN PROJECTILE

1. Direct Motion
- Is the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the shell
by the action of the expansive force of gases from a burning
gunpowder.
2. Rotatory Motion
- Is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel firearm
which is either twisted to the left or to the right.

3. Translational Motion
- Is the action of bullet once it hits a target and subsequently
ricocheted (changes in motion).
 “ORIGIN OF THE WORD BALLISTICS”

The word Ballistics was derived from two Greek Words.

The word “ballo” and the word “ballein” which literally mean, “to throw”.

The term also said to have been derived from the Roman War Machine
called “Ballista”, a gigantic catapult that was used to furl missiles or large object at
a distance like stone, dead animal or even dead person.
 “BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS”

1. Interior Ballistics
2. Exterior Ballistics
3. Terminal Ballistics
4. Forensic Ballistics
5. Shot Ballistics
6. Wound Ballistics
INTERIOR (INTERNAL) BALLISTICS
- Is that branch of ballistics which treats of the motion of the
projectile while, it is still inside the firearm which extends
from the breech to the muzzle.

The Conditions Attributed to Internal Ballistics are as follows:

a. Firing Pin Hitting the Primer

- Upon the squeeze of the trigger, the hammer will be
released which causes the firing pin to be pushed and hit the
base portion of the cartridge where the primer is located.
b. Ignition of the Priming Mixture
- The priming mixture (composing of the KCLO3, sulfur and carbon)
located either at the cavity rim or at the center of the primer upon the
striking effect of the firing pin will ignite and such action is known as
“Percussion action”.

c. Combustion of the Gunpowder/Powder Charge or

Propellant
- After the ignition of the priming mixture, the ignition is imparted to
the gunpowder by passing through the vent or flash hole, thus burning
the gunpowder and converts it into an expanded hot gas.
d. Expansion of Heated Gas
- Once burned, the charged powder is converted into a heated gas,
and due to a more elastic property of gases, its particles will
spread and fill the entire container (cartridge case / shell).

e. Pressure Developed
- The outward push of the gases to the burned powder pressure is
developed due to the great amount of gas that is expanding with
the shell causing the withdrawal of the bullet from the shell.

f. Energy Generated
- Energy is the capacity to do work. The potential energy serves as
the propellant of the expanded gases, inasmuch as the pressure
that is developed has that degree of energy to force the projectile
out of the shell.
g. Recoil of the Gun
- This is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward
movement of the bullet upon explosion. The backward or rearward
movement of the gun in relation to the forward movement of the
bullet.

Note:
Jump – Is another portion of the recoil action that is characterized as
the backward and upward movement takes place before the bullet
leaves the muzzle.

Muzzle Break or Compensator – A gadget that will tend to reduce the

recoil in every firing of the gun.
h. Velocity of the Bullet Inside the Barrel
- It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the barrel
or at which it leaves the gun muzzle.

i. Rotation of the Bullet Inside the Barrel

- It refers to the twist of the bullet caused by the cylindrical grooved portion of the
barrel of most firearms. In some instance, this condition may not be possible
especially when the bullet passes through a smooth bore barrel.

g. Engraving of the Cylindrical Surface of the Bullet

- Once the bullet has passed through the barrel of any firearm be it rifled (with
cylindrical groove cut) or a smooth bore, whatever imperfections or scratches the
interior barrel of the gun has will be impressed and left of the cylindrical surface of
the bullet serving as its thumbprint. This becomes one of the most valuable marks
that would serve as its individuality.
 MISFIRE
Failure of the cartridge to explode after the firing pin strikes the primer

Defects:
1) Broken Firing Pin
2) Loose Firing Pin
3) Lacking length in Firing Pin
(specially homemade gun)

HANGFIRE
Delayed of explosion of the cartridge after the firing pin strikes the primer

Defects:
1. Wet Priming Mixture
2. The Anvil is not properly fixed (slanting position)
3. No vent or flash hole (Factory defect)
4. No priming mixture at all (Factory defect)
 EXTERIOR (EXTERNAL) BALLISTICS
• Treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile after leaving the gun muzzle.
• From after leaving the muzzle to before immediately hitting the target
• The study of the passage of the projectile through space or the air
• The primary factors that govern external ballistics are the weight and shape of the
bullet .

IT INVOLES THE FOLLOWING:

a. MUZZLE BLAST
Is the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun.

b. MUZZLE ENERGY
Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-pound.
C. TRAJECTORY
Refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the muzzle until it
hits the target. It is also described as the actual curve path taken by a bullet during its.
Stages of trajectory:
A. Straight horizontal line
B. Parabola like flight
C. Vertical drop (Reason: Pull of Gravity)
 D. RANGE
It refers to the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target
Accurate Range – shooter has control of his shots

Effective Range – bullet was fired it is still capable of inflicting fatal injury (Lethal Range)

Maximum Range – farthest distance the bullet can travel

Maximum Effective Range – farthest distance that the bullet can inflict fatal injury

Point Blank Range - A shot fired so closed to the target that no sighting is necessary for
effective aiming.

Maximum Point Blank Range – Farthest distance the bullet will path stays within critical zone.
In other words the maximum range at which you don't have to adjust your point of aim to hit the
target's vital zone.
E. VELOCITY
Refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time usually
express is feet per second (ft/sec.)
a. Revolver 600 ft/sec
b. Pistol 1,200 ft/sec
c. Rifle 2,500 ft/sec
d. Shotgun 3,300 ft/sec
F. PULL OF GRAVITY
It is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to its weight.
G. AIR RESISTANCE
Refers to the force of the air encounter by the bullet in its flight.
H. PENETRATION – the entry of the bullet in the target.
I. RICOCHET – the bouncing of a projectile after hitting a surface.
 NOTE ON THE FOLLOWING TERMS IN EXTERIOR
BALLISTICS:

BALLISTIC COEFFICIENT – This describes the ability of a bullet to maintain its velocity
against air resistance.
DRIFT - is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand rifling curves to the right
while that of the left and rifling curves to the left.
GYROSCOPIC ACTION - refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its highest
momentum or stability in flight and penetrating power.
YAW - the unstable rotating motion of a bullet.
TUMBLE – rotation of the bullet around the center
WOBBLE - The unsteady and uneven spin or rotation of a bullet; usually caused by insufficient
twist in the rifle barrel
KEYHOLE SHOT - the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a
result of not spinning on its axis.
TANDEM BULLET – two or more bullet leaving the barrel one after another
 TERMINAL BALLISTICS
Is that branch of Ballistics which deals with the effects of the impact of the projectile
on the target
The science of terminal ballistics is most important to the surgeon and is the most
common source of controversy when discussing ballistic wounding
 Terminal ballisticians are involved in studying these
phenomena:

1. TERMINAL ACCURACY
It refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.
2. TERMINAL ENERGY
Is the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target same as striking energy.
Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of the
victim.
Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the victim out of action instantly.
3. TERMINAL VELOCITY
Is the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
4. TERMINAL PENETRATION
Is the depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
 WOUND BALLISTICS
- It refers to the study of projectile penetration on tissues.
Gunshot Wound (GSW)
It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug within the tissues of
the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as the flame from the heated
expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces injury.

1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
2. Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
3. Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.
DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN GUNSHOT WOUND OF ENTRANCE
AND WOUND OF EXIT

DIFFERENTIAL POINTS WOUND OF ENTRANCE WOUND OF EXIT

Size of the wound smaller than the missile bigger than the missile
Edge of the wound Inverted Everted
Shape of the wound Round or oval no definite shape
Contusion collar present in contact absent
Gunpowder tattooing and near contact fire absent
Presence or absence always present maybe absent if the slug is
lodged inside the body
Protrusion of tissue Absent maybe present
Paraffin test positive in contact and near negative
fire
 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS ON BULLETS

SOUVENIR BULLET – bullet has been lodged and has remained in the
body
BULLET MIGRATION – bullet that is not lodged in place where it was
previously located
BULLET EMBOLISM – special form of bullet migration when the bullet
loses its momentum while inside the chamber of the heart or inside
the big blood vessels and carried out by the circulating blood to some
parts of the body where it may lodged
The "Odd and Even Rule" in Gunshot
Wounds

If the number of gunshot wounds of entrance and exit found in

the body of the victim is even, the presumption is that no bullet is
lodged in the body, but if the number of the gunshot wounds of
entrance and exit is odd, the presumption is that one or more
bullets might have been lodged in the body.
 SHOTS BALLISTICS
Deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets.
Focused with the study of shots/pellets from smoothbore firearms like
shotguns and muskets

SHOTGUN WOUND
It is an open wound produced by the penetration of pellets or shots
within the tissues of the body. In shotgun fire, the pellets penetrate and
usually lodged inside the body and a tendency for a wider dispersion of
pellets at a certain distance except in contact and near contact fires.
 FORENSIC BALLISTICS
This branch of ballistics is the product of the application of the
ballistics to law.
Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study of the motion of the
projectile as applied to law or simply the science of firearm identification by
means of the ammunition fired through them.

SCOPE OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1. Field Investigation
2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits
3. Legal Proceeding
 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
Conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they
investigate a case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine
job of the investigating officers, and this involves recognition, collection,
marking, preservation, and transmittal of ballistics exhibits like fired bullets,
fired shells, firearms and allied matters.
 TECHNICAL EXAMINATIONS OF THE
BALLISTICS EXHIBITS
This is the job performed by the firearms examiners in the laboratory. It
involves marking of the evidence firearms, test firings of evidence firearms to obtain test
bullets and test shells for comparative purposes, photomicrography under the bullet
comparison microscope, preparation of comparative charts, and the making of reports on
the findings and observations of the firearms examiners.
 LEGAL PROCEEDINGS

Court Trials - wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner and the ballistics
exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.
 FIREARM
LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM
“FIREARMS” OR “ARMS” are herein used includes rifles, muskets,
carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other deadly weapons from
which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missile may discharge off by means
of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles EXCEPT
such as being of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The BARREL of any
firearm shall be considered a COMPLETE FIREARM for all purposes hereof (Sec.
877, Revised Administrative Code see also Sec. 290 National Internal Revenue
Code).

FIREARM refers to ANY handheld or portable weapon, whether a small arm or light
weapon, that expels or is designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any projectile,
which is discharged by means of expansive force of gases from burning gunpowder or
other form of combustion or any similar instrument or implement. For purposes of this
Act, the BARREL, FRAME OR RECEIVER IS CONSIDERED A FIREARM. (RA 10591)
SEC. 35. Use of an Imitation Firearm. – An imitation firearm used in the
commission of a crime shall be considered a real firearm as defined in
this Act and the person who committed the crime shall be punished in
accordance with this Act: Provided, That injuries caused on the occasion
of the conduct of competitions, sports, games, or any recreation activities
involving imitation firearms shall not be punishable under this Act. (RA
10591)

TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM –

Instrument used for the propulsion of a projectile by means of
expansive force of gases from burning powder.
 MAN BEHIND FIREARMS
JOHN M. BROWNING
Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading single shot rifled
which was adopted by Winchester.
SAMUEL COLT
Patented the first practical revolver and maker of the Colt Peace Maker, a famous
revolver in the history.
ALEXANDER JOHN FORSYTH
Father of the percussion powder.
MAJOR UZIEL GAL
An Israeli army who designed UZI (Israel) in the year 1950.
COL. CALVIN H. GODDARD
Father of modern Ballistics.
JOHN C. GARAND
Designed and invented the Semi automatic U.S. Rifle Cal. 30. M1 garand.
GEORGE HYDE
A well-known expert in the field of SMG, (also known as grease gun) developed in 1941.
M3A1 (USA).
MICHAEL KALASHNIKOV
Designed the AK (Automat Kalashnikova) 47 (Soviet Union) adopted by the Russian Army
in the year 1951.
HORACE SMITH
Founded the great firm of Smith and Wesson and pioneered in making breech loading
rifles.
EUGENE STONER
Designed the U.S. M16 Armalite under licensed by Colt Company from July 1959 onwards.
L.C. SMITH
Developed shotgun bearing his name now the Ithaca gun Company.
JOHN T. THOMPSON
Developed in the course of WW1 the Thompson M1A1 and model of 1928 A1 (USA).
Pioneered the making of Thompson sub-machine gun.
DANIEL B. WESSON
Associates of Horace Smith in the making of Revolver.
DAVID “CARBINE” WILLIAMS
Maker of the first known Carbine.
OLIVER WINCHESTER
One of the earliest rifle and pistol maker.
HENRY DERRINGER
He gave his name to the whole class of firearm
BENJAMIN ROBINS
Conducted various experiment in interior ballistics. His findings gave the right to him
called “Father of Modern Gunnery”. Developed ballistic pendulum.
JOHN DEAN “JEFF” COOPER
Creator of the “modern technique” of handgun shooting, and an expert on the use
and history of small arms who coined the term HOPLOPHOBIA or the fear of firearm.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
ACCORDING TO INTERIOR BARREL CONSTRUCTION

1. SMOOTH BORE FIREARMS = Firearms that have no rifling (lands and grooves) inside their gun
barrel.
Examples: Shotguns and Musket

2. RIFLED BORE FIREARMS = Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.
Examples: Pistols, Revolvers, and other modern weapons.

LANDS – that portion of the bore remaining after the rifling of grooves have been cut
GROOVES – spiral cuts in a bore which cause the bullet to spin as it travels down the barrel
 ACCORDING TO THE CALIBER OF THE PROJECTILE PROPELLED

ARTILLERY
Refers to those type of firearms that propels projectile with more than one inch
diameter.
Examples: Cannons, Mortars and Bazookas:
SMALL ARMS
Are firearms that propels projectile with less than one
inch diameter and it can be handled, moved and operated by
one man.
Examples: Machine gun, shoulder arms and handguns.
• MACHINE GUNS is a type of firearm that is primarily
designed for military use. Is a weapon which shoots, or is
designed to shoot, automatically more than one shot
without manual reloading, by a single press of the trigger.

• SUB MACHINE GUN Is a light, portable form of machine

gun, utilizing a pistol size ammunition, having a shoulder
stock that may or may not be folded and designed to be
fired with both hands
• SHOULDER ARMS are those types of firearm that were
normally fired from the shoulder.
RIFLES
A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with
more accuracy through a long rifled bore barrel, usually
more than 22 inches.
CARBINE
A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not
longer than 22 inches. It fires a single projectile though a rifle-
bore either semi-automatic or fully automatic, for every press of
the trigger.
MUSKETS
Is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military
shoulder arms designed to fire a shots or a single round lead
ball. A more detailed discussion of musketeers can be found on
chapter 8 in the discussion of Ignition system.
SHOTGUN
A smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms
designed to fire a number of lead pellets or a shots in one
charge (FBA Manual)
 THE BARREL CONSTRUCTION OF SHOTGUN MAY
ALSO BE FOUND IN DIFFERENT BORE
CONSTRUCTION.
SINGLE BARRELED SHOTGUN - Loads, closes, fires and
deloads single cartridge.

DOUBLE BARRELED SHOTGUN - Side by side barrel or

over and under.

PUMP ACTION TYPE SHOTGUN/ SLIDE ACTION - The

operated by means of sliding lever under the barrel.
AUTO-LOADING SHOTGUNS - The same as auto loading
rifles, the recoil action reloads the gun from the magazine.

CYLINDER BORE TYPE -which the bore size is the same

through out the barrel

CHOKE BORED GUN - designed with a diminishing or

reducing bore diameter type towards the muzzle. This type
is designed to cause an effect to the travel of the shots. It
makes the shots travel longer before it spreads.

PARADOX GUN - still in a very rear occasions another

type of shotgun can be observed to be having rifling only a
few inch from its muzzle points.
• HANDGUNS are those type of firearms that are designed or intended to be fired using
one hand.
TYPES OF HANDGUNS
a) PISTOL
b) REVOLVER

PISTOL
A handgun that could be semi-auto or auto/full auto. A handgun that is magazine
feed.
It is said that pistols were invented in the Italian town “PISTOIA” OR “PISTOLA”
meaning “CITY”
KOLIBRI AUTO PISTOL
(Cal 2.7mm, 5 shots) is the
smallest pistol in the World, made
in 1914.

Caliber .50
Now, considered the most
powerful handgun in the world. It
replaced Magnum .44.
REVOLVER
A handgun with a corresponding cylinder that revolves before
the barrel which consist of different chambers.
Kinds are Solid Frame (S.Colt), Swing-out (US), and
Breaktop (UK)

SINGLE ACTION, a type of revolver that needs a manual

cocking of the hammer before squeezing the trigger

DOUBLE ACTION, a type of revolver that does not need

manual cocking. Just press the trigger and it both cocked and
released the hammer causing a much faster firing.
 ACCORDING OF MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION
1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms designed to fire only one shot every loading.
Examples: Single shot pistols, Revolvers and shotguns.
2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed to fire several loads (shot) in one loading.
Examples: Automatic pistols revolvers rifles and shotguns.
3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that constitutes a continuous firing in a single press of
the trigger and while the trigger is press.
Examples: Machine guns and rifles
4. Slide/Pump Action type = types of firearms in which loading take place by back and
forth manipulation of the under/over forearms of the gun.
Examples: Shotgun and pistols
5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which reloading takes place by manipulating the
both back and forth.
Examples: Rifles, shotguns and machine guns.
6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place by lever action on the firearms.
Examples: Rifles and shotguns.
 MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF GUN
Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. = devices
principally designed for other purpose to which a gun
mechanism is incorporated also called as Freakish gun.

Flare gun = designed for tracing or sending signals or

locating enemy troops.

Freakish gun = a tool in which firearm mechanism is

attached to prevent easy identification.

Gas gun = generally referring to all gun designed from

firing tear gas.
Harpoon guns = refers to a barbed spear in
hunting large fish.

Liberator = U.S. government made smooth

bore gun used in Europe during war designed
to fire an automatic colt pistol cartridge caliber
.45.

Multi – Barreled gun = refers to all types of

gun containing a number of barrels.

Paradox gun = a type of gun which contains

lands and grooves a few inch from the muzzle
point.
Tools = are those devices which resembles a gun
designed but are generally used for construction
of furniture.

Traps = refers to gun used for trapping animals

that are fired to woods.

Zip Gun = refers to all type of home made gun

BARREL
Gives direction to the bullet; the part of the gun that initiates the path of
the bullet

STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF BARREL

1. Drilling – making of hole of barrel with the use of barrel blank.
2. Reaming – with the drilled hole, it is being reamed from breech end to
muzzle to remove imperfections, scratches and irregularities. This operation
undergoes 1) Roughing, 2) Finishing 3) Burnishing.
3. Broaching - the construction of rifling inside the barrel. Tools used are: 1)
Cutter 2) Scraper 3) Broach 4) Button.
4. Lapping - smoothening/polishing of the inner surface of the barrel.
BREECH
The part of the barrel at the opposite end of the muzzle
BREECHBLOCK
Also known as the bolt, it is the steel block that closes the breech against the force of
the charge during firing; the face of this block which comes in contact with the base of the
cartridge is the breech-face
BUTT
The part of the stock which is held against the shoulder to stabilize the gun during firing
(for rifles and shotguns)
CHAMBER
The part of the bore into which a cartridge is placed; the enlarged space at the breech of
the barrel where the cartridge is fed
CYLINDER
The part of the revolver that serves as the magazine as well as chamber for cartridges
EJECTOR
The mechanism that throws the empty shell (cartridge case) from the firearm
EXTRACTOR
The mechanism that pulls the empty shell from the chamber
FRAME
Also called receiver, the part of the gun that houses the internal parts; the body of a firearm to
which the barrel, stock, pistol grip, sights, etc. are fixed and within which lies the firing and breech
mechanism

GRIP
The smaller part of the stock behind the trigger guard (for rifles and shotguns); the part of the
gun firmly held the shooter thus stabilizing the aim while squeezing the trigger;

HAMMER
The part of the firing mechanism in revolvers and some pistol that is released by the sear or
the main spring once the trigger is pressed; it strikes the firing pin causing the pin to move forward and
hit the primer

MAGAZINE
A device for storing cartridges in a repeating firearm for loading into the chamber

MUZZLE
The end of the front end of the barrel where the bullet or pellet exits
FRONT SIGHT
The fixed sight on top of the barrel near the muzzle used to aim the gun at the target

REAR SIGHT
The sight found at the top of the breech area; this sight can be moved to change where the
bullet will hit

RECOIL SPRING
The spring in automatic or self loading weapons which returns the bolt or breech block after
recoil; sometimes known as the return spring

TRIGGER
The part of the gun that initiates the action when the shooter is ready to fire his weapon

TRIGGER GUARD
The safety device designed to protect the trigger from accidental bumping or pressing that
may result to accidental firing
 AMMUNITION
LEGAL DEFINITION
Ammunition refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets,
carbine, shotgun, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, shot
shell or other missiles maybe fired by means of gun powder or
other explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles
as mentioned elsewhere in the code. (Chapter VII, Sec.290 of
NIRC as well as Sec 877 RAC)
Ammunition refers to a complete unfixed unit
consisting of a bullet, gunpowder, cartridge case and primer or
loaded shell for use in any firearm (Sec. 3, RA no. 10591)

TECHNICAL DEFINITION
Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single
cartridge. Cartridge is a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet
(ball), primer (cap), cartridge case (shell) and gunpowder
(propellant).
 GENERAL TYPES OF AMMUNITION
DUMMY
a carefully made replica of a cartridge, usually made of steel and discreetly
dimensioned to be used by weapons instructors, inspectors and repairmen when checking if
weapons are functional

DRILL AMMO
completely inert and without an explosive propellant; used in military training to
practice loading and manipulation of firearms

BLANK AMMO
a cartridge without a bullet; may contain gunpowder and priming mixture thus
designed to produce gunshot to indicate firing; used for theatrical performance and military
training

LIVE AMMO
the real ammunition since it is composed of a complete unit of unfired cartridge
CLASSIFICATION OF AMMUNITIONS ACCORDING TO ITS EFFECTS
PENETRATORS - pierce targets using a single bullet,
HIGH EXPLOSIVES - burst before hitting their target, fragmenting into thousands of penetrating
pieces or becoming a high-speed jet of molten metal, and
CARRIER PROJECTILES - break open near the target to deliver leaflets, radar-deceiving
materials, or submunitions (small ammunition).

RIOT CONTROL AMMUNITION

This is used by law enforcement officials to subdue rioters without causing serious injury.
Most of this ammunition consists of hard rubber bullets. Another type is made of soft rubber rings
that look like doughnuts and may contain tear gas. These rings cause less damage than do the
rubber bullets
 ORIGIN OF THE WORD CARTRIDGE
The term cartridge is derived from the word “charta”, the Latin word for
paper. Later on, it came through the French word “cartouche”, meaning a roll
of paper, which indicates that the original cartridges were not the brass gilding-
metal tipped units which we are familiar with today.
 CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE

ACCORDING TO THE LOCATION OF THE

PRIMER

PIN-FIRE
The first cartridge of a self –exploding type
which enjoyed any real general use was the type called
the “pin fire” commonly attributed to Monsier Le
Facheux of Paris, around 1896
Is a type of cartridge in which the ignition cap
(primer) is concealed inside the cartridge case and has
a pin resting upon it
This type of cartridge is no longer used
(Obsolete).
RIM FIRE
Is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture
is located at the hallow rim of the case can be fired if the
cartridge is tuck by the firing pin on the rim of the case
The simplest form of modern cartridge
In this type, the priming mixture is contained or
located in a cavity inside and around the rim of the
cartridge which is a very sensitive area
If a rim fire cartridge is struck anywhere in the
sensitive area, the priming substance is crushed between
the front and rear of the case rim. This denotes or ignites
the priming mixture, causing a flash of flame.
These rim-fire cartridges are generally found in
caliber .22s.
1845 – FLOBERT, a native of France, developed a
bullet breech cap which was in reality the first rim cartridge
RIM FIRE
Is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture
is located at the hallow rim of the case can be fired if the
cartridge is tuck by the firing pin on the rim of the case
The simplest form of modern cartridge
In this type, the priming mixture is contained or
located in a cavity inside and around the rim of the
cartridge which is a very sensitive area
If a rim fire cartridge is struck anywhere in the
sensitive area, the priming substance is crushed between
the front and rear of the case rim. This denotes or ignites
the priming mixture, causing a flash of flame.
These rim-fire cartridges are generally found in
caliber .22s.
1845 – FLOBERT, a native of France, developed a
bullet breech cap which was in reality the first rim cartridge
RIM FIRE
Is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture
is located at the hallow rim of the case can be fired if the
cartridge is tuck by the firing pin on the rim of the case
The simplest form of modern cartridge
In this type, the priming mixture is contained or
located in a cavity inside and around the rim of the
cartridge which is a very sensitive area
If a rim fire cartridge is struck anywhere in the
sensitive area, the priming substance is crushed between
the front and rear of the case rim. This denotes or ignites
the priming mixture, causing a flash of flame.
These rim-fire cartridges are generally found in
caliber .22s.
1845 – FLOBERT, a native of France, developed a
bullet breech cap which was in reality the first rim cartridge
 ACCORDING CALIBER

CAL. MM.
Cal. .22 about 5.59 mm- used in revolver, pistol and rifles
Cal. .25 about 6.35 mm- used in pistols and rifles.
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm- (mauser) – for carbines and other rifles
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm (luger)
Cal. .32 about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and revolvers
Cal. .380 about 9 mm- used for pistols
Cal. .357 used in magnum .357 revolvers
Cal. .45 about 11 mm – used in automatic pistols
Cal. .50 used in .50 cal. Machine gun

NOTE:
CALIBER TO MILLIMETER (MULTIPLY BY 25.4)
MILLIMITER TO CALIBER (DIVIDED BY 25.4)
 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE
TYPE OF FIREARMS

REVOLVER PISTOL RIFLE SHOTGUN

CARTRIDGES CARTRIDGES CARTRIDGES CARTRIDGES
 SHOTGUN CARTRIDGES
It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets, primer, case, wads and
gunpowder .
GAUGE OF SHOTGUN
Compared with other types of firearms, shotgun has very unique characteristics in terms of its
diameter designation both for its firearm and cartridge use. The unit of measurement used in shotgun is
expressed in GAUGE. This is determined by the number of solid lead balls of pure lead, each with
diameter of the barrel that can be prepared from one pound of lead. At present the 10-gauge shotgun is
considered with the biggest diameter while the .410 as the smallest one. Listed below are the equivalents
of diameter in gauge to inch.
Gauge Inch
10 .775 inch
12 .729 inch
16 .670 inch
20 .615 inch
28 .550 inch
. 410 .410 inch
 TYPES OF SHOTS
1. Soft or Drop Shots - made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a small
amount of arsenic has been added to make it take on the form of a spherical
drop as it falls down the shot tower. This type is easy to deformed or flattened,
loose their velocity quicker, low penetrating power and string out more.
2. Chilled or Hard Shot - is a type of shot with a small amount of antimony
mixed with lead to increase hardness. It does no deform easily, better patterns,
less string and more uniform velocity and penetration.
3. Coated or Plated Shot - also called as “lubaloy” shot. A chilled shot coated
with thin copper through electroplating design for greater strength and elasticity,
great resistance to deformation and leading and better pattern.
Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for used in shotgun
 PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE
• BULLET

• CARTRIDGE CASE

• GUNPOWDER

• PRIMER
 CARTRIDGE CASES/SHELL
(70% copper, 30% zinc)
It is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet,
gunpowder and primer.

It is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic
firearm during firing and this remains at the scene of the crime. This is firearm evidence that
can help trace a particular firearm from which it was fired.
FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIGE CASE
The function of cartridge case is basically the same
whether it is fired in revolvers, pistols, rifles, shotguns, or
machine guns. These include:
It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into
one unit. It serves as a waterproof container for the
gunpowder.It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as
the sidewalls of the cartridge case are forced against the walls of
the chamber by the pressure. It serves as a “gas seal” at the
breech end of the barrel.
CARTRIDGE CASES ACCORDING SHAPES
BOTTLED-NECKED – where a wide bodied case is, just
before the case mouth, reduced in diameter to that of the
bullet.
ex. 5.56mm

STRAIGHT CASED – where the case diameter is

approximately the same along its length.
Ex. Cal. 38

TAPERED CASE – where a wide based cartridge case is

gradually reduced in diameter along its length.
Ex. “magnum jet” Cal. .22.
 PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE
BASE - the bottom portion of the case which holds: a)the primer which contains the priming
mixture; b) the shell head which contains the head stamp, caliber, and year of manufacture.
RIM - is the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge to
chamber.
EXTRACTING GROOVES - is the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for automatic
withdrawal of the case from the chamber
PRIMER POCKET - is that part of the shell which provides the means for the primer to be put in the
central position. Its function is extended to: (a) hold the primer in place; (b) to provide means to
prevent the escape of gas; (c) to provide solid support for primer anvil.
BODY - is the cylindrical part of the shell which house the gunpowder
SHOULDER - that part of the cartridge case which support the neck of the cartridge which is
evident in a bottleneck type
NECK - is that part of the shell which is actually occupied by the bullet. This is obvious in a
bottleneck type of shell but not with the straight type.
VENTS OR FLASH HOLES – the “vent” or “flash holes” is the hole in the web or bottom of the
primer pocket through which the primer “flash” provides ignition to the powder charge. It is the
“opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder
CRIMP - Part of the mouth of the cartridge case that is turned in upon the
bullet, it aids in the holding of the bullet out of the neck which affects the
burning rate of the gun powder.

CANNELURE - is the cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge

case designed to secure the shell to the chamber as well as prevent bullet from
being push down to the powder charge.
Q: What part of a cartridge case designed to prevent
the bullet to push back? (August 2023, CLE)
a. Extracting Grooves
b. Vent
c. Crimp
d. Cannelure
 BULLETS
The word “Bullet” was derived from French word “Boullette” which
means a small ball. This term is generally used when we are referring to
projectile fired from any small arms, which has a variety of form, especially
during the earlier history. In a more technical sense, bullet refers to a metallic or
non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm it is sometimes called as
shots or slugs.

NOTE: The general term for bullets, shots/pellets/ balls is Projectile.

 GENERAL TYPES OF BULLETS
LEAD TYPE
Made of lead or alloy of metals, tin and antimony.

JACKETED TYPE
Is a type of bullet consisting of the regular lead core, coated with a copper
alloy in order to prevent lead fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistols and
other high power guns.
made of lead core covered with jacket of harder material, such as gilding metal,
copper alloy approximately 90% and zinc 10%

Purpose of Jacket of Bullet:

To prevent adherence of lead or metal inside the gun barrel
To have better penetration of the bullet to the target
CONICAL – the free end of the bullet is tapering and pointed

HEMISPHERICAL – the free end is dome like and commonly observed in short
firearm

WAD CUTTER (SQUARE NOSE) – the free end is flattened commonly used in target
practices
GENERAL RULE:

REVOLVER – soft metal round nose bullet

RIFLE AND SELF-LOADING FIREARM – Full jacketed bullet
AUTOMATIC FIREARM – semi-jacketed bullet
 ACCORDING TO THEIR MAXIMUM EFFECT
TO THEIR TARGETS
Ball Type – Is a type of bullet, which is intended for
anti-personnel and general use.

Armor piercing – is a type of military bullet

designed to penetrate light steel armor. Its
mechanical construction makes it capable of
penetrating through some light vehicles.
 ACCORDING TO THEIR MAXIMUM EFFECT
TO THEIR TARGETS
Ball Type – Is a type of bullet, which is intended for
anti-personnel and general use.

Armor piercing – is a type of military bullet

designed to penetrate light steel armor. Its
mechanical construction makes it capable of
penetrating through some light vehicles.
 Explosive Bullet - Is a small bullet containing a
charge of explosive, which will detonate on impact.

Incendiary Bullet –Type of military bullet used to

cause fire in a target, generally designed to use b y
aircraft armament in order for the fuel tanks to
ignite.

Tracer Bullet – a type of military bullet capable of

leaving visible marks or traces while in flight giving
the gunner the chance to observe the strike of the
shot or make adjustments in the event of a miss
 PRIMER
Is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing
a highly sensitive chemical compound that would easily ignite or bursts into flame
when struck by the firing pin.
Also called CAP or Percussion Cup

1807 – Alexander John Forsyth conceived the percussion ignition system.

Considered as Father of the percussion ignition
 TYPES OF PRIMER ACCORDING TO ANVIL
BOXER PRIMER(US TYPE)
• one flash hole
• favorite in U.S. invented by Col. Edward Munier Boxer in 1869

BERDAN PRIMER (EUROPEAN TYPE)

• two flash holes or vents
• invented by Hiram Berdan of New York in 1850’s

BERDAN-BOXER PRIMER – has THREE vents/flash holes.

BATTERY CUP TYPE – used for shotgun shells, a variation of Berdan.
 PARTS OF THE PRIMER

PRIMER CUP
Is the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the disc and the
anvil.
PRIMING MIXTURE
Is the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by the mechanical blow of
the firing pin. It is also called as percussion powder.
ANVIL
Is that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the
firing pin causing friction that would initiates ignition.
DISC
Is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect it
from moisture attack.
 TWO CLASSES OF PRIMING COMPOUNDS
CORROSIVE – it has potassium chlorate – If ignited produces potassium chloride which
draws moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels.
(EARLY PRIMERS)

CORROSION – chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel due to rust formation or
chemical reaction by products of combustion during firing.

EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to
mechanical abrasion or sliding friction.

NON-CORROSIVE (MOSTLY USED AT PRESENT)

a.potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel) – 45%
b.antimony (element & fuel) – 23%
c. fulminate of mercury (initiator) – 32%
 GUN POWDER
Also called as propellant or Power Charge
Is that mixture of chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by
means of its expansive force of gas when burned.
Although it burns rapidly upon ignition, it is classified as low-explosive mixture.
GENERALLY, THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF POWDER IN SMALL ARMS.
THESE ARE:

1. BLACK POWDER (EUROPEANS) – The standard ingredients are:

Potassium nitrate 75%, Sulphur 10% and Charcoal 15%.
It’s characteristics are:
a. oldest propellant powder
b. consist of irregular grains and have either a dull or shiny black surface
c. produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel
d. burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited
 PERSONALITITES

ROGER BACON (1248) - an English monk and scientist, credited with the
invention of gunpowder (blackpowder).

CONSTANTINE ANKLITZEN (A.K.A. BERTHOLD SCHWARTZ) (1300) - A

German monk was credited for the application of gunpowder for propelling
missile.

QUALITIES OF BLACK POWDER (TYPICAL TO ALL EXPLOSIVES)

When ignited, it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air in
burning, it gives off large amount of gas a considerable amount of heat is
evolved
2. SMOKELESS POWDER – This powder does not gives off huge cloud of smoke like
black powder. This is commonly used in modern cartridges and is considered as the most
powerful propellants
Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine as the major ingredients

PERSONALITIES
CAPTAIN E. SCHULTZE of the Prussian Army, made the 1st successful used of smokeless
powder in shotgun in the year 1864
LATER, M. VIEILLE of French developed the first smokeless powder for riffle in the year
1884 and named it “poudre B”
In 1887, Alfred Nobel invented a smokeless powder with nitroglycerine (40%) and
nitrocellulose (60%) as the main composition and called it “Ballistite”
FREDERICK ABEL & JAMES DEWAR (1890) – obtained a patent of modifying smokeless
gunpowder, they called it Cordite.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SMOKELESS POWDER

Single based (Nitrocellulose)

Double based - Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine
Triple based – Nitrocellulose, Nitroglycerine and Nitroguanadine
PARAFFIN TEST - test performed to extract the
nitrates embedded in the skin.

DIPHENYLAMINE TEST OR DPA TEST – a test that

determines the presence and location of nitrate, chemical
needed is diphenylamine reagent.
 FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

The identification of fired bullets, cartridge cases or other ammunition

components as having been fired from a specific firearm.

Forensic Ballistics is sometimes properly called FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

 PROBLEMS IN FORENSIC BALLISTICS
1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber, type; make of firearm
from which it was fired.
2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber, type, and make of
firearm from which it was fired.
3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or
not the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or
not the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they
were fired from one and the same firearm.
6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to determine whether or
not they were fired from one and the same firearm.
 TWO PRINCIPLES OF FIREARM
IDENTIFICATION
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION THROUGH BULLETS

a. No two barrels and microscopically identical as the surface of their

bores all posses individual characteristics markings.
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by
the riflings and this engraving on a bullet fired from one barrel will
be different from that on a similar bullet fire from another barrel.
And conversely,. The engraving on bullet from the same barrel will
be the same.
c. Every barrel leaves its “thumbmark” on every bullet which is fired
through it, just as every breech face leaves its “thumbmark” on the
base of the fired cartridge case.
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION THROUGH CARTIDGE CASE/SHELLS:

a. The breech face and striker of every single firearm leave a microscopically
individualities of their own
b. The firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb mark” on every cartridge case
which it fires.
c. The whole principles of identification is based on the fact that since the
breech face of every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge cases
which is fired are imprinted with this individuality. The imprint on all cartridge
cases fired from the same weapon are always the same, those on cartridge
cases fired from different weapons must always be different.
 TWO (2) GOVERNING CHARACTERISTICS IN
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS - These were set even before the manufacture of FAs. These
are factory specifications.
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS - Are determined after the manufacture of FA. Such
marks are so minute that the use of the lens with high magnification is necessary to
discover individuality.
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
BORE DIAMETER
NUMBER OF LANDS AND GROOVES WIDTH OF THE LANDS
WIDTH OF THE GROOVES
DIRECTION OF TWIST
PITCH OF RIFLING
DEPTH OF THE GROOVES
 BORE DIAMETER
(caliber or gauge)
It is diameter to which the bore was reamed. The distance measured between two
opposite lands inside the bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most express in
either caliber in inch or in millimeters
 NUMBER OF LANDS AND GROOVES

The number of lands an grooves inside the barrel of a given

firearm are always the same or equal. It may run from 3 to 8, but the
most in the modern firearm are five and six.
• LANDS = are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.
• GROOVES = are the depressed portion of the bore between the
lands.
 WIDTH OF THE LANDS
Is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves, width
and number. The lands are the remainders of the circumference after
subtracting all the grooves width.

WIDTH OF THE GROOVES

Is measured as the shortest distance between the two dies or
edge of a grooves.
DIRECTION OF TWIST
Rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the left or to the
right which cause bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore, in order
to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.

PITCH OF RIFLING
It is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to
the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make a
complete turn inside the barrel.

DEPTH OF THE GROOVES

The groove’s depth if measured on a radius of the bore. Grooves are
usually few thousandths of an inch deep, which equal to the height of the
lands.
 CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT
FIREARMS
(TYPES OF RIFLINGS)
1. Steyer Type= is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right twist and the
width of the lands grooves. (4 RG=L)
2. Carbine Type = rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the grooves is
two (2) times the width of the lands (4RG2X).
3. Smith and Wesson = rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist , the width of
the land and grooves are equal. (5RG=L)
4. Colt = type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of the grooves is
twice (2) the width of the lands. (6LG2X)
5. Browning = type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the
grooves is twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)
6. Webley = Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the
groove is three time larger than the boarder of the lands. (7RG3X)
7. Winchester = Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the
grooves is three time larger the width of the lands
 INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
MARKS FOUND OF FIRED BULLETS

LAND MARKS = marks left on a fired bullet

caused by its contact to the elevated portion
(lands) of the bore of the firearm. It appears as
slight depressions or scratches the cylindrical
surface of the fired bullet.

GROOVE MARKS = marks found on a fired

bullet caused by the grooves of the barrel which
is the same number as that of the landmarks.
SKID MARKS = Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a revolver. It
is more or less located at the anterior portion of the fired bullet due to its forward
movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it initially rotates.

STRIPPING MARKS = marks found on those bullet fired from a “loose-fit” barrel
wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out
Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause by either chemical
reaction brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion)

SHAVING MARKS = marks commonly found on bullet fired from a revolver

cause by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder

SLIPPAGE MARKS = marks found on fired bullets passing through either on oily
or oversize barrel
 MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS

FIRING PIN MARK = mark generally found at the

base portion of the cartridge case more
specifically near center of the primer cup in a
center fire cartridge or at the rim cavity of a rim-
fire cartridge. Considered as one of the most
important marks for identification of firearms using
fired shell.

BREECH FACE MARK = mark found at the base

portion of the shell cause by backward movement
to the breech face of the block of the firearm.
EXTRACTOR MARK = mark mostly found at
the extracting groove of the fired cartridge
case. Cause by its withdrawal from the
chamber.

EJECTOR MARK = mark generally found on

cartridge case fired from an automatic
firearms. It is located near the rim of the case
cause by the throwing of shell from the
firearm to the area of shooting.
Shearing Mark = sometimes called
“Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in the
primer near the firing pin mark.

Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the

two sides of the rim cause by the magazine
lips during the loading of the cartridge into
the magazine for firing.

Chamber Mark = mark mostly found

around the body of the fired cartridge case
cause by the irregularities of nips inside the
walls of the chamber.
NOTE: In fired cartridge case either of the Firing pin mark and
the Breech face marks can be used as basis for identification, in
the absence or none use of these two, both the ejector and
extractor marks can be utilized as secondary choice.
 SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT USED IN
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
ANALYTICAL OR TORSION BALANCE
Used for determining weights of bullets and shotgun pellets for possible
determination of type, and make of firearm from which it was fired.
Measurements are expressed in Grains or Grams.
 TWO POSITIONS IN COMPARING EVIDENCE & TEST BULLET
INTERMARRIAGE – half of evidence & test bullet is projected:
JUXTAPOSITION – the critical side by side examination of evidence and test
bullet/shell. Juxtapose means putting two things together to emphasize their
contrast between them.
BULLET RECOVERY BOX – Consist
of a wooden box, 12 “x”12”x 96, with a
hinged to cover and with one end open.
This long box is filled with ordinary
cotton and separated into sections by
cardboard petitions.

CP–6 COMPARISON PROJECTOR –

An instrument very much similar with
the bullet comparison microscope,
where 2 fired bullets or shells can be
compared in one setting of the firearms
examiner. William Howard Livens,
engineer and British Army, was the
inventor.
HELIXOMETER – Type of instrument used
in measuring pitch of rifling firearms.

MACHINE REST - A machine use for

testing the accuracy of a firearm.

CALIPER – an instrument used for making

measurements such as bullet diameter and
bore diameter.

ONOSCOPE – a small instrument

sometimes used in examining the internal
surface of the gun barrel in determining the
irregularities inside the bore of the gun
barrel.
SHADOW GRAPH – Equipment used in firearms identification. It
contains a series of microscopic lenses of different magnification
that can be used in examining fired bullet or fired shells to
determine their class characteristics and also for orientation
purposes

STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE – unlike the bullet comparison

microscope does not have any camera attachment and no
photomicrograph can be taken for court presentation. It is generally
used in the preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells
to determine the relative distribution of the class characteristics or
for so-called orientation purposes.
Cherubin d’Oreans (1671) – invented the first Stereoscopic-Style
Microscope with two eyepieces in 1671.
Francis Herbert Wenham (19th) of London – designed the first
successful stereomicroscope.

TAPER GAUGE – It is used primarily for determining bore

diameter of firearms. This instrument is very useful for giving quick
idea as to the caliber of a gun.
CHRONOGRAPH – measure the
velocity of bullet. . Alfred Lee Loomis
(1918) – inventor

MICROMETER (C-CLAMP LIKE) –

similar in use with Caliper. William
Gascoine (17th) – first ever inventor.
STYLUS – a pointed instrument
used to mark:

TRIGGER PULL GAUGE – a

mechanical trigger pull trigger
tester

TWEEZERS – used to handle

bullets
 EXPLOSIVES
Explosive is any substance that may cause an explosion by its
sudden decomposition or combustion. Explosive is also a material either
pure single substance or mixture of substances which is capable of
producing an explosion by its own energy
 CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVE (AS TO
FUNCTIONING CHARACTERISTICS)

PROPELLANT OR LOW EXPLOSIVES - Are combustible materials containing within

themselves all oxygen needed for their combustion that burn but do not explode and
function by producing gas that produces explosion. Examples are Black powder, smokeless
powder, firecrackers, and pyrotechnics

PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE OR INITIATORS - Explode or donate when they are heated or

subjected to shock. They do not burn. Sometimes they do not even contain the elements
necessary for combustion. The materials themselves explode and the explosion results
whether they are confined or not. Examples are Mercury fulminate, lead azide

HIGH EXPLOSIVES - Explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion of primary
explosive. They do not function by burning, in fact not all of them can be ignited by a flame
and in small amount generally burn tranquilly and can be extinguished easily. If heated to a
high temperature by external heat or by their own combustion, they sometimes explode.
Examples are Ammonium nitrate, TNT, dynamite, nitroglycerine, picric acid, plastic
explosives.
EXPLOSION –rapid combustion, decomposition of gases, & consequent violent
increase of pressure, usually causes a loud report. Sudden breaking apart,
shattering or bursting in pieces by internal pressure, as that of gas or steam
(pressure explosion).
DETONATION – One resulting from practically instantaneous decomposition or
combustion of unstable compounds such as nitroglycerine, TNT or mercury
fulminate, as distinguished from explosions of black powder.
EXPLOSIVE – Any substance that may cause explosion by its sudden
decomposition or combustion.
BOMB – hollow projectile of iron generally spherical, containing explosive
material w/c is fired by concussion or by time fuse.
LOW EXPLOSIVES VS HIGH EXPLOSIVES
Due to difference in explosion velocities between low & high explosives,
difference in their effects are rather obvious –low explosives produce dull ‘boom’
& generally, ‘push’ type of damage, while high explosives detonate w/ sharp
‘crack’ & produce violent shattering type of damage localized at the site of the
explosive, w/ intensity of disruptive or shattering damage diminishing rapidly w/
distance from this point. Ex. TNT, dynamite, nitroglycerine, picric acid.
 EXAMPLES OF HIGH EXPLOSIVES
• Ammonium nitrate –cheapest and most readily available salt of nitric
acid.
TNT (trinitrotoluene) –most widely used explosive.
Nitroglycerine – most widely used commercial explosive.
RDX (Royal Demolition Explosive) – considered as one of most
important military explosive used today.
C4 – plastic explosive which is white and dough like in texture.
Chloroacetophenone – CN is principal component in filler used in tear
gas solutions.
Fire Bombs – Molotov cocktail which is incendiary device, acids mixed
with gasoline, alcohol and gasoline, etc.