Lab Manual

Characterization Laboratory

PST594

Polymer Technology
School of Industrial Technology
Faculty of Applied Sciences
UiTM Shah Alam

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

Content:

Experiment 1: FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED

SPECTROSCOPY (FTIR)

Experiment 2: FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED

SPECTROSCOPY - ATTENUATED
TOTAL REFLECTANCE (FTIR-ATR)

Experiment 3: ULTRA-VIOLET
SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

Experiment 4: DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING

CALORIMETER

Experiment 5: THERMAL GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSER

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

LABORATORY SAFETY

Before starting the work in a laboratory, familiarize yourself with the following:

• The hazards of the materials in the lab, as well as appropriate safe handling, storage
and emergency protocol. Read labels and material safety data sheets (MSDS) before
moving, handling or opening chemicals. Never use a product from an unlabeled
container, and report missing labels to the laboratory technicians.
• The agents, processes and equipments in the laboratory. If you are unsure of any
aspect of a procedure, check with your instructor before proceeding.
• The locations and operation of safety and emergency equipments such as fire
extinguishers, eye was and shower, first aid and spill response kits, fire alarm pull
stations, telephone and emergency exits.
• Emergency spill response procedures for the materials you will handle.
• Emergency reporting procedures and telephone numbers.
• Designated and alternate escape route.

General safety rules during laboratory work

• Restrict laboratory access to authorized persons only. Children are not permitted in
labs
• Smoking, eating, drinking, storage food, beverages or tobacco, applying cosmetics or
lip balm and handling contact lenses are not permitted in laboratories.
• Wear lab coats (knee length) and safety glasses in laboratory employing chemicals,
biohazards, radioisotopes. Open shoes, such as sandals, should never be worn in the
lab.
• Tie back or otherwise restrain long hair when working with chemicals, biohazards,
radioisotopes.
• Keep workplace clean and free of unwanted chemicals.
• Reports accidents and dangerous incidents promptly to your instructor
• Wash your hand thoroughly before leaving the laboratory

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

REPORT WRITING
All written laboratory reports must be your own individual work/group. A complete
laboratory report should contain the following section:

1. LOG BOOK

Students are required to have a log book to record any chemicals used, weight,
volume, concentration and all observations made during the laboratory experiments.
Students must write the outline of the lab experiment before coming to lab session.
Students need to present the log book along with answer to Pre-Lab Questions to the
instructor before experimental work started.

2. COVER PAGE

Cover page of laboratory reports should include:

i) Experimental number and title

ii) Name and student number
iii) Lab Partner’s name and student number
iv) Lab group
v) Date (lab work and report submission)
vi) Lecturer’s name

3. SECTIONS OF THE LABORATORY REPORT

Your laboratory report should consist of all the following information:

i) Introduction
ii) Objective(s)
iii) Apparatus/chemical/procedure – must be written in passive form
iv) Results and Data
v) Discussion – refer appendix 1
vi) Conclusion – This section should be short and concise and should be related to
the objective(s) of the experiment.
vii) References.

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

 EXPERIMENT 1

FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY

(FTIR)

INTRODUCTION:

Infra-red radiation is part of the electromagnetic radiation that encompasses all the
wavelength between the visible and microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
IR region can be divided into smaller regions known as near-IR, mid-IR and far-IR. The
ranges of each region are summed up in the table below:

Table 1.1: IR electromagnetic radiation.

Vibrational/Rotational
Region Wavenumber Range cm-1
Information
Changes in vibrational and rotational
levels, overtone region and some
Near IR 1400-400
low energy electron transitions.

Changes in fundamental vibrational

Mid IR 4000-400 levels of most molecules.

Rotational energy level changes.

Far IR 400-20

In order to absorb infrared radiation, a molecule must undergo a net change in dipole moment
as a consequence of its vibrational or rotational motion. Nearly all molecules containing
covalent bonds will show some degree of IR absorption. The only exceptions are the diatomic
molecules such as H2, N2, O2 etc. in which there is not net change in dipole moment when
they vibrate or rotate. The IR spectra of polyatomic covalent compounds are often
exceedingly complex, consisting of numerous narrow absorption bands.

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

There are two fundamental types of vibrations in molecules. These are stretching and bending
vibrations. Stretching involves a continuous change in the interatomic distance along the axis
of the band between the two atoms. Bending is characterized by a change in the angle
between the bonds.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To carry out a qualitative analysis of polymer samples e.g.: PET (film)

2. To identify IR absorption peaks and the corresponding functional groups of the tested
samples - solid/liquid/paste/thin film.

MATERIALS:

Solid sample:
Thin film: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
Liquid sample:

INSTRUMENT:

PERKIN Elmer Spectrum One FTIR

SAMPLE PREPARATION:

Solid sample

1. Solid sample (in powder form) are grind with KBr in ration 1:9 (sample: KBr).
2. Mixture of sample is compress using hang presser to form KBr disc.
Note: make sure the thin film is thin as possible.

Making KBr pellet

1. Remove the die set from box or storage container.

2. Clean the die set with acetone.
3. Put the mixture (solid sample with KBr) into the die set. Make sure the mixture fills
the surface of the die set.

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

 4. Close the die set and put it into Hydraulic Press gauge and tighten it.
5. Press the Hydraulic Press gauge at 5000-9000 psi.
6. Rest for about 1 minute and release the pressure.
7. Slowly remove the die set from the Hydraulic Press gauge.
8. Open the die set. The KBr pellet obtained should be nearly clear if properly made.
9. Put the KBr pellet into a pellet holder for analysis.

Liquid sample

1. Two salt plates are clean using acetone.

2. Drop sample (1-2 drops) on 1 plate, then cover it with another plate
3. Squeeze the two plates. Do NOT press.
4. Place the plates in the IR salt plate holder for analysis.

COMPUTER INSTRUMENT SETTING

1. Click icon spectrum from desktop.

2. Appear login. Click OK.
3. Click BACKGROUND to collect new background.
Note: Do not click any keys until the background scanning is finished.
4. Insert the thin film or salt plates into the instrument.
5. Find INSTRUMENT, click SCAN and instrument setup will appear.
6. Click APPLY after finish setting the parameter. Then click SCAN.
7. Computer starts to scan the sample, wait until the scanning is finished.
8. The result of your graph is in %T versus cm-1.
9. Click FORMAT → Click RANGE to change vertical axis and horizontal axis. Click
OK to confirm.
10. Click PEAK to get automatic peak labelling.
11. Click VCURSR to set the peak manually.
12. Save the spectrum.

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

Instrument setting

Sample parameters

Name : (Sample name and Group)

Description :
Comments :

Sample parameters

Start : 4000 cm-1

End : 650 cm-1
No. of scan : 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 (normally 16)
Data type : Sample
Units : %T (Transmittance), A (Absorbance)

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

PRELABORATORY QUESTIONS

Name : ______________________________________________

Student ID : ______________________________________________

Lecturer’s Name : ______________________________________________

Date of Experiment : ______________________________________________

1. By referring to the IR Correlation Table, locate the important vibrational frequencies

in each spectrum and assign them to their appropriate functional groups.

Sample Vibrational Frequencies Functional Group

cm-1

2. Draw the structure of the sample tested.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. Is IR a confirmative test for identifying molecules? Give justification to your answer.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

 EXPERIMENT 2

FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY -

ATTENUATED TOTAL REFLECTANCE (FTIR-ATR)

INTRODUCTION:

FTIR–ATR provides information related to the presence or absence of specific functional

groups, as well as the chemical structure of polymer materials. Shifts in the frequency of
absorption bands and changes in relative band intensities indicate changes in the chemical
structure or changes in the environment around the sample. FTIR-ATR can measure a variety
of samples states, for example solids, liquid, thin films, fabrics and fibres with minimum
sample preparation.

Principles of FTIR

An ATR accessory operates by measuring the changes that occur in an internally reflected IR
beam when the beam comes into contact with a sample. An IR beam is directed onto an
optically dense crystal with a high refractive index at a certain angle. This internal reflectance
creates an evanescent wave that extends beyond the surface of the crystal into the sample
held in contact with the crystal.

In regions of the IR spectrum where the sample absorbs energy, the evanescent wave will be
attenuated. The attenuated beam returns to the crystal, then exits the opposite end of the
crystal and is directed to the detector in the IR spectrometer. The detector records the
attenuated IR beam as an interferogram signal, which can then be used to generate an IR
spectrum.

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

 Figure 2.1: Schematic presentation of an ATR-FTIR system

Advantages of using ATR techniques:

▪ Minimal sample preparation—place the sample on the crystal and collect data
▪ Fast and easy clean up—simply remove the sample and clean the surface of the
crystal
▪ Analysis of samples in their natural states—no need to heat, press into pellets, or
grind in order to collect spectra
▪ Excellent for thick or strongly absorbing samples—ideal for difficult samples like
black rubber

OBJECTIVES:
1. To carry out a qualitative analysis of polymer samples e.g.: PET (film),

2. To identify IR absorption peaks and the corresponding functional groups of the tested
samples.

MATERIALS:

Solid sample :
Thin film : Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
Liquid sample :

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

PROCEDURES:

1. Soak a soft tissue with ethanol.

2. Carefully wipe the sample stage and metallic tip with soaked soft tissue (step 1)
before analysing any sample.
3. Samples e.g.: solids/pastes/gels/liquids/films are placed on the ATR sample stage.
4. Attach the metallic tip to the sample.
5. Turn on instrument software to analyse the sample.
6. Scan the spectra from 4000 to 650 cm-1.
7. Collect the sample and clean the sample stage when the analysis is finished.

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

PRELABORATORY QUESTIONS

Name : ______________________________________________

Student ID : ______________________________________________

Lecturer’s Name : ______________________________________________

Date of Experiment : ______________________________________________

1. By referring to the IR Correlation Table, locate the important vibrational frequencies

in each spectrum and assign them to their appropriate functional groups.

Sample Vibrational Frequencies Functional Group

cm-1

2. Draw the structure of the sample tested.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Is IR a confirmative test for identifying molecules? Give justification to your answer.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

 EXPERIMENT 3

ULTRA-VIOLET SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

INTRODUCTION:

Visible light is the name given to the narrow band of electromagnetic spectrum which
the pigment of our eyes can absorb and allow us to detect. Light itself can split into spectrum
of colours that we see in a rainbow, different colour signify different wavelengths and
therefore, different energies. A beam of light consisting of only one colour is called
monochromatic. The energy of a mole of photons of any one colour is given by the
relationship:
E=hv

Where E = energy, h = Plank’s constant and v = frequency of light ( remember that frequency
and wavelength of light are related by c=v9λ where c = velocity of light, v = frequency and λ
= wavelength. Red light has a longer wavelength than blue light and therefore lower
frequency and lower energy.

Light will be absorbed by an atom, ion or molecule when the energy of one quantum
of light matches the energy required to cause an electron in outer orbital to jump to a higher
energy level. Each absorption band is caused by the transition between a given pair of energy
level; because the energy level differences vary with the different electronic structures,
absorption spectra can be often used to identify the analyte atom, ion or molecule.

The technique of spectrophotometry relies in the absorption of light by analyte; the

intensity of a beam light is measured in the absence of analyte, followed by measurement in
the presence of analyte. The decrease in the transmitted intensity is used to determine the
analyte concentration. The Beer’s Law expresses the relationship between absorption and
concentration as such:

A= abc or A=ϵbc

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

Where A = absorbance, a = absorptivity in L/gcm, ϵ = molar absorptivity in L/molcm, c =
concentration in g/L or mol/L and b = optical length. This is the basic equation if
spectrometry. Note that the absorbance is zero when the transmittance is 100%, i.e., no light
is absorbed by the sample. Absorbance is a logarithmic function of transmittance, A = -log T.

Two types of analysis can be done with the visible absorption measurements.

1. Qualitative analysis: To determine the wavelength of maximum absorbance (λmax)

from the absorption spectra as well as characteristics value of the absorptivity of a
specific molecule
2. Quantitative analysis: To determine the concentration of an unknown solution from
the standard calibration curve using Beer’s Law.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To determine the wavelength of maximum absorbance for the above spectrum

2. To produce a standard curve/ calibration curve from a series of standard
solutions by linear regression analysis and to calculate absorptovoty form
Beer’s Law
3. To determine the concentration of KMnO₄ solution using the standard curve
method

MATERIALS:

Standard KMnO₄ with the concentration of 1000 ppm and an unknown concentration of an
unknown concentration of KMnO₄.

INSTRUMENTS

SP8 – 4000 UV – Visible Spectrometer

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

PROCEDURE:

During this laboratory experiment you will make a series of dilutions, and then take the
absorbance of the dilutions at λmax. The permanganate ion absorbs at 534 nm and it is at this
wavelength that we will determine the absorbance values for the solutions. In this
experiment, an initial permanganate stock solution is prepared and the solutions to be
measured are diluted from a dilution of the stock. Once the absorbance values are taken,
generate a Beer’s Law plot for KMnO₄ and determine the concentration of the unknown
solution.

A. Preparation of the KMnO₄ Standard Solutions

1. Weigh accurately 0.01 g of KMnO₄ to the nearest mg, on a weighing paper. Record
the reading. Using a funnel, transfer the solid to a 100 mL volumetric flask.
2. Dissolve the solid with a few mL of distilled water. Stopper and shake the flask. Add
distilled water to the mark, using a medicine dropper to add the last few drops.
Stopper the flask and shake several times to homogenize the solution.
3. Pour the ‘stock’ solution into a beaker. Label the beaker as ‘100 ppm’.
4. Pipet 5.00 mL of the ‘stock’ solution and dilute with distilled water in a 100 mL
volumetric flask.
5. Transfer into a beaker and label as it as ‘5 ppm’.
6. Repeat Step 4, using a 10 mL, 15 mL and 20 mL stock solution and transfer into small
beakers.
7. Label the beakers as ’10 ppm’, ’15 ppm’, and ’20 ppm’, respectively.

B. Preparation of the Unknown

1. Pipet between 5.00 to 20.00 ml of the 'stock' KMnO₄ solution and dilute with distilled
water in a 100 mL volumetric flask.
2. Transfer into a beaker and label it as *Unknown'.

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

C. Determination of Absorption Maximum (λmax)

Take the absorbance reading of each of your samples in succession, starting with the least
concentrated and sequentially moving up to the most concentrated solution.

CAUTION - When using spectrophotometers, all of your data must be taken on the same
instrument, at the same time. If you need to change instruments you must start over and
take all of the data for the spectrum again.

Remember that your blank is always the same as the solvent, in this case, distilled water.
Each spectrophotometer will need one cuvette for the blank, and each student will need one
cuvette for the sample. In order to 'clean' the cuvette so that a sample is at the appropriate
concentration, add a small amount of the 'new' solution using a medicine dropper and rinse
the sides of the cuvette with the solution. Rinse the cuvette three separate times in this way,
and then only fill with the sample before taking the absorbance reading.

1. Select Cary Win UV icon

2. Go to setup, click on the 'CARY ON', then key in the require start and stop scan
wavelength (nm)
a. Y-mode (min = 0 and max = 1)
b. X-mode = 800 - 200 nm
c. Beam mode = Dual Bearn
d. Measurement mode (ABS = Absorbance) or % T (Transmission)
3. Select "Replicates"
4. Select cycle mode if more than one cycle is required
5. Select "Scan Control Speed" ˃ "Fast"
6. Click on 'Baseline' icon and check 'Baseline Correction Function'
7. Click "Accessories 1', check on the Use Cell Changer - » select cells
8. At the report icon, key in the operator’s name and the comment
9. At the peak table option, select maximum peak
10. In the Auto Store icon, set 'storage on (Prompt at Start)'
11. To save the method, go to the file and save the scan method
12. Fill the 'BLANK' cuvette solution with distilled water.
13. Put the 'BLANK' cuvette solution and click "Zero'

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

PRELABORATORY QUESTIONS

Name : ______________________________________________

Lecturer’s Name : ______________________________________________

Date of Experiment : ______________________________________________

1. What is the function of UV absorber in the commercial PP compound?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. What features of molecular structure does the UV absorber have which enable it to
absorb light in the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. What is the λmax of the Tinuvin grade supplied?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

 EXPERIMENT 4

THERMAL GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSER

INTRODUCTION:

The thermal stability of a plastic varies with the type of plastic and concentration of additives.
It affects both processing and end use performance of the plastic part. It is important that
incoming materials are by equipment without thermal decomposition.

THERMOGRAVIMETRY is a dynamic method in which the weight loss (weight) of a

sample is measured continuously as

• A function of temperature (T) at a constant rate.

• A function of time (t) at a constant temperature (ISOTHERMAL)

An experimental plot of weight loss versus temperature is called a THERMOGRAM and

exhibits a thermogravimetric curve which has steps or plateau at certain temperature region.
The steps may include a small initial weight loss which result from desorption of solvent or
volatiles. If this occurs near 100°C, this may be attributed to loss of water. More steps are due
to thermal decomposition of oxide (with oxygen purge) or elements in the sample.

Commercial thermobalances have a programmed heating temperature and a gaseous

atmosphere. Most new systems can display TG and DTG curves and have computer for
temperature programming, retrieval and analysis of data.

This hangdown balances have very high sensitivity up to 107 g. The main disadvantage of
this type of balance is the inconvenience in the placement of a temperature thermocouple in
contact with the sample compared to a horizontal balance which does not indirect contact
with sample except placing near sample.

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

OPERATION

• Multitasking computer with TGA-7 PERKIN ELMER analyzer is open.

• Nitrogen gas and compressed air (ml/min) respectively is needed to purge the
decomposition products which prevent any untoward oxidation. Compressed air is
required to assist decomposition.
• Select the DSC Multitasking program if this is installed.
• Make sure the sample pan made from platinum is clean and free from dust and
residues of previous experiment. Cleaning up pans could also be done at high
temperature to get rid of excess residues at high temperature (above 600°C).
• Lower the tube. Place clean pan onto the hanging hook with hanging wire.
PRECAUTIONS: Handle lightly as it is very sensitive.
• Go to ZERO WEIGHT with temperature at start at 30°C or 50°C. This may take 2-3
minutes. Label as 0.0000 weight.
• Lower the furnace chamber and the sample to be tested. Take reading up to
equilibrium weight. Press several times to get constant weight values (this represents
100% weight). Use reasonable scan rate. Each thermogram may not be longer than
half an hour. Rate may vary from 50°C to 100°C and final temperature chosen to get
samples nearly to or complete decomposition (5% or less OR better 0% residue left).
GO to control panel and press START. Set ICON to VIEW display until fixed final
temperature.

• ANALYSED DATA by
• Taking temperature reading at 95% or 90% decomposition.
• Taking extrapolating tangent of step curves from obtained plateau.
• Taking of % of thermal decomposed during each decomposition step.
• Find % residue under graded species from % remains to 0%.

• Plot also the DTG or derivative data. Maximum decomposition rate is the peak in the
curve which is shown as steps in TG thermogram.

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

PRELABORATORY QUESTIONS

Name : ______________________________________________

Lecturer’s Name : ______________________________________________

Date of Experiment : ______________________________________________

1. What information can we get from TGA/DSC thermograms for polymer applications?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. Why the thermal decomposition must reach to high temperatures above 700°C to
complete the degradation for hydrocarbon-based polymers?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. Some additives containing inorganic components may need higher temperatures to

degrade completely. Name any filler or additives that may remain residue after
1000°C.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

4. How does derivative of TGA curve explain for its minima curve?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

 DATA SHEET

Course Code: _____________________ Date of Practical: _________________________

Student name: ____________________ Lecturer: _______________________________

Table 6.1 Weight loss at different temperature of sample

Samples Temperature (℃) Weight loss (g)

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

 EXPERIMENT 5

DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETER

INTRODUCTION:

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) is a thermal analysis technique which has

already been used for several decades. It is applicable to a variety of materials including
polymers, pharmaceuticals, foods and inorganic. DSC measurement provides qualitative and
quantitative information as a function of time and temperature regarding transition in
materials that involve endothermic and exothermic processes, or changes in heat capacity.
Some of the advantages contributing to the widespread usage of DSC are the ease of sample
preparation, the applicability to solids and liquids, fast analysis time and wide temperature
range.

In DSC, the difference in heat flow between a sample and inert reference is measured
as a function of time and temperature as both the sample and reference are subjected to a
controlled environment (pressure, purge gas). The degree of crystallinity, X is determined
from the ratio of the heat of fusion of a polymer sample, Als, and the enthalpy of fusion of a
100% crystalline sample AHc.

X = ΛHsc
ΛHsc

OBJECTIVE:

1. To determine glass transition temperature (Tg), melting temperature (Tm) and percent
of crystallinity of unknown sample

MATERIAL:

Low density polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride film

INSTRUMENT:

Perkin Elmer DSC7

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

PROCEDURE:

1. Weigh about 5-10 mg sample into the aluminum pan using an analytical balance.
Record the exact mass of the sample.
2. Placed the sample in the DSC sample holder on the left side. Another pan on the right
side is leaving empty for references.
3. Open the software (Jade DSC)
4. Open METHOD EDITOR P SAMPLE ~ FILE NAME b BROWSE ~ SAVE
5. Open the INITIAL STATE INFO, setting the parameter.
• Temperature range : 20 - 300°C
• Heat flow : 20°C/min
• Flow of nitrogen : 30mL/min
6. Click INSTRUMENT VIEW ˃ APPLY ˃ START BUTTON
7. Graph analysis
• Rescale the graph using display function
• On calculate function, click peak area
• Tick onset and end peak height
• Click calculate

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

PRELABORATORY QUESTIONS

Name : ______________________________________________

Lecturer’s Name : ______________________________________________

Date of Experiment : ______________________________________________

1. Define thermal analysis.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. State the properties measured by DC during temperature scan process.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. Discuss the two (2) types of DSC.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi

 DATA SHEET

Course Code: _____________________ Date of Practical: _________________________

Student name: ____________________ Lecturer: _______________________________

Name and model of instrument: ______________________________

Table 5.1: Tabulation data of sample 1

Sample name

Weight

Heating Rate

Tg (Glass Transition temperature)

Tm (Melting temperature)

λ Hf (Heat of fusion)

Tc (Crystallization temperature)

Lecturer’s signature:

__________________________

Prepared by: Roslinda Fauzi