Unit -3

Hashing in DBMS

In a huge database structure, it is very inefficient to search all the index values and reach the desired data. Hashing technique is used to
calculate the direct location of a data record on the disk without using index structure.

In this technique, data is stored at the data blocks whose address is generated by using the hashing function. The memory location where these
records are stored is known as data bucket or data blocks.

In this, a hash function can choose any of the column value to generate the address. Most of the time, the hash function uses the primary key
to generate the address of the data block. A hash function is a simple mathematical function to any complex mathematical function. We can
even consider the primary key itself as the address of the data block. That means each row whose address will be the same as a primary key
stored in the data block.

The above diagram shows data block addresses same as primary key value. This hash function can also be a simple mathematical function
like exponential, mod, cos, sin, etc. Suppose we have mod (5) hash function to determine the address of the data block. In this case, it applies
mod (5) hash function on the primary keys and generates 3, 3, 1, 4 and 2 respectively, and records are stored in those data block addresses.

Types of Hashing:

Static Hashing

In static hashing, the resultant data bucket address will always be the same. That means if we generate an address for EMP_ID =103 using the
hash function mod (5) then it will always result in same bucket address 3. Here, there will be no change in the bucket address.

Hence in this static hashing, the number of data buckets in memory remains constant throughout. In this example, we will have five data
buckets in the memory used to store the data.
Operations of Static Hashing

o Searching a record

When a record needs to be searched, then the same hash function retrieves the address of the bucket where the data is stored.

o Insert a Record

When a new record is inserted into the table, then we will generate an address for a new record based on the hash key and record is stored in
that location.

o Delete a Record

To delete a record, we will first fetch the record which is supposed to be deleted. Then we will delete the records for that address in memory.

o Update a Record

To update a record, we will first search it using a hash function, and then the data record is updated.

If we want to insert some new record into the file but the address of a data bucket generated by the hash function is not empty, or data already
exists in that address. This situation in the static hashing is known as bucket overflow. This is a critical situation in this method.

To overcome this situation, there are various methods. Some commonly used methods are as follows:

1. Open Hashing

When a hash function generates an address at which data is already stored, then the next bucket will be allocated to it. This mechanism is
called as Linear Probing.

For example: suppose R3 is a new address which needs to be inserted, the hash function generates address as 112 for R3. But the generated
address is already full. So the system searches next available data bucket, 113 and assigns R3 to it.

2. Close Hashing

When buckets are full, then a new data bucket is allocated for the same hash result and is linked after the previous one. This mechanism is
known as Overflow chaining.

For example: Suppose R3 is a new address which needs to be inserted into the table, the hash function generates address as 110 for it. But this
bucket is full to store the new data. In this case, a new bucket is inserted at the end of 110 buckets and is linked to it.
Dynamic Hashing

o The dynamic hashing method is used to overcome the problems of static hashing like bucket overflow.
o In this method, data buckets grow or shrink as the records increases or decreases. This method is also known as Extendable hashing
method.
o This method makes hashing dynamic, i.e., it allows insertion or deletion without resulting in poor performance.

How to search a key

o First, calculate the hash address of the key.

o Check how many bits are used in the directory, and these bits are called as i.
o Take the least significant i bits of the hash address. This gives an index of the directory.
o Now using the index, go to the directory and find bucket address where the record might be.

How to insert a new record

o Firstly, you have to follow the same procedure for retrieval, ending up in some bucket.
o If there is still space in that bucket, then place the record in it.
o If the bucket is full, then we will split the bucket and redistribute the records.

For example:

Consider the following grouping of keys into buckets, depending on the prefix of their hash address:

The last two bits of 2 and 4 are 00. So it will go into bucket B0. The last two bits of 5 and 6 are 01, so it will go into bucket B1. The last two
bits of 1 and 3 are 10, so it will go into bucket B2. The last two bits of 7 are 11, so it will go into B3.

Insert key 9 with hash address 10001 into the above structure:
 o Since key 9 has hash address 10001, it must go into the first bucket. But bucket B1 is full, so it will get split.
o The splitting will separate 5, 9 from 6 since last three bits of 5, 9 are 001, so it will go into bucket B1, and the last three bits of 6
are 101, so it will go into bucket B5.
o Keys 2 and 4 are still in B0. The record in B0 pointed by the 000 and 100 entry because last two bits of both the entry are 00.
o Keys 1 and 3 are still in B2. The record in B2 pointed by the 010 and 110 entry because last two bits of both the entry are 10.
o Key 7 are still in B3. The record in B3 pointed by the 111 and 011 entry because last two bits of both the entry are 11.

Advantages of dynamic hashing

o In this method, the performance does not decrease as the data grows in the system. It simply increases the size of memory to
accommodate the data.
o In this method, memory is well utilized as it grows and shrinks with the data. There will not be any unused memory lying.
o This method is good for the dynamic database where data grows and shrinks frequently.

Disadvantages of dynamic hashing

o In this method, if the data size increases then the bucket size is also increased. These addresses of data will be maintained in the
bucket address table. This is because the data address will keep changing as buckets grow and shrink. If there is a huge increase in
data, maintaining the bucket address table becomes tedious.
o In this case, the bucket overflow situation will also occur. But it might take little time to reach this situation than static hashing.

1.Primary Memory

The primary memory of a server is the type of data storage that is directly accessible by the central processing unit, meaning that it doesn’t
require any other devices to read from it. The primary memory must, in general, function flawlessly with equal contributions from the electric
power supply, the hardware backup system, the supporting devices, the coolant that moderates the system temperature, etc.

1.The size of these devices is considerably smaller, and they are volatile.

2.According to performance and speed, the primary memory devices are the fastest devices, and this feature is in direct correlation with their
capacity.

3.These primary memory devices are usually more expensive due to their increased speed and pe Calibri performance.

Types of Primary Storage

1. Cache Memory
2.RAM (Random Access Memory)

3.ROM (Read Only Memory)

1.Cache Memory:-

Cache memory is a type of data storage used to store frequently accessed information for faster response time. It's a vital component in
computer systems, and it's used to improve system performance. But what exactly is cache memory and how does it work? Let's take a look
at the basics of cache memory and how it can help your computer run more efficiently.

At its core, cache memory is a form of random-access memory (RAM) that stores recently accessed data for quick retrieval. It sits between
the main RAM and the CPU, acting as an intermediary for faster data access.

As more data is stored in the cache, less time needs to be spent accessing information from RAM. This can lead to significant performance
increases since RAM access times are relatively slow in comparison to other resources such as hard drives or solid-state drives (SSDs).

2. RAM (Random Access Memory) :-

Any system process that has to be executed is put into RAM, where it is processed by the CPU according to the program’s instructions. If we
click on an application like Browser, the Operating System will first load browser code into RAM, following which the CPU will execute and
open the Browser.

Types of RAM

We can broadly classify RAM into SRAM or Static RAM and DRAM or Dynamic RAM on the basis of behaviour.

1. DRAM- To keep data, dynamic RAM, or DRAM, must be refreshed every few milliseconds. DRAM is made up of capacitors and transistors,
and capacitors leak electric charge; hence DRAM must be charged on a regular basis. Because DRAM is less expensive than SRAM, it is
commonly used in personal computers and servers.

2. SRAM – The data is stored in static RAM, or SRAM, as long as the system is powered on. SRAM stores a bit using sequential circuits,
similar to a flip-flop, so it does not need to be refreshed on a regular basis. Because SRAM is so expensive, it’s only used when speed is
critical.

3. ROM (Read Only Memory) :-

Any data that does not need to be changed is saved in ROM. The ROM contains both programmes that run when the system boots up (known
as a bootstrap programmed that initializes the OS) and data such as the algorithm that the OS requires. Nothing can be tampered with or
modified in ROM.

Types of ROM

We can classify ROM into four major types on the basis of their behaviour. They are:

1. MROM – Masked ROM is pre-programmed and hardwired ROM. Any text that has already been written cannot be changed in any way.

2. PROM – The user can only change the programmable ROM once. The user purchases a blank PROM and writes the required text on it;
however, the content cannot be changed once it has been written.
3. EPROM – ROM that can be erased and programmed by removing the original material, which can be done by exposing EPROM to UV
radiation, and the content can be modified. The charge on the ROM is dissipated by the ultraviolet light, allowing content to be rewritten on
it.

4. EEPROM – The initial content of an electrically erasable and programmable ROM can be modified by erasing the content that can be easily
deleted electrically. Instead of removing everything at once, one byte can be wiped at a time. As a result, reprogramming an EEPROM is a
time-consuming procedure.

Secondary Storage

Memory in a computer refers to the physical components that are used to temporarily or permanently store programmes or data. It’s a collection
of registers.

Primary memory is very volatile and has a finite amount of storage space. As a result, having a second type of memory with a bigger storage
capacity- from which programs and data are not lost whenever the computer is turned off is critical. Secondary memory is the term for this
form of memory. Programs and data are stored in secondary memory. Auxiliary memory is another name for it. It differs from primary memory
in that it is non-volatile and not directly accessible by the CPU. Secondary storage devices, often known as external storage devices, have
substantially more storage space and are less expensive than primary memory.

There are two types of secondary memory:

1. Fixed Storage

A fixed storage device in secondary memory is an internal media device used to store data in a computer system. Fixed storage is sometimes
known as hard drives or the fixed disc drives. In most cases, the computer system’s data is saved in the fixed storage device that’s incorporated
into a given system. Fixed storage does not preclude their removal from the computer system; with the assistance of an expert or engineer,
you may remove the fixed storage device for repairs, upgrades, or maintenance, among other things.

Types of fixed storage:

Here are the different types of fixed storage:

• Hard disk drives (HDD)

• SSD (solid-state disk)
• Internal flash memory (rare)

2. Removable Storage

Removable storage refers to an external media device that is mainly used to store data on a computer system in secondary memory. The disk
drives or the external drives are common names for removable storage. It’s a removable storage device that can be inserted or withdrawn from
the computer as needed. We can uninstall them effortlessly from a computer system while it’s still running. We can transfer data from any
computer to another one simply using removable storage devices because they are portable. Also, removable storage devices provide high
data and information transfer speeds that the storage area networks (or SANs) are known for.

Types of Removable Storage:

Here are the types of removable storage:

• Optical discs (such as DVDs, CDs, Blu-ray discs, etc.)

• Floppy disks
• Memory cards
• Disk packs
• Magnetic tapes
• Paper storage (such as punched cards, punched tapes, etc.)

Secondary Memory Devices

Here are the most commonly utilised secondary memory devices:

1. Floppy Disk – A floppy disc refers to a magnetic disc housed in a square plastic container. It is primarily used to store information and then
transfer it from one device to another. There are two sizes of floppy discs (a) Size: 3.5 inches, 1.44 MB storage capacity (b) Size: 5.25 inches
and 1.2 MB storage capacity. A computer must consist of a floppy disc drive for using a floppy disc. Such a storage device is now obsolete,
and DVDs, CDs, and flash drives have taken its place.
2. Compact Disc – A Compact Disc or the CD is a type of secondary storage media that is widely utilised. Its surface is covered in tracks and
sectors. It is composed of polycarbonate plastic and has a round form. CDs have a data storage capacity of up to 700 MB. A CD is also known
as a CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory) because computers can read the data on it but not write new data onto it.

There are two types of CDs:

• CD-R or compact disc recordable – It is not possible to remove data that has been written onto it; it can only be read.
• CD-RW or compact disc rewritable – It’s a particular kind of CD that allows us to wipe and rewrite data as many times as we
desire, so It’s also known as an erasable CD.

3. Digital Versatile Disc – DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It resembles a CD, but it has a larger storage capacity; up to 4.7 GB of data
can be stored. To use a DVD on a computer, a DVD-ROM drive is required. Video files, such as movies or video recordings, are commonly
saved on DVDs, which may be played with a DVD player. There are three different kinds of DVDs available:

• DVD-ROM or Digital Versatile Disc Read-Only Memory – The manufacturer writes the data on the DVD-ROM, and the users
can only read it; they cannot create new data on it. For example, a movie DVD has already been written by the maker, and we can
only watch it; we cannot add new data to it.
• DVD-R or Digital Versatile Disc Recordable – You can write data on a DVD-R, but only once. It is not possible to remove data
that has been written onto it; it can only be read.
• DVD-RW or Digital Versatile Disc RW (Rewritable and Erasable) – It’s a particular kind of DVD that allows us to wipe and
rewrite data as many times as we desire. It’s also known as an erasable DVD.

4. Blu-ray Disc – It resembles a CD/VD, but it can actually hold up to 25 Gigabytes data or information. You’ll need a Blu-ray reader if you
wish to use a Blu-ray disc. The name Blu-ray comes from the technology used to read the disc: ‘Blu’ comes from a blue-violet laser, and ‘ray’
comes from an optical ray.

5. Hard Disk – Hard discs are storage devices designed to hold a lot of information. Hard discs, often known as hard disc drives, are available
in a variety of storage capacities. (For example, 256 GB, 500 GB, 1 TB, and 2 TB). It is made up of platters, which are a collection of discs.
The dishes are stacked one on top of the other. They have a magnetic coating on them. Each platter is made up of a number of invisible circles,
each of which has the same central track. Internal and external hard discs are the two types of hard discs.

6. Flash Drive – A flash drive or pen drive is available in a variety of storage capacities, including 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 GB, and 1 TB. Data is
transferred and stored using a flash drive. To use a flash drive, it must be plugged into a computer’s USB port. A flash drive is quite popular
nowadays because it is simple to use and small in size.

7. Solid-state Disk – A Solid-state Disk (SSD) is a data storage and retrieval device that is non-volatile. It’s faster, makes no noise (since it
doesn’t have any moving parts like a hard drive), uses less electricity, and so on. If the price is right, it’s a perfect replacement for regular hard
drives in laptops and desktops, and it’s also ideal for tablets, notebooks, and other devices that don’t require a lot of storage.

8. SD Card – A Secure Digital Card (SD Card) is commonly used to store data in portable devices such as cell phones and cameras. It comes
in a variety of capacities, including 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 GB. You can access the data present in the SD card by removing it from the
device and inserting it into a computer using a card reader. The data in the SD card is stored in memory chips (which are included in the SD
card), and there are no moving elements like there are on a hard disc.

Tertiary Memory :-

Tertiary storage is a comprehensive computer storage system that acts very slowly. Due to its slow process, it is used to archive data that we
do not access. Tertiary memory is mainly used for storing very large data which can be accessed without any interference from humans. To
read the data and information from tertiary memory, the first thing is to consult from a specific database about which information is in which
disc. After that, a robotic function arm is used to fetch the specific medium and then placed into a drive. After completing the work or when
the computer reads all the information, the robotic arm will dismount or keep them back in its place.

Types of Tertiary Memory

1.Magnetic Tapes

2.Optical Disks

Magnetic tape:

Magnetic tapes have long been a crucial part of storage systems, but data access is slow compared to others. To load a tape, human intervention
is required, so accessing a single piece of information can take up to hours to process. So the data is sent to the tertiary sector only if the data
were either too large or are not used later. Most organisations use magnetic tapes to save data files. Tapes used to store data are quite similar
to those used before to store music.
The data on these tapes are stored sequentially, so one should start from the very beginning to check. Magnetic tapes have a low-cost average
because they can save many binary numbers, digits, and frames on an inch of magnetic tape. A magnetic tape is a cheap option to back up
your data. Data can be transferred from different machines easily and store a large volume of data. The access time is very high in magnetic
tape because one has to start from the very initial data to read it. The data is not in human-readable form, so manual encoding can not be done.
It can be damaged easily due to dust or carelessness.

Optical Disks:

It is a storage disk that uses a laser beam to read data and also write it with the help of optical storage techniques.CD, DVD, and blue-ray disks
fall under optical disks. The main advantages of optical disks are offline data distribution and archiving data for a long time. There are three
recording types in optical disks: read-only, recordable and rewritable. It is safe to use as it can only be accessed through a laser beam, so it
can not contain malicious hardware or viruses.

Memory Hierarchy

A computer system has a hierarchy of memory. Direct access to a CPU’s main memory and inbuilt registers is available. Accessing the main
memory takes less time than running a CPU. Cache memory is introduced to minimize this difference in speed. Data that is most frequently
accessed by the CPU resides in cache memory, which provides the fastest access time to data. Fastest-accessing memory is the most expensive.
Although large storage devices are slower and less expensive than CPU registers and cache memory, they can store a greater amount of data.

1. Magnetic Disks

Present-day computer systems use hard disk drives as secondary storage devices. Magnetic disks store information using the concept of
magnetism. Metal disks are coated with magnetizable material to create hard disks. Spindles hold these disks vertically. As the read/write head
moves between the disks, it de-magnetizes or magnetizes the spots under it. There are two magnetized spots: 0 (zero) and 1 (one). Formatted
hard disks store data efficiently by storing them in a defined order. The hard disk plate is divided into many concentric circles, called tracks.
Each track contains a number of sectors. Data on a hard disk is typically stored in sectors of 512 bytes.

2. Redundant Array of Independent Disks(RAID)

In the Redundant Array of Independent Disks technology, two or more secondary storage devices are connected so that the devices operate as
one storage medium. A RAID array consists of several disks linked together for a variety of purposes. Disk arrays are categorized by their
RAID levels.

• RAID 0: At this level, disks are organized in a striped array. Blocks of data are divided into disks and distributed over disks. Parallel
writing and reading of data occur on each disk. This improves performance and speed. Level 0 does not support parity and backup.

Raid-1

• RAID 1: Mirroring is used in RAID 1. A RAID controller copies data across all disks in an array when data is sent to it. In case of
failure, RAID level 1 provides 100% redundancy.

Raid-2

• RAID 2: The data in RAID 2 is striped on different disks, and the Error Correction Code is recorded using Hamming distance.
Similarly to level 0, each bit within a word is stored on a separate disk, and ECC codes for the data words are saved on a separate
set of disks. As a result of its complex structure and high cost, RAID 2 cannot be commercially deployed.
Raid-3

• RAID 3: Data is striped across multiple disks in RAID 3. Data words are parsed to generate a parity bit. It is stored on a different
disk. Thus, single-disk failures can be avoided.

Raid-4

• RAID 4: This level involves writing an entire block of data onto data disks, and then generating the parity and storing it somewhere
else. At level 3, bytes are striped, while at level 4, blocks are striped. Both levels 3 and 4 require a minimum of three disks.

Raid-5

• RAID 5: The data blocks in RAID 5 are written to different disks, but the parity bits are spread out across all the data disks rather
than being stored on a separate disk.

Raid-6

• RAID 6: The RAID 6 level extends the level 5 concept. A pair of independent parities are generated and stored on multiple disks
at this level. A pair of independent parities are generated and stored on multiple disks at this level. Ideally, you need four disk
drives for this level.

Indexing in Databases
Indexing is a way to optimize performance of a database by minimizing the number of disk accesses required when a query is processed.

An index or database index is a data structure which is used to quickly locate and access the data in a database table.

Indexes are created using some database columns.

▪ The first column is the Search key that contains a copy of the primary key or candidate key of the table. These values are stored in
sorted order so that the corresponding data can be accessed quickly (Note that the data may or may not be stored in sorted order).
 ▪ The second column is the Data Reference which contains a set of pointers holding the address of the disk block where that particular
key value can be found.

There are two kinds of indices:

1. Ordered indices: Indices are based on a sorted ordering of the values.

2. Hash indices: Indices are based on the values being distributed uniformly across a range of buckets. The buckets to which a value
is assigned is determined by function called a hash function.

Indexing Methods

Ordered Indices
The indices are usually sorted so that the searching is faster. The indices which are sorted are known as ordered indices.

▪ If the search key of any index specifies same order as the sequential order of the file, it is known as primary index or clustering
index.
Note: The search key of a primary index is usually the primary key, but it is not necessarily so.
▪ If the search key of any index specifies an order different from the sequential order of the file, it is called the secondary index or
non-clustering index.
Clustered Indexing
Clustering index is defined on an ordered data file. The data file is ordered on a non-key field. In some cases, the index is created on non-
primary key columns which may not be unique for each record. In such cases, in order to identify the records faster, we will group two or
more columns together to get the unique values and create index out of them. This method is known as clustering index. Basically, records
with similar characteristics are grouped together and indexes are created for these groups.

For example, students studying in each semester are grouped together. i.e. 1 st Semester students, 2nd semester students, 3rd semester students
etc are grouped.
Secondary Index?
It is used to optimize query processing and access records in a database with some information other than the
usual search key (primary key). In this two levels of indexing are used in order to reduce the mapping size of the
first level and in general. Initially, for the first level, a large range of numbers is selected so that the mapping size
is small. Further, each range is divided into further sub ranges.
In order for quick memory access, first level is stored in the primary memory. Actual physical location of the data
is determined by the second mapping level.
B-trees in Database Management
Systems

An Overview
 Introduction to B-trees
Definition of B-trees:
• A B-tree is a self-balancing tree data structure that
maintains sorted data and allows searches, sequential
access, insertions, and deletions in logarithmic time.

Importance of B-trees in databases:

• Efficiently manages large amounts of data by using Multi-
level indexing
• Optimizes read/write operations on disks
• maintain a balanced structure
• minimize the number of disk accesses required during
searches.
 Structure of B-trees
Properties of B-trees:
1. All leaves are at the same level, making it a balanced tree.
2. Each internal node, except the root, contains at least B/2 children.
3. Each internal node with k children has k-1 keys, stored in non-decreasing
order. The keys divide the ranges of keys in their children.
4. Each leaf node contains at least B-1 keys.

Node structure:
• A B-Tree consists of nodes, each capable of storing a fixed number
of keys and associated values. Each node contains the following
components:
• Keys: These are the values stored within the node, sorted in
ascending order.
• Pointers: B-Tree nodes contain pointers to their children. For a
node with n keys, it has n+1 pointers to its children.
• Values: In addition to keys, a B-Tree can also store associated
values or references, often used in databases.
Example of a B-tree:
Example of a B-tree:
 Operations on B-trees
Search:
• Starts from the root and traverses down to the leaf.

Insertion:
The element is inserted in the B Tree at the leaf node. Depending on the
value, search operation is used to find the appropriate leaf node. If the
leaf node is full before the insert operation, i.e. it already contains m-1
keys, the element is added to its correct position in the leaf node, its
median is selected and pushed to the parent node one level up and the
leaf node is split into two. If the parent node is also full, the same
process repeated again.
Consider the following B Tree of order 5
Suppose you want to insert ITEM 48 in the B Tree. It should be added to the second
child of ROOT node. But the node is already full.

If we add 48 at its correct position in the node, we get:

33 45 46 48 52
Median is 46, and hence the same is added to the parent node and the leaf node is
split into two. After the insert operation, the B Tree looks like this:

after inserting key 48

Deletion:

Deleting a key from leaf node is easy as compared to deleting a key from internal
node. Minimum number of keys have to maintained and if needed, key from
lower nodes is promoted to satisfy the criteria. Sometimes you may also need to
find a key from siblings.
Keeping the minimum number of keys is the main consideration.
Consider the following B Tree or order 5.

Suppose you want to delete key 200. The internal node containing 200 after delete
operation will only be left with 1 key which is less than m/2 = 2. Hence a key will be
promoted from the child nodes.
Keys of two child nodes, one with keys greater than 200 and one with keys between
150 and 200 are combined.
166 190 210 218 267

Median of the combination is 210 and hence it will be promoted to replace 200. Both the
leaf nodes will be left with two keys each.

B Tree after delete operation will look like this:

 Advantages of B-trees
• Efficient searching, insertion, and deletion:
Operations are performed in O(log n) time.
• Balanced structure:
Maintains balance to ensure logarithmic height.
• Disk read optimization:
Minimizes disk I/O operations by maximizing data in each node.
• Efficient for large amounts of data.
• Greater branching factor leads to less height and faster operations.
• Ideal for databases and file systems.
• Sequential traversing due to sorted keys.
 Applications of B-trees
• Database indexing:
Used in various database indexing techniques
like B+ trees.

• File systems:
Employed in file systems for efficient data
retrieval.

• General use in computer science:

Applied in scenarios requiring efficient data
storage and retrieval.
 B-trees vs. Other Data Structures
• Comparison with binary search trees (BSTs),
AVL trees, and others:
• B-trees are more balanced and disk-friendly
compared to BSTs.
• AVL trees provide strict balancing but are less
efficient on disk operations compared to B-
trees.

• When to use B-trees:

Suitable for applications requiring efficient
disk-based operations and large data
management.
 Case Study/Example
• Real-world application or detailed example of
B-trees in action:
• - Discuss a specific use case or application
where B-trees are utilized effectively.
• - Example: Database indexing in a relational
database management system.
 Conclusion
• Recap of key points:
• - Definition, structure, operations, advantages,
and applications of B-trees.

• Final thoughts on the importance of B-trees in

databases:
• - B-trees play a crucial role in optimizing
database performance and managing large
datasets efficiently.