Physics Notes Based on SHS Syllabus

Introduction to Physics

Physics is the study of the world around us. In a sense we are more qualified to do physics
than any other science. From the day we are born we study the things around us in an effort to
understand how they work and relate to each other. Learning how to catch or throw a ball is a
physics undertaking for example.

In the field of study we refer to as physics we just try to make the things everyone has been
studying more clearly. We attempt to describe them through simple rules and mathematics.
Mathematics is merely the language we use.

The best approach to physics is to relate everything you learn to things you have already
noticed in your everyday life. Sometimes when you look at things closely you discover things
you had overlooked initially.

It is the continued scrutiny of everything we know about the world around us that leads
people to the lifelong study of physics. You can start with asking a simple question like "Why
is the sky blue?" which could lead you to electromagnetic waves which in turn could lead you
wave particle duality and to energy levels of atoms and before long you are studying quantum
mechanics or the structure of the universe.

In the sections that follow notice that we will try to describe how we will communicate the
things we are dealing with. This is our language. Once this is done we can begin the
adventure of looking more closely at the world we live in.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
Meaning of Physics: Physics is the study of matter in relation to energy.
Matter: Matter is anything which has got weight and occupies space.

Application of physics in daily life

In Industry
Machines such as hydraulic press, larger generators, motors, lifts use physics from its
manufacturing to the way they operate.
In Agriculture
In agriculture physics has been applied in different ways example pumps used for irrigation
scheme, solar power or diesel generator, pipes etc.
Transportation and communication
Cars, Airplanes, ship, train and other transportation means apply physics, In communication
the use of internet, telephone, television and radio are all possible because of physics.
In Medical field
Medical field is advancing due to modern technologies in fact this is the due to physics,
with Ultra – sound, X-ray, CT-scanners , EMIRs much can be done nowadays in medical
field, for example brain surgery which requires high technology and special equipment.
At home
Home appliances and utensils such as blender, oven, gas cooker, pressure cooker, microwave,
nut cracker, washing machine, toaster, iron, drill, saw and a crow bar are the result of physics.

Importance of studying physics

 To produce professionals such as engineers, doctors, and teachers
 Used in production of machines such as car, computer, motor bike etc.
 It is used to produce hospital equipment such as x-ray machine and ultra-sound
 It is used in construction of houses, bridges, roads and railways
 It is used to develop new technologies
Energy
Is the ability or capacity of doing work.
A Person who studies physics is called Physicist
.
PHYSICS LABORATORY
Physics laboratory is a special room designed for carrying out physics experiments.

LABORATORY RULES
 Do not enter in the laboratory without permission
 Do not eat or drink in the laboratory
 Report any breakages
 Never use bare hands to carry hot objects
 Handle all apparatus with care
 Do not use dirty and broken apparatus
 Keep windows open to allow ventilation
 Do not touch any electrical equipment with wet hands
 Make sure all gas and water taps are closed before leaving the laboratory.
 Never use open flame to heat inflammable liquids
 Clean the working area before leaving the laboratory.

SAFETY MEASURES IN LABORATORY

Safety measures are the precautions taken to insure the safety of people and laboratory
equipment.
Basically all laboratory rules are the safety measures, other safety measures includes
 Laboratory doors should be open outwards
 Presence of fire detectors, fire extinguishers, fire alarms and fire escape procedures
 Non slippery floor
 Adequate ventilation
 Ample water supply
 Hazardous places and rooms should be labelled, for example radiation rooms, places
with electric shock etc.
 Presence of first aid kit

First aid
This is initial care provided to a victim of illness or accident until medical treatment can be
accessed, the aim is to preserve life, prevent further harm and to promote recovery.

Importance of the first Aid

 It promote recovery
  It prevents further infection
 It reduces pain
 it gives a victim hope
 it prevents victims condition from becoming worse
 It preserves life.

First aid kit

Is a collection of medical supplies and equipment for use in giving first aid.

Items found in First aid kit

First aid manual, bandages, saline, soap, antiseptic, adhesive tape, butterfly closure strips,
dressings, tweezers, disposable gloves, and pain killer such as aspirin.
Item example
Antiseptic soap protex, dettol
Antiseptic solution methylated spirit
Bandages
Cotton wool
Surgical groves
Liniment deep heat, Vivian gel, clove oil, salimia
Painkillers Asprin, panadol, diclofenac
Plasters
Thermometer
Safety pins
Pair of scissors
Razor blade
Petroleum jelly

Common accidents in laboratory

 Burns-
-Fire or hot objects burns
-Chemical burns
 Falls
 Cuts and puncture
 Electric shock
Unit 1
Physical Quantities

Learning objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. distinguish between basic (fundamental) and derived physical quantities and their
units
2. measure with various measuring instruments.
3. explain uses of dimensional analysis in terms of the relationship between basic and
derived quantities.
4. identify scalars and vectors from a list of physical quantities.

Introduction
The study of Physics is based on experiments, which allowed us to test and validate theories.
The results of those experiments are obtained by accurate measurements using physical
quantities.

All physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit.

For example 2 metres. 2 is the numerical magnitude and metres is the unit.

Terms:

 a quantity is something that can be quantified (given a number to)

 a physical quantity is a physical property that can be expressed in numbers. Example
length being quantified: 13 cm.

Base Quantities and SI Units

There are seven base quantities: (E.g. Mass, length). From the seven base quantities, you can
obtain all the other physical quantities.
Unit Systems
There are many unit systems in use today. Physicists, for example, use 4 main sets of units:
SI units, c.g.s units, imperial units and natural units.
Depending on where you are in the world or what area of physics you work in, the units will
be different. For example, in Ghana, road distances are measured in kilometres (SI units),
while in England they are measured in miles (imperial units). You could even make up your
own system of units if you wished, but you would then have to teach people how to use it!
In the modern times, the units have been standardized and are named the SI units, from the
French “Le Systeme International d’Unites”.

Standard unit is a unit of measurement understood and accepted by people and countries
around the world.

In Ghana, institutions such as the Meteorology Division, Ghana Standard Authority, the
Custodian and Administrator of Weights and Measurements, etc make use of the SI units.

Two main importance of the SI unit are:

 to facilitate international trade and communications

 facilitate exchange of scientific findings and information.

Definition of Base Quantity and Base Units

Base or fundamental quantities are the basic quantities that are independent of others and
cannot be defined in terms of other quantities or derived from them.

Base or fundamental units are the basic units upon which other units depend. They are units
of the base quantities.

The 7 Base Quantities and Units are:

FUNDAMENTAL SI UNIT SYMBOL OF UNIT

QUANTITIES
Length metre m
Time Second s
 Mass kilogram Kg
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela Cd
Amount of substance mole mol

Apart from the seven basic quantities and units, there are also other quantities and units
which are derived from the basic quantities and units.

Derived Quantities and Units

Derived quantities and units are multiples or combinations of the fundamental quantities
and units. They are thus dependent on the fundamental quantities and units.

Examples Derived Quantities and Units are:

DERIVED QUANTITY DERIVATION DERIVED UNIT

Area (A) length × breadth m × m (m2)

Volume (V) length × breadth × height m × m × m (m3)

Density ( ρ ¿ mass kg
(kgm-3)
volume m
3

Speed (v) distance m

(ms-1)
time s

Velocity (v) displacement m

(ms-1)
time s

Acceleration (α ¿ change∈ velocity m

(ms-2)
time s
2

Note: Units, such as the joule, newton, volt and ohm, are SI units, but they are not base SI
units.

Prefixes
They are useful for expressing units of physical quantities that are either very big or very
small.

Some of the Greek prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples and multiples
of the SI units are:

Table 1: SI Prefixes and Symbols

Factor Decimal Representation Prefix Symbol

1018 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 exa E

1015 1,000,000,000,000,000 peta P

1012 1,000,000,000,000 tera T

109 1,000,000,000 giga G

106 1,000,000 mega M

103 1,000 kilo k

102 100 hecto h

101 10 deka da

100 1

10-1 0.1 deci d

10-2 0.01 centi c

10-3 0.001 milli m

10-6 0.000 001 micro m

10-9 0.000 000 001 nano n

10-12 0.000 000 000 001 pico p

10-15 0.000 000 000 000 001 femto f

10-18 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 atto a

 Table 2: Physical Quantities and Their Units
symbol SI measurement units symbol unit
dimensions
Distance d meter m m
Mass m kilogram kg kg
Time t second s s
electric charge* Q coulomb C C
Temperature T Kelvin K K
amount of substance n mole mol mol
luminous intensity I candela cd cd
Acceleration a meter per second squared m/s2 m/s2
Area A square meter m2 m2
capacitance C farad F C2.s2/kg.m2
concentration [C] molar M mol/m3
density D kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3 kg/m3
electric current I ampere A C/s
electric field intensity E newton per coulomb N/C kg.m/C.s2
electric resistance R ohm  kg.m2/C2.s
Emf  volt V kg.m2/C.s2
energy E joule J kg.m2/s2
Force F newton N kg.m/s2
frequency f hertz Hz s-1
Heat Q joule J kg.m2/s2
illumination E lux (lumen per square meter) lx cd/m2
inductance L henry H kg.m2/C2
magnetic flux  weber Wb kg.m2/C.s
potential difference V volt V kg.m2/C.s2
power P watt W kg.m2/s3
pressure p pascal (newton per square meter) Pa kg/m.s2
velocity v meter per second m/s m/s
volume V cubic meter m3 m3
Work W joule J kg.m2/s2
MEASUREMENT

Measurement of Length
Length is the distance or displacement between two points. SI unit of length is metre (m).
Distance is the length measured between two points in unspecified direction. For example
20m.
Displacement is the distance measured between two points in specific direction. For example
20 m east. Height and depth are also displacement.
Other units of distance includes kilometre (km), centimetre (cm), millimetre (mm),
micrometer (µm), and nanometre (nm).
Relationship between units
1km =1000m
1m =100cm
1cm =10mm
1mm =1000µm
1µm =1000nm
Instruments commonly used to measure length are
 Tape measure
 Vernier calliper
 Metre Rule
 Micrometer screw gauge

a. Using meter rule: length is a distance between two points in space. Distances and
straight edges are measured with a metre rule or surveyors tape. Points on the metre
rule are marked in centimetres and millimetres. The measurement is accurate to 0.5
mm.

Construction
This equipment is made up of a long rigid piece of wood or steel and can measure objects up
to 100 cm in length. The smallest marking is usually 0.1 cm.

How to use:

The zero-end of the rule is first aligned flat with one end of the object and the reading is
taken where the other end of the object meets the rule.

Three (3) possible errors that can occur using the metre rule are:

1. End of the rule is worn out, giving an end error leading to something called a
systematic error
2. Calibration of the metre rule i.e. markings on the ruler are not accurate
3. Parallax error

Correct way to read the scale on a metre ruler is to position eye perpendicularly at the mark
on the scale to avoid parallax errors.

b. Using the Vernier Calliper: this is used to measure short distance s where ordinary
metre rule cannot be applied.

Construction: This equipment is made up of a main scale and a vernier scale and can usually
measure objects up to 15 cm in length. The smallest marking is usually 0.1 cm on the main
scale.

Parts of the vernier calliper

  O-Outside jaws
 I-Inside jaws
 D-Depth probe
 V-Vernier scale
 M-Main scale
 L-Locking nut
 R-Retainer

How to read vernier calliper

 The jaws are first closed to find any zero errors.

 Read the main scale
 Find where the vernier scale coincides with the main scale
 Take the position of the coincidence from vernier scale
 Multiply with 0.01cm
 Add the answer from above to the main scale reading

It can measure to nearest 0.01 cm.

Example 1.

What is the reading of vernier calliper below?

Solution

Main scale =6.6 cm

Vernier scale =3 x 0.01cm = 0.03cm

Reading on Main scale + Reading vernier scale

6.6 cm + 0.03 cm = 6.63 cm.

6.63 cm

Example 3

What is the reading on vernier calliper below?

Solution

Main scale reading=10.2cm

Vernier scale reading=7x0.01cm=0.07cm

Main scale +vernier scale

10.2cm+0.07cm

10.27cm
 c. Using the micrometer screw gauge: it is best used to measure diameter of fine
wires, thickness of paper and small lengths,

Construction

It has the following:

 Main scale on the sleeve
 Circular scale on the thimble
 There are 50 divisions on the thimble
 One complete turn of the thimble moves the spindle by 0.50 mm
Precautions when using a micrometer

 Never tighten thimble too much

 Clean the ends of the anvil and spindle before making a measurement
-any dirt on either of surfaces could affect the reading
 Check for zero error by closing the micrometer when there is nothing between the
anvil and spindle
-the reading should be zero, but it is common to find a small zero error
-Correct zero error by adjusting the final measurement
Example 1

What is the reading on the micrometer screw gauge below?

Solution

Sleeve reading = 7.5mm

Thimble reading = 22 x 0.01mm = 0.22 mm

Sleeve reading + thimble reading = 7.5mm + 0.22 = 7.72mm

7.72mm

Example 2

What is the reading on the micrometer below?

Solution

Sleeve reading = 5.5mm

Thimble reading = 30 x 0.01mm = 0.30mm

Sleeve reading + thimble reading = 5.5mm + 0.30mm

5.80mm

Example 3

What is the reading on the following micrometer?

Solution

Sleeve scale = 14.5mm

Thimble reading = 29 x 0.01mm

Sleeve reading + thimble reading = 14.5mm + 0.29mm

14.79mm

Measurement of Area

Area is a two dimensional space occupied by matter. The SI unit of area is square metre (m 2).

Area of a rectangle = length (l) ×breadth (b)

Area of a circle = πr2

1
Area of a triangle = × base (b) × height (h)
2

Surface area of a cylinder = 2πr2 + 2ℼrh

Surface area of a sphere = 4πr2

Measurement of volume

Volume is the space occupied by a body. Volume of regular shapes can be found by
mathematical calculation, Example of regular shapes includes: cylinder, rectangular, sphere,
pyramid and cone. Its SI unit is the cubic metre, m3.

Cylinder Sphere

Cone

Example

Find the volume of a cylindrical tank of diameter 2m and height 20m.

Solution

V = πr²h

= 3.14 x 1² x 20

= 62.8m³

1. Measuring the volume of liquids

 In the laboratory various sizes of graduated cylinders are used to measure volume of a
liquid. The cylinders are transparent and calibrated in volume units so that the vertical
height of the liquid is used to read the volume of the liquid. The measuring cylinder is for
measuring or pouring out various volumes of liquids. The measuring flask and the pipette
are used for getting fixed pre-determined volumes. The burette delivers any required
volume up to its total capacity usually 50 cm3. Readings on all these instruments are
always taken at the level of the bottom of the meniscus or curved surface of the liquid.

2. Measuring the volume of irregular objects

The volume of an irregular object or shaped solid can be measured by immersing the object
in a liquid in a displacement can or a measuring cylinder. The principle used is that the
irregular solid will displace its own volume of liquid when completely immersed as shown in
the diagrams below.

Measurement of time

The SI unit of time is the second (s) but the commonly used ones are the minute (min), hour
(hr), day, week, etc. In the laboratory time is measured with a stop watch or stop clock.

Measurement Of Mass

Mass is the quantity of matter contained in a body. The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
Other commonly used units are ton and gram, ton (t) is mainly used in industries and gram in
laboratory where small amounts of specimen are tested.
Relationship between units

1 kilogram = 1000 grams

1ton = 1000 kilograms

Mass of an object does not change depending on place it is constant anywhere even on other
planet.

The instruments used to measure mass include: Beam balance, Electronic balance, Triple
beam balance, Lever balance.

 F is fulcrum
 M is standard mass
 O is object
 P is pointer
 S is scale.

Measurement of mass by using beam balances is done by comparing (balancing) unknown

mass against the standard mass.

The standard mass is known mass.

How to use beam balance

1. Make sure the pointer points at the middle of scale when nothing is added.

2. Put the unknown mass on a scale pan, pointer will shift

3. Put the standard mass on another scale pan

4. Add the standard masses until the pointer comes to the middle
5. The total mass of standard masses is the mass of object (unknown mass).

WEIGTH

The weight of an object is the force of attraction of the earth on an object towards its Centre.

Or

The weight of an object is the force an object exerts on anything which is freely supporting it.

The SI unit of weight is Newton (N)

The earth attracts objects towards its Centre by the pull of gravity.

The value of pull of gravity on earth’s surface is 9.8 N/kg or approximately 10 N/kg

Weight = mass x gravity pull

W = mg.

Weight is measured by using spring balance.

Parts of spring balance

 C- calibration
 S- spring
 P-pointer
  h-hook

Example 1

Find the weight of the mass of 30kg.

Solution

Weight = mass x gravity

W = 30kg x 9.8N/kg

W = 294N.

294N

Example 2

What is the weight of an object of mass 50kg on the planet X where the gravity pull is one
third of that of the earth? What is the difference of the weight of an object on mass and on
planet x?

Solution

Mass of object = 50kg

Gravity pull on earth = 9.8N/kg

Gravity pull on planet X = 1/3 x 9.8N/kg

Weight on planet x = mass x pull of gravity on planet x

W = 50 x1/3 x 9.8N/kg

=163N.

Difference between the weight of an object on the earth and on planet x

weight on earth

= 50kg x9.3N/kg
 = 465N

Difference = 465N-163N

=302N.

Differences between mass and weight

 mass is the quantity of matter contained in a body while weight is the force of
attraction of the earth on an object towards its Centre
 the SI unit of mass is kilogram while SI unit of weight is Newton
 mass does not change while weight change#
 s
 mass is fundamental physical quantity while weight is derived physical quantity
 mass is scalar quantity while weight is vector quantity.
 mass is measured by beam balance while weight is measured by spring balance.

DENSITY ( ρ )

Density of a substance is defined as the mass (m) per unit volume (v) of the substance.

Mathematically,

mass (m)
Density, ρ =
volume (v)

The SI unit of density is k/m3

Example 1.
A block of ice with volume 5.5m3 has a mass of 5060kg find the density of ice.
Solution
Volume of block=5.5m3
Mass of block=5060kg
Density=mass /volume
 =5060/5.5m3.
=920kg/m3.
The density of ice is 920kg/m3.

Example 2.
A silver cylindrical rod has a length of 0.5m and radius of 0.4m, find the density of the rod if
its mass is 2640kg.

Solution
Mass of cylinder = 2640kg
Volume of cylinder = πr²h
= 3.14 x 0.4 2 x 0.5
= 0.2512m3
Density = mass/volume
= 10509 kg/m3.

Example 3.
A stone has a mass of 112.5g.when the stone totally immersed in water contained in
measuring cylinder displaced water from 50cm3 to 95cm3.find the density of the stone.
Solution
Mass of the stone =112.5 g
Volume of stone = 95 cm3-50cm3 = 45 cm3
Density = mass/volume
= 2.5 g/cm3.

Example 4.
Beaker contain 262.5cm3 of a certain liquid weigh 410g, if the mass of an empty dry beaker is
200g, find the density of the liquid.
Solution
Mass of liquid = 410 g – 200 g = 210 g
Volume of liquid = 262.5 cm3.
Density = mass/volume
= 0.8 g/cm3.
DENSITY BOTTLE
The density bottle (pycnometer) consists of ground glass stopper with a fine hole through it.
The function of the fine hole in a stopper is that, when the bottle is filled and the stopper is
inserted, the excess liquid rises through the hole and runs down outside the bottle, by this way
the bottle will always contain the same volume of whatever the liquid is filled in provided the
temperature remains constant.

The bottle is used to measure density and relative density.

Relative density is comparison of one density to another, thus a density of a given volume of
a substance to a density of equal volume of referenced substance, for example a ratio of a
density of a given volume of substance to a density of an equal volume of water, this is
referred to a relative density of a given substance or Specific gravity of a given substance.
The term specific gravity is used when the reference substance is water.

Measurement of density of liquid by relative density bottle

 The mass of bottle is found when dry and empty
 The bottle is then filled with the liquid density is to be determined
 The stopper is then inserted causing the liquid to overflow
 The bottle is dried up by using blotting paper
 The mass of the liquid and the bottle is found
 Density is found from the collected data
Mass of empty bottle = m1
Volume of liquid in the bottle = v
mass of bottle and the liquid = m2
mass of liquid only = (m2-m1)
mass
density =
volume
 m2−m1
density =
v
The volume of the bottle is known, usually 25ml, 30ml or 50ml.

Example 1
A 30ml density bottle was filled with kerosene and found to weigh 86g.if the mass empty dry
bottle was 62g, find the density of kerosene.
Solution
Mass of empty bottle = 62 g
Mass of bottle and kerosene = 86 g
Mass of kerosene only = 86 g – 62 g = 24 g
Density = mass /volume
= 24 g/30 ml
= 0.8 g/cm3.

Determination of densities of granules and sand

To find the density of sand or granules such as lead shots a density bottle is used as follows
 Find the mass of empty dry density bottle mo
 Put some granules and find the mass m1 = ( mass of empty bottle + mass of granules)
 Pour water in the bottle until it is full and find mass m2 = ( mass of bottle + mass of
granules + mass of water on top of granules)
 Find the mass of bottle filled with water only m3 = ( mass of bottle + mass of water)

The mass of sand = (m1 - m0)

Mass of water above the sand = (m2 - m1)

Mass of water filling the bottle = (m3 - m0)

Since density of water is 1g/cm³

Volume of sand = [(m1+m3) - (mo+m2)] / 1g/cm³

= [(m1 + m3) - (mo+m2)] cm³

mass
Density =
volume

Example 1

Given the data below find the density of granules

Mass of empty dry density bottle = 18g

Mass of density bottle and granules = 131g

Mass of density bottle and granules together with water on top = 171g

Mass of density bottle full of water = 68g

RELATIVE DENSITY

Relative density of a substance is the ratio of the density of substance to the density of water.

Or

Relative density of a substance is the ratio of mass of any volume of substance to the mass of
an equal volume of water.
Example 1

A globe of steel has a mass of 12g and a volume of 15.2cm³, find its relative density.

To measure relative density of liquid by density bottle

 Find mass of empty bottle –m0

 Find mass of bottle and liquid-m1
 Empty the bottle and rinse it with water
 Fill the bottle with water and find mass m2

Mass of liquid = (m1 - m0)

Mass of equal volume of water = (m2 - m0)

Since comparison of density is done with water (referenced substance) the other name of the
ratio is specific gravity of a given substance. Because the density of water is 1g/cm³.Relative
density has no units it is simply a number or ratio.

Example
The mass of density bottle is 19g when dry and empty, 45g when filled with water and 40g
when full of liquid x. calculate the density of the liquid x.

Determinations of relative density by eureka can method

 Find the mass m₀ of solid

 Fill the eureka can and let water overflow until last drop
 Place under the spout of overflow can a clean dry beaker of mass m₁.
 Lower the solid slowly with thin thread until it is totally immersed
 Obtain the mass m₂ of water that overflow from the eureka can and the beaker itself.
The volume of water overflows into a beaker is equal to the volume of solid

Mass of solid = m₀

Mass of beaker and water = m₂

Mass of beaker = m₁

Mass of water only = (m₂ - m₁)

Example

A certain piece of metal has a mass of 282.5 g, if when the block was totally immersed in
overflow can displaced water in a beaker of mass 20 g. If the mass of water and the beaker
was 45 g, find the relative density of the metal.
Measuring Densities

1. Liquid:

The mass (m1) of a clean, dry beaker is found using a beam balance and a convenient of the
liquid whose density is to found is run off into the beaker by using a pipette or a burette. The
mass (m2) of the beaker with the liquid is then found. Subtract m1 from m2 to get the actual
mass of the liquid as M. The density of the liquid is then calculated as

M
ρl =
v

2. Regular objects

The volume (v) of a regular shaped object such as rectangular bar, cylinder or a sphere may
be calculated by measuring them with a vernier calliper or micrometer screw gauge. The
mass (m) of the solid is found by using a beam balance. Density is then calculated as:

M
ρ=
v

3. Irregular Objects

For an irregular solid like stone, a mango, etc., density can be determined by any of the
method outlined below.
Method A

This is done by the use of only a measuring cylinder.

 Find the mass of the solid and record it as M.

 Partially fill a measuring cylinder with water and record the initial level of water, v 1.
 Tie the object with a thread and lower it gently into the water until it is completely
immersed in the water as shown in the diagram below:
 Record the new level, V2 of the water after immersion of the object.

METHOD B

This is done by using the overflow (Eureka) Can and a measuring cylinder.

 Mass the solid object and record it as M1

 Fill the overflow (Eureka) Can with water until it overflows. Leave it till it no more
overflows.
 Place an empty measuring cylinder below the spout of the Eureka Can.
 Tie a solid with a thread and gently lower it into the water until it is completely
immersed.
 Record the volume, V of the water that overflows into the measuring cylinder.
All measurement must consider this:
Accuracy: Ability of the instrument to measure the true value or close to the true value. The
smaller the percentage error, the more accurate the instrument is.
Sensitivity of an instrument is the ability of the instrument to detect any small change in a
measurement.
Consistency: ability of the instrument to produce consistent measurement (the values are
near to each other). The lower the relative deviation, the more consistent the measurement is.
Ways to increase accuracy:
- repeat the measurements and get the mean value.
- correcting for zero error.

avoiding parallax error.

- use magnifying glass to aid in reading.

ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE

A plastic cup containing air (literally empty) when immersed in water upside down it will
tend to come up, likewise the piece of wood or bee wax will come up if totally or partially
immersed in water.
In both cases objects rise up due to upthrust force which is greater than the weight (mg) of
objects. If the weight would be greater than the upthrust then the object would sink but would
be much lighter if measured when immersed in water.

Upthrust force is also known as buoyant force.

Buoyant force is an upward force exerted by a fluid to a body which is partially or totally
immersed in it and it is equal in magnitude to the weight of fluid displaced by a body.

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE (LAW OF BUOYANCY)

States that, when a body is partially or totally immersed in fluid, it experiences an upthrust
force which is equal to the weight of fluid displaced.

Experiment to show upthrust is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced

A is a real weight (weight of an object in air) 4.5 N

B is apparent weight (weight of an object in fluid) 3.0 N

C is apparent loss of weight (weight of fluid displaced) 1.5 N

Measuring the weight of displaced fluid is equal to apparent loss of weight; this apparent loss
is the buoyancy force on an object which is upthrust.

Conclusion

Apparent loss of weight is equal to the weight of displaced fluid.

Real weight = apparent weight + apparent loss

Since apparent loss is equal to upthrust

Real weight = apparent weight + upthrust

Upthrust = real weight – apparent weight.

Example 1.

A body weighs 5.5 N when measured in air and 3 N when completely immersed in kerosene,
what is upthrust experienced by a body.

Solution

Weight of body in air (Real weight) =5.5 N

Apparent weight of a body when immersed in kerosene = 3 N.

But upthrust = real weight – apparent weight loss

Upthrust = 5.5 N – 3 N

= 2.5 N.

Example 2.

A body weighs 3 N when totally immersed in water contained in an overflow can, if weight
of displaced water was 2.6 N, what is the real weight of an object.

Solution
Apparent weight = 3 N

Upthrust = 2.6 N (according to Archimedes’ principle)

But

Upthrust = real weight – apparent weight

2.6 N = Real weight – 3 N.

Real weight = 2.6 N + 3 N

= 5.6 N.

Determination of Relative Density of Solid by Archimedes’ Principle

If mass is multiplied by gravitational acceleration ‘g’ becomes weight (times 10 above and
below which does not change magnitude but changes the physical quantity from mass to
weight).

Weight of a given volume of substance: - is the weight of substance in air.

Weight of an equal volume of water: - is the weight of water displaced (liquid has to be
water because the density of solid object is compared to the density of water, meaning of
relative density).
Other formulae will be:

Example 1

A metal block weighs 108 g in air and 68 g in water, find the relative density of metal. What
possibly this metal can be? (Use the table of densities).
Example 2

A body weighs 135 g in air displaced 54 g of water when completely immersed, find the
relative density and volume of a body.

Volume of a body is equal to the volume of displaced water.

Density= mass/volume

Therefore 1 g/cm 3= 54 g/volume

Volume = 54 cm 3.

Determination of Relative Density of Object That Floats By Archimedes’ Principle

Class Work

AIM: To determine the relative density of an object that floats by Archimedes’ principle.

REQUIREMENTS: floating object, sinker (piece of metal or stone), spring balance, string,
and water in a beaker

PROCEDURES:

 Tie a sinker with a string.

 Immerse a sinker totally in water and measure its weight (apparent weight) W 1
 Tie a floating object just before the sinker and immerse totally the sinker leaving the
floating object in air then measure weight W 2 (weight of floating object in air +
apparent weight of a sinker).
 Immerse totally both the sinker and the object in water and measure the weight W 3

Example 1
In an Experiment to find the relative density of floating object the followings were
observed,

I. Weight of a sinker in air = 64 g

II. Weight of a sinker when totally immersed in water = 49 g

III. Weight of a sinker totally immersed and floating object in air = 56 g

IV. Weight when both sinker and floating object totally immersed in water = 46 g

Determination of Relative Density of Liquids by Archimedes’ Principle

If an object of given volume is totally immersed in different liquids it will always displace
volume of given liquid equals to its own volume but the masses of these equal volumes of
liquids displaced will differ owing to their densities(concentration of particles)

We can simply know mass of liquid displaced by noticing the apparent loss of mass of an
object when totally immersed in liquid; this is according to Archimedes’ principle.

Remember, when mass is multiplied by ‘g’ (gravitational acceleration) it becomes weight

also:-
CLASS WORK

AIM: TO FIND RELATIVE DENSITY OF ‘X’

REQUIREMENTS: Liquid x in a beaker, water in a beaker, object that can sink, and spring
balance.

PROCEDURES:

 Measure the sinking object in air and record its weight W 1Measure the sinking object
when totally immersed in X and record its apparent weight W 2
 Measure the sinking object when totally immersed in water and record its apparent
weight W 3

Dimensional Equations
The dimension of a physical quantity is defined as the power to which the fundamental
quantities are raised to express the physical quantity. The dimension of mass, length and time
are represented as [M], [L] and [T] respectively. For example:

[displacement ] [ Lenght ] L
[Velocity] = = = = LT-1
[time] [Time ] T

Example 1.

Find the dimensional equation of the following:

a. Area b. Density c. Acceleration

Solution

a. Area = Length × Breadth

[Area] = [Length] × [Breadth]

= L × L = L2

mass
b. Density =
volume
[mass ]
[Density] =
[volume ]
But [Volume] = [Length] × [Length] × [Length] = L3
[ Mass] [M] M
[Density] = = = = ML3
[Volume] [V ] L3
Velocity
c. Acceleration =
time
[Velocity]
[Acceleration] =
[Time]

[displacement ] [ Lenght] L
But [Velocity] = = = = LT-1
[time] [Time ] T

−1
LT
So [Acceleration] = = LT-2
T

Uses of Dimensions

1. To find the units of quantities

2. To check whether an equation is correct or not (validity)
3. To derive an equation between quantities
 Using Dimensions to Find the Units of Quantities

Example 1.

Find the unit of a quantity whose dimensions are LT2, MLT-2 and ML-1T-1.

Solution

L is the dimension of distance, displacement or length which has a unit of m

T is the dimension of time which has unit of s

M is the dimension of mass which has a unit kg

Hence the unit for LT2 is ms2, MLT-2 is kgms-2 and ML-1T-1 is kgm-1s-1.

Using Dimensions to Check the Validity of an Equation

To check for validity, the dimensions on both sides of the equation are taken. If the
dimensions on both sides are the same, then the equation is correct or valid.

There are two principles used to check the validity of an equation.

1. Dimensions on both sides of the equation must be the same.

2. Units on both sides of the equation must be the same.

Example 1.

Check the validity of the equation; v = u + at

Where v = final velocity; u = initial velocity; a = acceleration; t = time.

Solution

Given v = u + at;

Taking dimensions on left hand side (L.H.S) of the equation;

[v] = LT-1 …………………….1

Taking dimensions on right hand side (R.H.S) of the equation;

[u] + [a] [t] = LT-1 + (LT-2) T = 2LT-1 ………………..2

Note: numbers are not dimensional quantities and so by comparing equations 1 and 2, both
sides of the equation have dimension of LT-1, hence the equation is valid or correct.

Example 2.

2
at
Check whether the equation given is correct or not: s = u t +
2

Where s = distance; u = initial velocity; a = acceleration; t = time.

Solution

Taking dimensions on left hand side (L.H.S) of the equation;

[s] = L …………………1

Taking dimensions on right hand side (R.H.S) of the equation;

[u] [t] + ¿ ¿ = (LT-1) T + (LT-2) T2

3L
= ………………………2
2

Numbers are not dimensional quantities and so by comparing equations 1 and 2, both sides of
the equation have dimension of L, hence the equation is valid or correct.

Example 3.

Check the validity of the equation: W = F v – ρ a

Where W = work; F = force; v = velocity; a = acceleration; ρ = density

Solution

Taking dimensions on left hand side (L.H.S) of the equation;

[W] = M L2 T2 …………………1

Taking dimensions on right hand side (R.H.S) of the equation;

[F] [v] – [ ρ ] [a] = (MLT-2) (LT-1) – (ML3) (LT2)

= ML2T-3 – ML-2T-2 ……………….2

Comparing equation equations 1 and 2, the dimensions on both sides of the equation are
different. Hence the equation is not correct or not valid.
Using Dimensions To Derive Equations Between Different Quantities

To derive an equation between different quantities, the following steps must be considered:

Step 1

The subject of the equation must first be identified. The subject then depends proportionally
on the other quantity.

Suppose A is a quantity and depends on B and C, then A is the subject and so depends
proportionally on B and C according to the expression:

A∝BC

Step 2

The depending quantities B and C are raised to power say x and y. That is: A ∝ Bx Cy

Step 3

The proportional sign is removed and replaced by an equation sign and a constant. That is:

A = k Bx Cy …………………..1

This is the equation between quantities.

Step 4

To find the powers x and y, the dimensions of both sides of the equation are taken.

[A] = k [B]x [C]y

Comparing the symbols on both sides, the value of x and y are determined. The values of x
and y are substituted into equation 1 and simplified. The simplified equation gives the final
relationship or equation between the quantities.

Example 1.

The period T of a simple pendulum depends on the length, L and the acceleration due to
gravity, g. Use the methods of dimensions to establish the equation between T, L, and g.

Solution

From the question, T depends on L and g.

T ∝ Lx gy
Introducing a constant, k

T = k Lx gy ……………………….1

Taking dimensions on both sides of the equation;

[T] = k [L]x [g]y

T = k Lx [LT-2]y

T = k L(x+y) T-2y

Comparing the powers of T on both sides of the equation;

⇒y=-
1
1 = -2y
2

Comparing the powers of L on both sides of the equation;

0=x+y ⇒ x = -y

But y = -
1 1
; hence x =
2 2

Substituting the values for x and y into equation 1,

√ L
1 −1
T = k L2 g 2 ; Hence, T =
g

Example 2.

The force, F acting on a conical pendulum depends on the mass, m the velocity, v and the
radius, r of the horizontal circle described. Derive an equation between F, m, v, and r using
the method of dimensions.

Solution

The force, F depends proportionally on m, v, and r according to the question.

⇒ F ∝ m x vy r z

By introducing a constant, k

F = k mx vy rz

Taking the dimensions on both sides;

[F] = k [m]x [v]y [r]z

MLT-2 = k Mx (LT-1)y Lz

MLT-2 = k Mx L(x+z) Ty

Comparing the powers of T on both sides of the equation;

-2 = -y ⇒ y=2

Comparing the powers of L on both sides;

1=y+z ⇒ z=1–y

But y = 2 ⇒ z = -1

Comparing the powers of M;

1= x

Substituting the values of x, y and z into equation 1, the equation between the quantities are:

⇒
2
kmv
F = k m1 v2 r-1 F=
r

Example 3.

The frequency, f of a vibrating string depends on the length, L of the string, tension, T in the
string and the mass per unit length, µ of the string. Derive an equation between f, L, T, and µ.

Solution

F ∝ Lx Ty µz

⇒ F = k Lx Ty µz, where k is a constant.

Taking dimensions on both sides

⇒ [F] = k [L]x [T]y [µ]z

But [F] = T-1, [L] = L, [T] = MLT-1, [µ] = ML-1

⇒ T-1 = k Lx (MLT-2)y (ML-1)z

⇒ T-1 k L(x+y-z) M(y+z) T-2y

Comparing the powers of T;

⇒ ⇒
1
-1 = -2y y=
2

Comparing the powers of M;

⇒ ⇒ ⇒
−1
0=y+z z = -y z=
2

Comparing powers of L;

⇒ ⇒
−1 −1
0=x+y+z x=z–y= = -1
2 2

Substituting the values of x, y, and z into F = k Lx Ty µz

We have;

1 1
F = k L-1 T 2 μ 2

∴ F=
k
L √ T
μ

Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

1. Dimensional analysis has no information on dimensionless constants.

2. If a quantity is dependent on trigonometric or exponential functions, this method
cannot be used.
3. In some cases, it is difficult to guess the factors while deriving the relation connecting
two or more physical quantities.
4. This method cannot be used in an equation containing two or more variables with
same dimensions.
5. It cannot be used if the physical quantity is dependent on more than three unknown
variables.
6. This method cannot be used if the physical quantity contains more than one term, say
sum or difference of two terms.