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THE0RY OF AUTOMATA & LANGUAGES

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY


Theory of Automata -Languages

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY


DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY
Week-02
• Alphabets and strings, Languages, Defining Languages.
• Intro to defining languages , Kleene Star Closure and +
operator, Palindrome Langauge

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY


More About Automata
Automata theory : the study of abstract computing devices, or ”machines”
Before computers (1930), A. Turing studied an abstract machine (Turing machine) that had all
the capabilities of today’ s computers (concerning what they could compute). His goal was to
describe precisely the boundary between what a computing machine could do and what it could
not do.
Simpler kinds of machines (finite automata) were studied by a number of researchers and
useful for a variety of purposes
Theoretical developments bear directly on what computer scientists do today.
Finite automata, formal grammars: design/ construction of software

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CENTRAL CONCEPT OF AUTOMATA
THEORY

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ALPHABET
A finite, nonempty set of symbols.
Symbol: Σ
Example:

1. The binary alphabet: Σ = {0, 1}


2. The set of all lower-case letters: Σ = {a, b, . . . , z}.
3.The set of all ASCII character.

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY


STRING
A string (or sometimes a word) is a finite sequence of symbols chosen from some alphabet
Example: 01101 and 111 are strings from the binary alphabet Σ = {0, 1}.
Empty string: the string with zero occurrences of symbols.
Length of a string: the number of positions for symbols in the string.
Example 01101 has length 5.
There are only two symbols (0 and 1) in the string 01101, but 5 positions forSymbols.
Notation of length of w: |w|
Example: |011| = 3

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY


Power Of Alphabet
If Σ is an alphabet, we can express the set of all strings of a certain length from that
alphabet by using the exponential notation:
Example: Σ0 : {ǫ}, regardless of what alphabet Σ is. That is ǫ is the only string of length
0
If Σ = {0, 1}, then
1. Σ1 = {0, 1}
2. Σ2 = {00, 01, 10, 11}
3.Σ3 = {000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111
Note: confusion between Σ and Σ1:
Σ is an alphabet; its members 0 and 1 are symbols
Σ1 is a set of strings; its members are strings (each one of length 1)
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KLEEN STAR */Closure/Operator
Kleen PLUS+/Positive/Positive Closure
Lexicographic Order

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KLEEN STAR *
Σ∗: The set of all strings over an alphabet Σ
EXAMPLE
1.{0, 1}∗ = {ǫ, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, . . .}
2.Σ∗ = Σ0 ∪ Σ1 ∪ Σ2 ∪ . . .

The symbol ∗ is called Kleene star and is named after the mathematician and
logician Stephen Cole Kleene.
Σ+ = Σ1 ∪ Σ2 ∪ . . .
Thus: Σ∗ = Σ+ ∪ {ǫ}

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY


Kleene Closure / Plus

 Definition − The set ∑+ is the infinite set of all possible strings of all possible lengths over ∑
excluding λ.
 Representation − ∑+ = ∑1 ∪ ∑2 ∪ ∑3 ∪…….
 ∑+ = ∑* − { λ }
 Example − If ∑ = { a, b } , ∑+ = { a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb,………..}

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LANGUAGES
If Σ is an alphabet, and L ⊆ Σ∗, then L is a (formal) language over Σ.
Language: A (possibly infinite) set of strings all of which are chosen from some Σ∗
A language over Σ need not include strings with all symbols of Σ, Thus, a language over Σ is also a
language over any alphabet that is a superset of Σ
1.Programming language C
2.English or French

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LANGUAGES

 Definition − A language is a subset of ∑* for some alphabet ∑. It can be finite or infinite.


 Example − If the language takes all possible strings of length 2 over ∑ = {a, b}, then L = {
ab, aa, ba, bb }

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY


CONCATENATION
Thus, strings can be concatenated yielding another string:
If x are y be strings then x.y denotes the concatenation of x and y, that is, the string formed by
making a copy of x and following it by a copy of y
Examples:
1.x = 01101 and y = 110
2.Then xy = 01101110 and yx = 11001101

If S and T are subsets of Σ∗, then


S.T = {s.t | s ∈ S, t ∈ T }

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DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY
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• Descriptive definition of
language – Explained with
Examples
• Language Palindrome

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Descriptive definition of language – Explained
with Examples

In the Theory of automata, languages can be defined with different techniques. Some of these are
mentioned below;
Language definition by using the Descriptive definition
Language definition by using the Recursive definition
Language definition by using the Regular Expressions (RE)
Language definition by using the Finite Automaton(FA)

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Descriptive definition of language – Explained with Examples

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Example 1 of Descriptive definition of language
Descriptive definition of the language of strings of odd length, defined over Σ={a},
can be defined as
L={a, aaa, aaaaa,…..}

Example 2 of Descriptive definition of language


Descriptive definition of the language of strings of even length, defined over Σ={a},
can be defined as
L={aa, aaaa, aaaaaa, aaaaaaaa…..}

Example 3 of Descriptive definition of language


Descriptive definition of the language of strings that must
start with a, defined over Σ ={a,b,c}, can be defined as L ={a,
ab, aa, aba, abb, ac, acc, ….}
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY
Example 4 of Descriptive definition of language
Descriptive definition of the language of strings that does
not start with a, defined over Σ ={a,b,c}, can be defined as L
={Λ, b, c, ba, bb, bc, ca, cb, cc, …}

Example 5 of Descriptive definition of language


Descriptive definition of the language of the strings of length 1, defined over
Σ ={X,Y,Z}, can be defined as
L={X, Y, Z }

Example 6 of Descriptive definition of language


Descriptive definition of the language of the strings of length 2, defined over
Σ ={X,Y,Z}, can be defined as
L={XX, XY, XZ,YX, YY,YZ,ZX,ZY,ZZ, …..}
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Example 7
Descriptive definition of the language of the strings of length 3,
defined over Σ ={X,Y,Z}, can be defined as.

Example 8
Descriptive definition of the language L of strings ending in a, defined over Σ ={a,b}, can
be defined as
L={a,aa,ba,aaa,aba,baa,bba,…}

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Example

The language {anbn }, of strings defined over Σ={a,b}, as


{an bn : n=1,2,3,…}, can be written as
{ab, aabb, aaabbb,aaaabbbb,…}

Example

The language {anbnan }, of strings defined over Σ={a,b}, as


{an bn an: n=1,2,3,…}, can be written as
{aba, aabbaa, aaabbbaaa,aaaabbbbaaaa,…}

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY


CLASS TASK

{Λ, aa, bb, aaaa,aabb,aabb, abba, baba, bbaa, ,…}

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Recursive Definition

 It is one of the Language defining methods.


 In this method, we simply describe the Language with three steps/rules

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RULES FOR DEFINNING LANGUAGES.

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CLASS TASK

Define Recursive definition of ODD POSITIVE NUMBERS

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Defining the language {𝑎^𝑛 𝑏^𝑛} n=1,2,3,… , of strings defined over Σ={a,b}

Step 1: ab is in {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 }
Step 2: if x is in {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 } then axb is in {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 }
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 }

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Defining the language L, of strings ending in a , defined over Σ={a,b}

Step 1: a is in L
Step 2: if x is in L then s(x) is also in L, where s belongs to Σ*
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in L

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY


Defining the language L, of strings beginning and ending in same
letters , defined over Σ={a, b}

Step 1: a and b are in L


Step 2: (a)s(a) and (b)s(b) are also in L, where s belongs to Σ*
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in L

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTING, FCIT, INDUS UNIVERSITY


Defining the language L, of strings containing aa or bb , defined over Σ={a, b}

Step 1: aa and bb are in L


Step 2: s(aa)s and s(bb)s are also in L, where s belongs to Σ*
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in L

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TEXT BOOK

https://pakistandasti.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/introductio
n-to-computer-theory-by-cohen-copy.pdf

Chapter 2 & 3

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Thank You

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THE END

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