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Radioactivity - Overview

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11 views4 pages

Radioactivity - Overview

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a01649347
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Radioactivity - Overview

Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation from the nucleus of an atom. Unstable
atomic nuclei lose energy to become more stable through the emission of particles or
electromagnetic waves. The phenomenon was discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel and later
studied in detail by Marie and Pierre Curie.

Types of Radiation

There are three main types of radiation emitted during radioactive decay:

1. Alpha Radiation (α):


○ Particle: Consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (essentially a helium nucleus,
He²⁺).
○ Charge: Positive (+2).
○ Penetrating Power: Low; can be stopped by a sheet of paper or human skin.
○ Effect on Nucleus: Reduces the atomic number by 2 and the mass number by
4.
○ Example: 92238U→90234Th+24α_{92}^{238}U \to _{90}^{234}Th +
_{2}^{4}\alpha92238​U→90234​Th+24​α (Uranium-238 decays to Thorium-234,
emitting an alpha particle).
2. Beta Radiation (β):
○ Particle: Consists of high-energy electrons (β⁻) or positrons (β⁺).
○ Charge:
■ Beta-minus (β⁻): Negative (electron).
■ Beta-plus (β⁺): Positive (positron).
○ Penetrating Power: Moderate; can be stopped by a sheet of plastic or glass.
○ Effect on Nucleus:
■ Beta-minus decay: A neutron in the nucleus decays into a proton,
emitting an electron and an antineutrino.
■ Beta-plus decay: A proton decays into a neutron, emitting a positron and
a neutrino.
○ Example: 614C→714N+β−_{6}^{14}C \to _{7}^{14}N + \beta^{-}614​C→714​N+β−
(Carbon-14 decays to Nitrogen-14, emitting a beta particle).
3. Gamma Radiation (γ):
○ Particle: High-energy electromagnetic waves (photons).
○ Charge: Neutral (no charge).
○ Penetrating Power: Very high; can penetrate thick lead or concrete.
○ Effect on Nucleus: Gamma radiation does not change the number of protons or
neutrons in the nucleus but releases excess energy.
○ Example: 60137Cs∗→60137Cs+γ_{60}^{137}Cs^* \to _{60}^{137}Cs +
\gamma60137​Cs∗→60137​Cs+γ (The excited state of Cesium-137 decays to its
ground state, emitting gamma radiation).

Radioactive Decay Processes

Radioactive decay is a random process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by
emitting radiation. Over time, the nucleus transitions to a more stable form. The decay occurs at
a characteristic rate that depends on the isotope.

1. Alpha Decay (α-decay):


○ Occurs in heavy nuclei (e.g., Uranium, Radium).
○ The nucleus loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons, emitting an alpha particle.
○ Example: 92238U→90234Th+24α_{92}^{238}U \to _{90}^{234}Th +
_{2}^{4}\alpha92238​U→90234​Th+24​α
2. Beta Decay (β-decay):
○ Beta-minus decay (β⁻): A neutron decays into a proton, emitting an electron
(beta particle) and an antineutrino.
○ Beta-plus decay (β⁺): A proton decays into a neutron, emitting a positron
(positive electron) and a neutrino.
○ Example (β⁻ decay): 614C→714N+β−_{6}^{14}C \to _{7}^{14}N +
\beta^{-}614​C→714​N+β− Example (β⁺ decay):
1122Na→1022Ne+β+_{11}^{22}Na \to _{10}^{22}Ne +
\beta^{+}1122​Na→1022​Ne+β+
3. Gamma Decay (γ-decay):
○ Occurs when an excited nucleus releases energy in the form of gamma radiation
without changing its composition (i.e., no change in proton or neutron number).
○ Example: 60137Cs∗→60137Cs+γ_{60}^{137}Cs^* \to _{60}^{137}Cs +
\gamma60137​Cs∗→60137​Cs+γ
4. Electron Capture:
○ An inner-shell electron is captured by the nucleus, combining with a proton to
form a neutron and emitting an X-ray.
○ This occurs in atoms where the nucleus is proton-rich.
○ Example: 1123Na+e−→1023Ne+γ_{11}^{23}Na + e^{-} \to _{10}^{23}Ne +
\gamma1123​Na+e−→1023​Ne+γ

Half-Life and Decay Law

1. Half-life (t₁/₂):
○ The half-life is the time required for half of the nuclei in a sample of a radioactive
substance to decay.
○ It is a constant property for each radioactive isotope, though it varies widely
across different elements.
○ Example:
■ The half-life of Carbon-14 is 5730 years.
■ The half-life of Uranium-238 is 4.468 billion years.
2. Decay Law:
○ The rate of decay of a radioactive substance follows an exponential decay model.
○ The number of undecayed nuclei at time ttt is given by:
N(t)=N0e−λtN(t) = N_0 e^{-\lambda t}N(t)=N0​e−λt
Where:
■ N(t)N(t)N(t) is the number of remaining radioactive nuclei at time ttt,
■ N0N_0N0​is the initial number of radioactive nuclei,
■ λ\lambdaλ is the decay constant,
■ ttt is the time elapsed.
○ The relationship between the decay constant λ\lambdaλ and the half-life
t1/2t_{1/2}t1/2​is:
λ=ln⁡2t1/2\lambda = \frac{\ln 2}{t_{1/2}}λ=t1/2​ln2​
3. Activity (A):
○ Activity is the rate at which a radioactive substance decays, typically measured in
becquerels (Bq) or curies (Ci).
○ It is proportional to the number of undecayed nuclei: A=λNA = \lambda NA=λN
Where AAA is the activity, NNN is the number of radioactive nuclei, and
λ\lambdaλ is the decay constant.

Units of Measurement

● Becquerel (Bq): The SI unit of radioactivity, where 1 Bq = 1 decay per second.


● Curie (Ci): A non-SI unit of radioactivity, where 1 Ci = 3.7×10103.7 \times
10^{10}3.7×1010 decays per second (roughly the activity of 1 gram of radium-226).
● Gray (Gy): A unit of absorbed dose of radiation, 1 Gy = 1 joule per kilogram.
● Sievert (Sv): A unit of biological effect of radiation, used to express equivalent dose. 1
Sv = 1 J/kg.

Applications of Radioactivity

1. Radiocarbon Dating:
○ Used to determine the age of organic materials by measuring the amount of
Carbon-14 remaining.
○ The half-life of Carbon-14 is 5730 years, making it useful for dating fossils,
artifacts, and ancient remains.
2. Medical Applications:
○ Radiotherapy: Radioactive isotopes like Cobalt-60 are used in the treatment of
cancer by targeting and destroying cancerous cells.
○ Diagnostic Imaging: Isotopes such as Technetium-99m are used in medical
imaging to visualize internal organs.
3. Nuclear Power and Energy:
○ Radioactive isotopes like Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239 are used as fuel in
nuclear reactors to generate electricity.
4. Industrial Applications:
○ Radiography: Used to inspect metal structures for cracks or defects.
○ Tracer Studies: Radioactive tracers are used in chemical and biological research
to track the movement of substances.

Safety and Protection from Radiation

● Radiation Shielding:
○ Alpha particles: Stopped by a sheet of paper or skin.
○ Beta particles: Stopped by plastic, glass, or thin metal.
○ Gamma rays: Require thick shielding, such as lead or concrete.
● Radiation Exposure:
○ Exposure to high levels of radiation can damage living tissues and DNA, leading
to radiation burns, cancer, and other health problems.
○ Safety protocols like lead aprons, shielding, and monitoring radiation levels are
essential in environments where radioactive materials are handled.
○

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