1.

MAXWELL's EQUATIONS

Stationary charges produce static electric field and the equations governing these static field
are

, (1.1.a)

and

, . (1.1.b)

Steady movement of charges (direct current) produce static magnetic fields and the equations
governing these static field are

, (1.2.a)

and

, . (1.2.b)

When the charge movement vary with time (time varying case) both of electric and magnetic
fiels are produced. These fields vary with time also and they are coupled to each other. It is
obvious that equations (1.1) and (1.2) are not valid in this case: Means that, these equations
must be modified for time varying case. These modified equations for the time varying case
are known as Maxwell's equations.

The differences between the static and time varying cases can be summurized as
follows:

1. Electrostatic fiels are conservative (the line integral of electrostatic field around any
closed path is always zero) but time varying electric field is no longer conservative.

2. Magnetostatic fields need constant source current but time varying magnetic fields
can be created by time varying electric fields and vice versa.

3. Electrostatic field lines do not close on themselves (they originate from positive
charges and terminate on negative charges but time varying electric field lines close on
themselves.

4. Some energy is stored in electrostatic and magnetostatic fields but in time varying
case electromagnetic energy propagates in space in the form of time varying electric and
magnetic field (electromagnetic wave).

1
1.1 FARADAY's LAW

Faraday's law states that a time varying magnetic field produces a current in a closed loop of
wire. Consider the circular loops of wire and the time varying magnetic fields that penetrate
the surfaces bounded by the loops shown in figure 1.1.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.1 Time varying magneting fields that penetrate the closed loops

As in fig.1.1.a, if the magnetic field increases with time, it induces a current in the wire
loop, and this current has a direction such that it induces another magnetic field that
tends to oppose the change in original magnetic field. If the original magnetic field decreases
with time as in fig.1.1.b, again a current is induced in the wire and this induced current
induces a magnetic field that is added to original magnetic field to oppose the decreasing
in original magnetic field. This means that the time varrying magnetic flux penetrating the
wire loop induces an electromotive force (emf) in the wire and this force drives the current. If
we open the loop as shown in fig.1.2, this emf appears in the form of separation of charges at
the terminals. The relationship between the polarity of the induced emf and the direction
of the current is given by Lenz's law: the emf induces a current in the closed loop of
wire, whose magnetic field opposes the change in the original magnetic field.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.2 Time varying magneting fields and induced emf

2
Faraday's law defines the relationship between the induced emf and the magnetic flux
penetrating the loop as

. (1.3)

Since the emf and total magnetic flux are given by

(1.4)

and

(1.5)

respectively, where contour c is around the loop and the open surface s is bounded by c. So
Faraday's law can be expressed as

. (1.6)

It is obvious that the negative sign enforces Lenz' law. Applying Stokes's theorem we can get
Faraday's law in differential form as follows:

and then

. (1.7)

Actually not only but the area (s) can change with time . Therefore the ordinary derivative
in (1.6) must be replaced by the partial derivative as

so (1.7) can be rearranged as

3
 (1.8)

Example 1.1: A square loop with sides 20x20 cm is located in free space adjacent to a straight
conductor that carries a sinusoidal current of 0.5 A at 5 kHz as shown in Fig 1.3. If a small
gap is introduced into the loop, determine the magnitude of the induced voltage across the gap

Figure 1.3

Solution: The form of the sinusoidal current;

and ;

and

A.

Using Ampere circuital law

and the total magnetic flux penetrating the area of the square loop:

The induced voltage then

4
so, the magnitude of the induced voltage is 1.011 mV.

Example 1.2: A pair of conducting rails has a shorting bar moving at velocity along the
rails, as shown in Fig 1.4. A steady and uniform magnetic flux density is directed out
of the page. Determine the voltage induced across the small gap a-b as shown.

Figure 1.4

Solution: The magnetic flux density is constant but the area of the rectangular loop is
changing with time. So the total flux penetrating the surface area of the loop is increasing with
time and therefore a voltage is induced across the gab a-b. Consider that the sliding bar is at a
position initially. After t seconds it moves to a new position . So the total flux
penetrating the surface of the loop will be

and ;

finally the induced voltage will be

Example 1.3: Consider a wire loop of width W and length L that is rotating in the presence of
a steady and uniform magnetic field given as

as shown in Fig 1.5. The loop has a resistor R inserted in it, rotates at a radian frequency of w,
and lies in the xz plane at t=0. Determine the current induced in the loop with the direction
shown.

Solution: The differential surface element of the rotating loop can be expressed in cylindrical
coordinates as

5
 .

so the total flux penetrating to the loop area

Figure 1.5

and the induced voltage;

The induced current will be in the given direction with a magnitude of

1.2 CONSERVATION of CHARGE

Charge can be neither created nor destroyed, it can only be transferred. This fact can be
expressed in the form of

. (1.9)

Equation (1.9) is known as continuity equation or equation of conservation of charge. Using

divergence theorem it can be represented in differential form as follows:

6
 . (1.10)

Continuity equation states that net outflow of current from a closed surface must result in a
decrease in the charge enclosed by that surface.

1.3 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

For static case Ampere's law in differential form has been obtained as

. (1.11)

Taking the divergence of both side of this equation

(1.12)

and using the vector identity for any vector

we can get that

. (1.13)

It is obvious that this is not true for time varying case according to equation (1.10). This
means that there is a missing term in equation (1.11) for time varying case. So, instead of
(1.13), let us use (from (1.10))

. (1.14)

So the right hand side of (1.12) will be

. (1.15)

Using Gauss's law defined by

in (1.15) one can get that:

or

7
 . (1.16)

Here is the conduction current density ( ), is the electric flux density vector and

(1.17)

is defined as the displacement current density. Note that the conduction and dispalacement
currents through a surface s can be defined as;

(1.18.a)

and

. (1.18.b)

Displacement current occurs in dielectric medium such as a dielectric between the plates of a
capacitor due to the continuous displacement of opposite charges on the plates.

Example 1.4: Find the conduction current in the conducting wire and displacement current
between the capacitor plates in the circuit given below if the capcitance of the capacitor is C.

Figure 1.6

Solution: From the terminal equation of capacitor, the conduction current can be found as;

where

8
Electric field intensity is the voltage per unit length, so;

and using constitutive equation in dielectric medium

Then, the displacement current density can be determined using (1.17) as

and the total displacement current wil be

; .

Example 1.5: Compare the conduction and displacement current densities in copper ( ,

and S/m) at a frequency of 1 MHz. Repeat for teflon ( ,

and ) at 1 MHz.

Solution: Since the electric field has a sinusoidal variation in the materials in the form of

where and . The conduction current density is

The displacement current density is

The ratio of the magnitude of these current densities will be

For copper, at 1 MHz

9
means that copper is a good conducting material especially at lower frequencies. Due to this
extremely large ratio, the displacement current can be neglected for copper. For teflon at 1
MHz

means that, teflon is a good insulating material at 1 MHz and the conduction current can be
neglected in this case.

1.4 SUMMARY of MAXWELL's EQUATIONS

Integral Form Differential Form

(1.19.a)

(1.19.b)

(1.19.c)

(1.19.d)

The constitutive equations for linear, homogeneous and isotropic media are given as follows;

(1.20.a)

(1.20.b)

(1.20.c)

Then, Maxwell's equations can be rearranged as

(1.21.a)

(1.21.b)

(1.21.c)

10
 (1.21.d)

Example 1.6: The electric field component of an electromagnetic wave in free space is given
as

Determine the associated magnetic field .

Solution: From (1.21.a) we have

Since, and and is a function of only z-coordinate, so the last expression

can be reduced to

So by integrating both side of this equation with respect to t and dividing bay

for free space then

1.5 POTENTIALS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Complete description of an electromagnetic field can be obtained by solving Maxwell's

equations. It is often convenient to reduce the number of equations by introducing new
quantities called electromagnetic potentials. We have already adopted this technique in the
treatment of static fields. The electrostatic fields was expressed in terms of scalar potentials

11
 and the magnetic field in terms of a vector potential . We will now
consider potentials in electromagnetic fields when both electric and magnetic fields are time
varying.

In time varying case, from (1.19.d)

(1.22)

so can be expressed in terms of vector potential as

(1.23)

Using (1.23) in (1.19.a)

or

. (1.24)

Since the curl of gradient of a scalar function is always zero ( ) means that the
term in the brackets in (1.24) can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar function :

(1.25)

and then

. (1.26)

It is obvious that once and are determined, and can be found using (1.23) and
(1.26). These potentials can be determined as

(1.27)

(1.28)

Now let us substitute (1.23) and (1.26) into (1.19.b) using and as

12
 (1.29)

since

(vector identity)

and then (1.29) becames

or

. (1.30)

Here we have one equation and two quantities, therefore an infinite number of sets of these
quantities satisfy this equation, but only one of them will be the solution if we consider that

(Lorentz condition) (1.31)

In this case (1.30) is reduced to the form of

. (1.32)

This is the nonhomogeneous wave equation for magnetic vector potential . Now let us cu
web

substitute (1.26) into (1.19.c) with :

13
or

and using (1.31)

or

(1.33)

is derived. This is the nonhomogeneous wave equation for scalar potential . Note that both
(1.32) and (1.33) have the same form, so the solutions will be in the same form with different
constant coefficients.

1.6 SOLUTIONS OF WAVE EQUATIONS FOR POTENTIALS

Consider a point charge located at the origin, then the potentials will change only with respect
to the radial distance and time due to the symmetry (but not with and ), so except at the
origin (1.33) is reduced to

where

and

. (1.34)

Defining a new function such that

(1.34) can be reduced to

14
 . (1.35)

The solutions of this second order partial derivatives can be any functions of arguments of

and as

(1.36.a)

and

. (1.36.b)

Exercise: consider that where is a constant and satisfy (1.35)

In equations (1.23.a) and (1.36.b) as t increase the term must increase in the same way
such that the difference must be kept constant, ie:

and this condition is satisfied if

or

. (1.37)

Here is the velocity, means that both (1.36.a) and (1.36.b) represents waves propagating
in negative and positive directions respectively with a velocity of . For instance for
free space

F/m and H/m

So, the propagation velocity in free space is

m/s

1.7 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

15
Boundary conditions in static cases are also valid in time varying case; Consider the interface
between two medium shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7 Tangential components of the field

Here , and , are the tangential components of the electric and magnetic fields
respectively in medium 1 and medium 2. The tangential components of the electric field is
continuous:

(1.38.a)

Instead of (1.38.a) we can express this relation using the total fields in these media if the unit
surface vector considered from medium 1 to medium 2 as shown in fig 1.7 as;

(1.38.b)

since

The normal components of the displacement vector is discontinuous and the discontinuity of
the displacement vector equals to surface charge density;

(1.38.c)

or

(1.38.d)

since

16
The tangential components of the magnetic field intensity vector is discontinuous and the
discontinuity of the magnetic field intensity vector equals to surface current density;

(1.39.a)

or

. (1.39.b)

Finally, the normal component of the magnetic flux density is continuous;

(1.39.c)

or

. (1.39.d)

If medium 1 is a perfectly conducting medium then both of time varying magnetic and electric
fields are vanish;

If and

and (1.38) and (1.39) are reduced to the following forms in this case:

(1.40.a)

(1.40.b)

(1.41.a)

(1.41.b)

1.8 POWER FLOW and POYNTING VECTOR

The unit for is V/m and the unit for is A/m, so the unit of the product of these two
2
quantities will be W/m , represents the power per unit area. Let us define a new vector as

(W/m2) (1.42)

where is given the name of Poynting vector and the direction of Poynting vector is
perpendicular to the plane containing and .

Let us investigate the divergence of (1.42) using the vector identity

17
 (1.43)

as

. (1.44)

Substituting (1.19.a) and (1.19.b) into (1.44) yields

(1.45)

or

(1.46)

which is known as the point form of Poynting's theorem Integrating both sides of (1.46) over
a volume enclosed by the surface

and applying the divergence theorem on the left hand side we get the integral form of
Poynting's theorem; that is,

. (1.47)

The term on the left hand side is the net inward flux of into the volume . For the first term
on the right hand side, using (1.20.c)

and

(1.48)

one can get that

(1.49)

18
which indicates an ohmic power dissipation in the volume due to the conductivity of the
medium. For the second integral on the right hand side of (1.47) using (1.20.a) and (1.20.b)

(1.50)

and similarly

. (1.51)

Here

(1.52.a)

(1.52.b)

are the electric and magnetic energy densities in the field respectively. So (1.50) and (1.51)
represent the time rate of change of energy stored in the field:

Thus, Poynting's theorem states that the net inward flux of the poynting vector through a
closed surface is the sum of the power dissipated in the volume enclosed by the surface and
the rate of change of energy stored in the volume.

Example 1.7: An antenna in free space is centered at the origin of the spherical coordinate
system, as shown in Fig. 1.8. The fields produced by the antenna at a radial distance are
given by

Determine the Poynting vector and the total average power leaving (or radiated by) the
antenna.

19
 Figure 1.8 Radiating antenna

Solution:

The power leaving the antenna can be evaluated choosing a spherical surface with a radius
is ( )

20
The average power is obtained by time averaging radiated power over one period of the
sinusoid:

1.9 THE SINUSOIDAL STEADY STATE

If the time variation is sinusoidal, the field vector can be written in phasor forms which
provides a considerable simplification in mathematical evaluation. Let us consider the electric
field intensity vector in terms of its components as

. (1.53)

Suppose each of these components has a sinusoidal time variation of the form

(1.54.a)

(1.54.b)

. (1.54.c)

Here, the magnitudes , , and phase angles , , are independent of time but
may depend on the coordinates, for instance; and . So, the phasors for
each component will be

(1.55.a)

(1.55.b)

. (1.55.c)

The time domain expression for each component can be found from the phasors by
multiplying and taking the real part of the result:

21
 . (1.56)

Then the complete field vector can be written in a similar manner as

. (1.57)

So the phasor of the complete field vector will be

. (1.58)

From (1.57), we easily conclude that the time dependence of the fields are in the form of ,

means that, the time derivatives in Maxwell's equations correspond to multiplication by if

these equation are expressed in phasor domain:

(1.59)

For instance for the first Maxwell's equation:

in time domain.

If the time variation is sinusoidal then using corresponding phasors, given as;

and

this equation can be represented as

22
So the Maxwell's equations in phasor domain can be expressed as

Integral Forms Point Forms

(1.60.a)

(1.60.b)

(1.60.c)

(1.60.d)

And for simple media (linear, homogeneous, isotropic)

Integral Forms Point Forms

(1.61.a)

(1.61.b)

(1.61c)

(1.61.d)

Example 1.8: The electric field component of an electromagnetic wave in free space is given
as

Determine the associated magnetic field using phasor concept.

Solution: The phasor of the given electric field intensity vector is

and from (1.61.a) we have that

23
 ;

and the time domain expression will be;

In time domain Poynting vector represents the instantaneous power density;

(instantaneous power density)

So the time average power density is defined as the time integral of poynting vector over one
complete cycle:

. (1.62)

In phasor domain the phasor poynting vector is defined as

(1.63)

and the time average power density is defined as

(1.64)

Example 1.9: The field vectors of an electromagnetic wave in free space is given as

where and MHz. Determine the direction of power flow and the time
average power crossing the surface area bounded by m, , and .

Solution: The phasors of the fields:

24
So

and similarly,

; and then

The phasor poynting vector is

so the power flow is in negative direction. The time average power density vector is

The time average power crossing the defined surface is

25