PHYSICS

SECTION -A
EXPERIMENT – 1
Aim: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.
Apparatus: A metallic conductor (coil or a resistance wire), a battery, one way key, a voltmeter, and an ammeter of
appropriate range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper, a scale.

V
Formulae Used: The resistance (R) of the given wire (resistance coil) is obtained by Ohm’s Law =R
I
Where, V: Potential difference between the ends of the given resistance coil. (Conductor)
I: Current flowing through it.
R
If l is the length of resistance wire, then resistance per cm of the wire =
l
Observation:
(i) Range:
Range of given voltmeter = 3 v
Range of given ammeter = 500 mA

(ii) Least count:

Least count of voltmeter = 0.05v
Least count of ammeter = 10 mA
(iii) Zero error:
Zero error in ammeter, e1 = 0
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 = 0
Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:
Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading, V (v) V
Sr. No. Observed =R
Value Observed Value I
1 50 500 mA 16 16x0.05=0.8 1.6 
2 35 350 mA 11 0.55 1.57 
3 32 320 mA 10 0.50 1.56 
4 19 190 mA 6 0.30 1.58 
5 10 100 mA 3 0.15 1.5 
Mean R = 1.56
Length of resistance wire: 28 cm
Graph between potential difference & current:

Scale: X – axis : 1 cm = 0.1 V of potential difference

Y – axis: 1 cm = 0.1 A of current
The graph comes out to be a straight line.

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Result: It is found that the ratio V/I is constant, hence current voltage relationship is established i.e. V  I or Ohm’s
Law is verified.
Unknown resistance per cm of given wire = 5.57 x 10-2  cm-1
Precautions: Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
• The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
Source of Error: Rheostat may have high resistance.
The instrument screws may be loose.

EXPERIMENT – 2
Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using Whetstone’s bridge (meter bridge) & hence determine the specific
resistance of the material.
Apparatus: A meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a laclanche cell, a jockey, a one-
way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, meter scale, set square, connecting wires and sandpaper.

Formulae Used:
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by:
(100 − l)
X= R Where,
l

R = known resistance placed in left gap.

X = Unknown resistance in right gap of meter bridge.
l=length of meter bridge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm)
XD2
(ii) Specific resistance (  ) of the material of given wire is given 
= 4L
Where,

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D: Diameter of given wire L: Length of given wire.

Observation Table for length (l) & unknown resistance, X:

Resistance from Unknown Resistance
Sr. Length Length (100 − l)
resistance box
No. AB = l cm BC = (100-l) cm X = R. 
R (ohm) l
1 2 41 59 2.87
2 4 60 40 2.66
3 6 69 31 2.69
4 8 76 24 2.52
Table for diameter (D) of the wire:
Circular Scale Reading
Observed diameter
Sr. Linear Scale No. of circular
Value D = N + n x L.C.
No. Reading (N) mm scale divisions
n x (L.C.) mm mm
coinciding (n)
1 0 34 0.34 0.34
2 0 35 0.35 0.35
3 0 36 0.36 0.36
4 0 35 0.35 0.35
Observations:
• Least count of screw gauge: 0.001 cm
Pitch of screw gauge: 0.1 cm
Total no. of divisions on circular scale: 100
Pitch
Least Count =
No. of divisions on circular scale

LC = 0.001 cm
• Length of given wire, L = 25cm
Calculation:
• For unknown resistance, X:
X1 + X2 + X3 + X4
Mean X = = 2.68
4

D1 + D2 + D3 + D4
• Mean diameter, D = = 0.035 cm
4
D2
• Specific Resistance,  = X . =1.0310−4  cm
4L

Result: Value of unknown resistance = 2.68 

Specific resistance of material of given wire =1.0310−4  cm
Precautions: All plugs in resistance box should be tight. Plug in key, K should be inserted only while taking
observations.
Sources of Error: Plugs may not be clean.
Instrument screws maybe loose.

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 EXPERIMENT – 3
Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series & parallel) of resistances using meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge)
Apparatus: A meter bridge, laclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set
square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Resistance
Length Resistance
from Mean
Resistant Length BC = 100 – l 100 − l
Obs. No. resistance r= .R Resistant
Coil AB = l (cm) (cm)
box, l (ohm)
R (ohm)
1 0.5 35 65 0.92
r1 only 2 1.0 43 57 1.32 1.24
3 1.5 50 50 1.5
1 0.5 30 70 1.16
r2 only 2 1.0 38 62 1.63 1.51
3 1.5 46 54 1.76
1 1.3 34 66 2.52
r1 & r2 in
2 2.2 45 55 2.68 2.72
series
3 3.5 54 46 2.97

Calculations:
(i) In Series: Experimental value of RS = 2.72 
Theoretical value of RS = r1 + r2 = 2.75 
Result: Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of RS are same. Hence the law of
resistance in series i.e. RS = r1 + r2 is verified. (1) Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical
r1r2
values of RP are same. Hence law of resistances in parallel i.e. RS = is verified.
r1 + r2

Observations:
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Precautions:
(i) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ii) Move the jockey gently over the wire & don’t rub it.
(iii) All plugs in resistant box should be tight.
Sources of Error:
(i) The plugs may not be clean.
(ii) The instrument screws maybe loose.

EXPERIMENT –4
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000  and 500
 ), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper.

Formulae Used:
(i) The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method:
R. S
G=
R−S
Where R: resistance connected in series with the galvanometer
S: shunt resistance

E
(ii) Figure of merit: k =
(R + G) 
Where E : emf of the cell
 : deflection produced with resistance R.

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Calculation: Mean G = 70.8 

(i) For G : Calculate G using formula.

Take mean of all values of G recorded in table.
(ii) For k: Calculate k using formula & record in table.
Take mean of values of k.
Result:
(i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half – deflection method:
G = 70.8 
(ii) Figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10-5 A/div
Precautions:
(i) All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
(ii) The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
(iii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit. Otherwise for small
resistance, an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter & damage them.
Sources of error:
(i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean.
(ii) The screws of the instruments maybe loose.
(iii) The emf of the battery may not be constant.

SECTION - B

EXPERIMENT –5
Aim: To find the value of v for different values of ‘u’ in case of a concave mirror & to find its focal length.
Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights. Concave mirror, a mirror holder, two optical needles, a knitting
needle & a half – meter scale.

Formulae Used: The mirror formula is:

1 1 1
= +
f u v
uv
We have, f =
u+v
Where, f = focal length of concave mirror.
u = distance of object needle from pole of mirror.
v = distance of image needle from pole of mirror.
Observation:
Rough focal length of given concave mirror = 10.9 cm
Actual length of the knitting needle, x = 15 cm
Observed distance between the mirror & object needle when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15.2 cm.
Observed distance between the mirror & image needle when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 15.8 cm.
Index error for u, e1 = y – x = – 0.2 cm
Index error for v, e2 = z – x = – 0.8 cm
Position Corrected Distance
Sr. 1/ u 1/v
Concave Object Image PO PI
No. (cm-1) (cm-1)
Mirror P (cm) Needle O Needle I u cm v cm
1 0.0 18 26 17.8 25.2 0.056 0.037
2 0.0 17 30.3 16.8 29.5 0.06 0.034
3 0.0 16 33.4 15.8 32.6 0.063 0.031
4 0.0 26 18 25.8 17.2 0.038 0.058
5 0.0 30.3 17 30.1 16.2 0.033 0.061
6 0.0 33.4 16 33.2 15.2 0.030 0.065
Calculations:
(i) u – v graph:
Explanation: from mirror formula applied to point A:
1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 2 2 u v
As u = v, = or and f = or

f u v 2 2
− OD − 21
Hence, f = = = −10.5 cm

2 2
Graph Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of u
Y’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of v
− OB
Also f = = −10.5cm
2

Mean value of f = -10.5 cm

1 1
(ii) and graph :
u v

−1 −1
The focal length, f = = = −10.47cm

OA OB
1
Graph Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of
u
1
Y’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm of -1

v
Result: The focal length of the given concave mirror:
(i) From u – v graph is : f = –10.5 cm
1 1
(ii) From − graph is: f = –10.47 cm
u v
Precautions:
(i) The uprights should be vertical.
(ii) Tip-to-tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of needle O.
(iii) To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle.
Sources of Error: * The uprights may not be vertical. * Parallax removal may not be perfect.
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 EXPERIMENT – 6
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph:
(i) between u and v (ii) between 1/u and 1/v

Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens, lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needles & a
half-metre scale.

Formula Used:
The relation between u, v and f for convex lens is:
1 1 1
= −
f v u
Where f: focal length of convex lens
u: distance of object needle from lens’ optical center.v: distance of image needle from lens’ optical center.

Observations:
(i) Rough focal length of the lens = 10 cm
(ii) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.
(iii) Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15.2 cm.
(iv) Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 14.1 cm.
(v) Index correction for the object distance u, x – y = – 0.2 cm
(vi) Index correction for the image distance v, x – z = +0.9 cm
Observation Table:

Position of: (cm)

S. No. Object Image u (cm) v (cm) 1/v (cm-1) 1/u (cm-1)
Lens
needle needle
1 66 50 26 16 24 0.041 0.062
2 67 50 27 17 23 0.043 0.058
3 68 50 28 18 22 0.045 0.055
4 70 50 30 20 20 0.05 0.05
5 75 50 33 23 17 0.058 0.043
6 80 50 34 24 16 0.062 0.041

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Calculation of focal length by graphical method:
(i) u – v graph: The graph is a rectangular hyperbola:
Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of u
Y’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of v
AB = AC = 2f or OC = OB = 2f
OB
f = and also f = OC
2 2

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Mean value of f = 10.1 cm.
1 1
(ii) − graph :The graph is a straight line.
u v

1
Scale; X’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of
u
1
Y’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of
v
1 1
Focal length, f = = = 10.2cm.
OP OQ
Result:

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 (i) From u-v graph is, f = 10.1 cm

1 1
(ii) From − graph is, f = 10.2 cm
u v
Precautions:
(i) Tips of object & image needles should be at the same height as the centre of the lens.
(ii) Parallax should be removed from tip-to-tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm. away from the needle.
(iii) The image & the object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.

EXPERIMENT – 7
Aim: To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights, a convex lens (less focal length), a concave lens (more focal length),
two lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needle & a half – metre scale.

Formulae Used: From lens formula, we have:

uv
f =
u −v
Observations:
Actual length of knitting needle, x= 15 cm.
Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15 cm.
Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 15 cm.
Index correction for u = x – y = 0 cm
Index correction for v = x – z = 0 cm
Observation Table:
Position of (cm) uv
S. No. u = IL2 v = I’L2 f=
0 (cm) L1 at O1 I L2 I’ u−v
1 29 50 75 69 78 6.0 9.0 –18.0
2 27 50 71.5 65 77.5 6.5 12.5 –13.54
3 25 50 70.5 65 72.8 5.5 7.8 –18.64
4 28 50 71.3 63 71.2 8.3 8.2 –17.45

Calculations:

Mean f =
f1 + f2 + f3 + f4
4

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= – 16.9 cm  -17cm.
Result: The focal length of given concave lens = – 17 cm.
Precautions:
(i) The lenses must be clean.
(ii) A bright image should be formed by lens combination.
(iii) Focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of the concave lens, so that the combination is
convex.

EXPERIMENT – 8
Aim: To draw the I – V characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward bias & reverse bias.
Apparatus: A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a three volt battery, a high resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter (0-
3v), a milli ammeter (0-.30 mA), one – way key, connecting wires.

Observations:
Least count of voltmeter = 0.02 & 1 v/div Zero error = –
Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.2 mA/div Zero error = –
Least count of micro-ammeter = 2  A/div Zero error = –
Observation Table:
Forward Bias Voltage Forward Current Reverse bias Voltage Reverse Current
S. No.
(V) (mA) (V) (  A)
1 10 x 0.02 = 0.20 2 x 0.2 = 0.4 10 x 1 = 10 5 x 2 = 10
2 0.30 4 x 0.2 = 0.8 15 16
3 0.40 6 x 0.2 = 1.6 20 22
4 0.50 11 x 0.2 = 2.2 25 30
5 0.60 18 x 0.2 = 3.6 30 38
6 0.70 23 x 0.2 = 4.6 35 48
7 0.80 31 x 0.2 = 6.2 40 60
8 0.90 39 x 0.2 = 7.8 45 72

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Calculations:
Graph is plotted between forward – bias voltage (VF) (on x-axis) and forward current, IF (on y – axis)
Scale: X – axis: 1 cm = V of VF Y – axis: 1 cm = mA of IF
Graph is plotted between reverse bias voltage, VR (along X’ axis) and reverse current, IR (along Y’ axis).
Scale: X’ axis = 1 cm = V of VR Y’ axis = 1 cm = A of IF
Result: The obtained curves are the characteristics curves of the semi-conductor diode.
Precautions:
(i) All connections should be neat, clean & tight. (ii) Key should be used in circuit & opened when the circuit is not
being used. (iii) Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Sources of error: The junction diode supplied maybe faulty.

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