ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Mrs. Ketna Chauhan, My

Chemistry Teacher, for her invaluable guidance, insights, and support
throughout the development of this project on the Rusting of iron. Her
expertise has greatly deepened my understanding of complex chemistry
concepts. I am also grateful to our Principal, Mr. Nirali Pareek, for
fostering a supportive academic environment that encourages research
and exploration. Their dedication to student learning has been invaluable,
allowing me to broaden my knowledge and confidence in chemistry. This
project would not have been possible without their unwavering support

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 MECHANISM OF RUSTING

OVERVIEW — The theory of rust can be explained by taking the example of

rusting of iron. The theory is called electrochemical theory because it
explains the formation of rust on the basis of formation of electrochemical
cells on the surface of the metal.

The overall rusting involves the following steps:

(i) Oxidation occurs at the anodes of each electrochemical cell. Therefore, at
each anode neutral iron atoms are oxidised to ferrous ions. At anode:
Fe(s) → Fe2+(Aq) + 2e−
Thus, the metal atoms in the lattice pass into the solution as ions, leaving
electrons on the metal itself. These electrons move towards the cathode
region through the metal.

(ii) At the cathodes of each cell, the electrons are taken up by hydrogen ions
(reduction takes place). The ions are obtained either from water or from acidic
substances (e.g., CO2 in water).
H2O →H+ + OH- or CO2 + H20 → H+ + HCO-3
At cathode:
H+ + e - → H
The hydrogen atoms on the iron surface reduce dissolved oxygen,
4H + 02 → 2H20
Therefore, the overall reaction at cathode of different electrochemical cells may be
written as,
4H+ + O2 + 4e- → 2H20

(iii)The overall redox reaction may be written by multiplying reaction at

anode by
2 and adding reaction at cathode to equalise number of electrons lost and
gained -
Oxidation half reaction:
Fe (s) → Fe2+(Aq) + 2e- ] *2 ( E= -0.44V)
Reduction half reaction

4H+ + O2 + 4e- → 2H20 (E=1.23V)

Overall cell reaction:
2Fe(s) + 4H+ + O2 → 2Fe2+(Aq) + 2H2O (Ecell= 1.67V)
The ferrous ions are oxidised further by atmospheric oxygen to form rust.

4Fe2+(Aq) + 02(g) + 4H20 → 2Fe203 + 8H+

Fe2O3 + xH2O→ Fe2O3.xH20
It may be noted that salt water accelerates corrosion, this is mainly due to the fact
that salt water increases the electrical conduction of electrolyte solution formed on
the metal surface. Therefore, rusting becomes more serious problem where salt water
is present.

Schema tic representation of mechanism of rusting of iron

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 RUSTING IN NON-METALS

INTRODUCTION — Corrosion is often thought of as the oxidation of metals

such as iron, but ceramics also corrode, or react with their environment,
Concrete; for example, generally is very stable, but it contains calcium
hydroxide and calcium aluminate, which are attacked by sulphates, such as
calcium sulphate often present in ground water. Tungsten carbide, usually
highly resistant to corrosion, is destroyed in less than a week of contact with
sulphuric acid, 1-12S04.
CERAMICS - Most of the ceramic’s material are almost immune to corrosion.
The strong ionic/covalent bonds that hold them together leave very little free
chemical energy in the structure. So, they can be thought of as already
corroded.
An example of corrosion protection in ceramics is the lime added to soda-lime glass
to reduce its solubility in water.
POLYMERS • Corrosion on polymers, both plastics and rubber materials, is in
many cases similar to metals but in other cases it looks very different.
Corrosion attacks on polymers are often hard to discover, the material may look
normal but can in fact be embrittled and have lost its mechanical strength.
Mechanical stressed polymers applied in chemical environments may initiate cracks
on the surfaces. These cracks can thereafter propagate through the material either as a
result of the mechanical stresses or in combination with continuing chemical attack.
Corrosion Of polymers can be divided into either chemical reaction or physical
interaction.

CHEMICAL REACTION: Polymers consist of a network with molecular

chains mainly consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Corrosion by chemical
reaction changes the configuration of the polymer chains. Listed below are some of
the environments that cause chemical reactions in polymers.
1, Heat: Chain scission will occur when polymers are exposed to heat above a specified
temperature limit, which is unique for each type of polymer.
 2 UV- radiation: In the presence of oxygen, LIV-radiation can

cause breakdown of the polymer chains.

3, Ozone; Attacks from ozone on unsaturated polymers (e.g., natural rubber) under
stress, causes Characteristic tracks.
4. Wilier: Absorption of water at elevated temperatures causes hydrolysis of certain
groups in a polymer chain (e.g., urethane and ester groups). Hydrolysis weakens the
polymer since the backbone Structure is altered.

PHYSICAL INTERACTIONS - Physical effects on polymers are caused by

interaction with the environment. This may lead to swelling» dissolving or leakage of
additives. The interaction is dependent on diffusion of substances into the polymer,
and the process is in some cases reversible.

Organic substances usually affect polymers through physical interaction, while

substances like strong acids or bases normally result in an irreversible breakdown of
polymers.

RUSTED GLASS
 RUSTED GLASS

PREVENTION OF RUSTING IN GLASS. Laboratory scale procedures and

practical tests were used to study the problem of glass ware corrosion
(Permanent Filling) in domestic mechanical dishwashers. Result of these tests
showed glassware corrosion to be caused by alkali attack of the glass structure,
It was also found that sequestrates such a sodium triphosphates greatly
accelerate the corrosive action Of alkali, Silicates, certain metals and metal
oxides Were found to inhibit glassware corrosion. The basis for this inhibiting
effect is believed to be adsorption on the glass surface of reaction products of
these materials in an alkaline solution.
 EXPERIMENT - RUSTION OF IRON NAIL

OBJECTIVE: TO STUDY THE EFFECT OF METAL

COUPLING ON RUSTING OF IRON,

AIM —In this project the aim is to investigate effect of the metals coupling on
the rusting of iron. Metal coupling affects the rusting of iron. If the nail is
coupled with a more electro-positive metal like zinc, magnesium or aluminium
rusting is prevented but if on the other hand it is coupled with less electro —
positive metals like copper, the rusting is facilitated,

Potassium hexacyanoferrate(lll) solution

Phenolphthalein indicator

APPARATUS - COUPLING ON RUSTING OF IRON

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 EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENTS
1 Two Petri dishes

2 Four test-tube

3 Four iron nails

4 Beaker

5 Sand paper

6 Wire gauge

7 Gelatine

8 Copper, Zinc and Magnesium strips

9 Potassium ferricyanide solutions

10 Phenolphthalein
 Phenolphth Potassium Ferricyanide Solution
alein

PROCEDURE

1, At first, we have to clean the surface of iron nails with the help of sand paper.
2. After that we have to wind zinc strip around one nail, a clean copper wire
around the second and clean magnesium strip around the third nail. Then to
put all these three and a fourth nail in Petri dishes so that they are not in
contact with each other
3. Then to fill the Petri dishes with hot agar-agar solution in such a way that only
lower half of the nails are covered with the liquids 4, Keep the covered Petri
dishes for one day or so.
5. The liquids set to a gel on cooling. Two types of patches are observed around
the rusted nail, one is blue and the other pink blue patch is due to the
formation of potassium Ferro ferricyanide where pink patch is due to the
formation of hydroxyl ions which turns colourless phenolphthalein to pink.

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 OBSERVATION TABLE

S.N METAL PAIR COLOUR NAIL RUSTS

O OF PATCH OR NOT

1 IRON- ZINC PINK NO

2 IRON- MAGNESIUM PINK NO

3 IRON. COPPER BLUE YES

CONCLUSION

It is clear from the observation that coupling of iron with more

electropositive metals such as zinc and magnesium resists corrosion and
rusting of iron. Coupling of iron with less electropositive metals such as
copper increases rusting

FACTORS PROMOTING RUSTING

Four elements need to be present for corrosion to occur and collectively
referred to as the corrosion cell: an anode a cathode G), a metallic conductor
and an electrolyte, Changing the potency of the electrolyte affects the rate of
corrosion. Corrosion rates are determined by a variety of factors: however. five
factors do play an overwhelmingly important role in determining corrosion
rates.
Oxygen: Like water, oxygen increases the rate of corrosion, Corrosion can take
place in an oxygen-deficient environment, but the rate of the corrosion reaction
(and destruction of the metal) is generally much slower. In immersed
conditions, if an electrolyte is in contact with one area of metal containing more
oxygen than the electrolyte in contact with another area of the metal, the higher
oxygen concentration area is cathodic relative to the remaining surface. An
oxygen concentration cell then forms, which results in rapid corrosion.
Temperature: Corrosion reactions are electrochemical in nature and usually
accelerate d with increasing temperature; therefore, corrosion proceeds faster in
warmer environments than in cooler ones,
Chemical Salts: Chemical salts increase the rate of corrosion by increasing the
efficiency (conductivity) of the electrolyte. The most common chemical salt is
sodium chloride, a major element of seawater. Sodium chloride deposited on
atmospherically exposed surfaces also acts as a hygroscopic material it extracts
moisture from the air), which then increases the corrosion in non-immersed
areas.
Humidity: Humidity and time-of-wetness playa large role in promoting and
accelerating corrosion rates, Time-of-wetness refers to the length of time an
atmospherically exposed stipitate has sufficient moisture to support the
corrosion process. The wetter the environment, the more corrosion is likely
to occur,
Pollutants: Acid rain (a chemical by-product from manufacturing and
processing plants), and chlorides (in coastal areas) promote corrosion. Acid
gases, such as carbon dioxide, can also dissolve in a film of moisture in contact
with the metal.

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METHODS OF PREVENTION OF RUSTING
11 Barrier Coatings - One of the easiest and cheapest ways to prevent corrosion
is to use barrier coatings like paint, plastic, Or powder. Powders, including
epoxy, nylon, and urethane, are heated to the metal surface to create a thin film,
Plastic and waxes are often sprayed onto metal surfaces. Paint acts as a coating
to protect the metal surface from the electrochemical charge that comes from
corrosive compounds. Today’s paint systems are actually a combination of
different paint layers that serve different functions. The primer coat acts as an
inhibitor, the intermediate coat adds to the paint's overall thickness, and the
finish coat provides resistance to the environmental factors.

2. Hot-Dip Galvanization. This corrosion prevention method involves dipping

Steel into molten Zinc. The iron in the Steel reacts With the Zinc to create a
tightly-bonded alloy coating which serves as protection. The process has been
around for more than 250 years and has been used for corrosion protection of
things like artistic sculptures and playground equipment. Compared to other
corrosion prevention methods, galvanization is known for lower initial costs,
sustainability and versatility

Alloyed Steel (Stainless) - Alloyed steel is one of the most effective corrosion
prevention methods around. combining the properties of various metals to
provide added strength and resistance to the resulting product, Corrosion
resistant nickel, for example, combined with oxidation-resistant chromium
results in an alloy that can be used in oxidized and reduced chemical
environments. Different alloys provide resistance to different conditions, giving
companies greater flexibility.

4. Cathodic Protection • Cathodic protection protects against galvanic

corrosion, which occurs when two different metals are put together and exposed
to a corrosive electrolyte. To prevent this, the active sites on the metal surface
need to be converted to passive sites by providing electrons from another
source, typically with galvanic anodes attached on or near the surface. Metals
used for anodes include aluminium magnesium, or zinc
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.www.wikipedia.org
2.www.icbse.com
3.www.slidepedia.com