Aerial Photogrammetry

Five (5) Continuing Education Hours

Course #LS1006

Approved Continuing Education for Licensed Professional Engineers

& Land Surveyors

EZ-pdh.com
Ezekiel Enterprises, LLC
301 Mission Dr. Unit 571
New Smyrna Beach, FL 32170
800-433-1487
[email protected]
Aerial Photogrammetry Ezekiel Enterprises, LLC

Course Description:
The Aerial Photogrammetry course satisfies five (5) hours of
professional development.
The course is designed as a distance learning course that presents an
overview of aerial photogrammetry for licensed land surveyors and
professional engineers.

Objectives:
The primary objective of this course is to enable the student to
understand procedural guidance, technical specifications, and
quality control (QC) criteria for performing aerial
photogrammetric mapping activities.

Grading:
Students must achieve a minimum score of 70% on the online quiz
to pass this course. The quiz may be taken as many times as
necessary to successful pass and complete the course.
A copy of the quiz questions are attached to last pages of this
document.

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Table of Contents
Aerial Photogrammetry

Fundamentals of Photogrammetry ................................... 1

Project Specifications ...................................................... 14

Aerial Photogrammetric Project Planning .................... 21

Ground Control ............................................................... 32

Aerial Image Acquisition ................................................ 45

Aerial Triangulation (AT) ............................................... 51

Digital Photogrammetric Mapping Workflow .............. 53

Quiz Questions ................................................ 57

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Aerial Photogrammetry

Fundamentals of Photogrammetry. Photogrammetry can be defined as the science and art of

determining qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects from the images recorded on
photographs, whether hardcopy film or digital imagery. Objects are identified and qualitatively
described by observing photographic image characteristics such as shape, pattern, tone, and
texture. Identification of deciduous versus coniferous trees, delineation of geologic landforms,
and inventories of existing land use are examples of qualitative observations obtained from
photography. The quantitative characteristics of objects such as size, orientation, and position
are determined from measured image positions in the image plane of the camera taking the
photography. Tree heights, stockpile volumes, topographic maps, and horizontal and vertical
coordinates of unknown points are examples of quantitative measurements obtained from
photography. The purpose of this section is to review the basic geometry of aerial photography
and the elements of photogrammetry that form the foundation of photogrammetric solutions.
Comparisons are also provided between analog, analytical and digital photogrammetry.

a. Principles of Photogrammetry. Aerial photogrammetry enables the accurate mapping of

3D coordinates on the ground, using 2D coordinates measured on stereo aerial photographs that
see the same points on the ground from two or more different perspectives. Figure 1-1 illustrates
how 3D ground coordinates of point P can be determined photogrammetrically from 2D photo
coordinates of p1 and p2 measured on a
pair of stereo aerial photographs. In
this figure, f is the focal length of the
camera lens; o1 and o2 show the
locations of the focal point of the
camera lens when photographs 1 and 2
were taken; x1 and x2 depict the
direction of flight at the moment each
image was acquired and establish the
x-axes on the stereo photographs; y1
and y2 show the cross-flight directions
and establish the y-axes on the stereo
photographs; and p1 and p2 show the
locations where point P is imaged on Figure 1-1. Principles of photogrammetry – how 2-D
the two photographs. The photo measurements of points p1 and p2 on stereo photographs
coordinate system establishes x1 and y1 enable the 3-D mapping of point P on the ground.
photo coordinates of point p1 on the left image as well as the x2 and y2 photo coordinates of point
p2 on the right image. The main point to remember from this brief summary of photogrammetry
is that the light ray projecting from o1 through p1 (inside the camera for the left image) to P (on
the ground), and the light ray projecting from o2 through p2 (inside the camera for the right

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image) to P (on the ground), will never intersect at P (to determine its X/Y/Z coordinates on the
ground) unless there is (1) good interior orientation that defines the geometric parameters of the
imaging process inside the camera and (2) good exterior orientation that defines the accurate 3D
position in the air for the camera lens’ focal point (x/y/z coordinates of points o1 and o2) as well
as the accurate angular orientation (roll, pitch and yaw) of the aircraft and camera when each
photo or digital image was acquired. Camera calibration establishes the interior orientation
parameters for each lens cone of a metric camera, and aerial triangulation (AT) establishes the
exterior orientation parameters for each photograph or digital image as well as absolute
orientation of all stereo models to fit ground control. A metric camera is constructed so its
image characteristics remain stable, i.e., camera calibration parameters do not change over time.
Metric cameras must be consistently spatially accurate; they are essential for most
photogrammetric projects and are much more expensive than non-metric cameras. This chapter
focuses on aerial photogrammetry with cameras pointing in the near-nadir (vertical) direction
rather than oblique or horizontal directions.

b. Geometry of Aerial Photography. The front nodal point of the camera lens is defined as
the exposure station of the photograph (see points o1 and o2 in Figure 1-1). The nodal points are
those points in the camera lens system where any light ray entering the lens and passing through
the front nodal point will emerge from the rear nodal point travelling parallel to the incident light
ray. Therefore, the photograph can be shown on the object side of the camera lens, positioned
such that the object point, the image point, and the exposure station all lie on the same straight
line. The line through the lens nodal points and perpendicular to the image plane intersects the
image plane at the principal point, shown in Figure 1-1 as the origin of the x/y axes on the two
images. The distance measured from the rear nodal point to the negative principal point or from
the front nodal point to the positive principal point is equal to the focal length (f) of the camera
lens.

(1) Vertical Aerial Photography. Vertical photographs, exposed with the optical axis vertical
or as nearly vertical as possible, are the principal kind of photographs used for mapping. If the
optical axis is perfectly vertical, the resulting photograph is termed a "truly vertical" photograph.
In spite of the precautions taken to maintain the vertical camera axis, small tilts are invariably
present; but these tilts are usually less than 1 degree and they rarely exceed 3 degrees.
Photographs containing these small, unintentional tilts are called "near vertical" or "tilted"
photographs. Many of the equations developed in this chapter are for truly vertical photographs,
but for certain work, they may be applied to near vertical photos without serious error.
Photogrammetric principles and practices have been developed to account for tilted photographs,
and no accuracy whatsoever need be lost in using tilted photographs.

(a) Photographic scale. The scale of an aerial photograph (photo scale) can be defined as the
ratio between an image distance on the photograph and the corresponding horizontal ground
distance. Note that if a correct photographic scale ratio is to be computed using this definition,
the image distance and the ground distance must be measured in parallel horizontal planes. This

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condition rarely occurs in practice because the photograph is likely to be tilted and the ground
surface is seldom a flat horizontal plane. Therefore, scale will vary throughout the frame of a
photograph, and photographic scale can be defined only at a point. Please note that the concept
of photographic scale pertains primarily to film imagery because the scale of digital images can
be changed at the push of a button. The scale at a point on a truly vertical photograph is given
by:
S = f / (H - h)

where:

S = photographic scale at a test point

f = camera focal length

H = flying height above datum

h = elevation above datum of the test point

This equation is exact for truly vertical photographs and is also typically used to calculate scale
on nearly vertical photographs. In some instances, such as for flight planning calculations,
approximate scaled distances are adequate. If all ground points are assumed to lie at an average
elevation, an average photographic scale can be adopted for direct measurements of ground
distances.

Average scale is calculated by:

Savg = f / (H - havg)

where havg is the average ground elevation in the photo. For example, for an approximate
horizontal length of a line:

D= (d*(H - havg)) / f

where:

D = horizontal ground distance

d = photograph image distance

The flat terrain assumption, however, introduces scale variation errors. For accurate
determinations of horizontal distances and angles, the scale variation caused by elevation
differences between points must be accounted for in the photogrammetric solution.

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(b) Horizontal ground coordinates. Horizontal ground distances and angles can be
computed using coordinate geometry if the horizontal coordinates of the ground points are
known. Horizontal ground coordinates can be calculated by dividing each photo-coordinate by
the true photographic scale at the image point. In equation form, the horizontal ground
coordinates of any point are given by

XP = xp (H - hp) / f

YP = yp (H - hp) / f

where:

XP,YP = ground coordinates of point P

xp, yp = photocoordinates of point p

hP = ground elevation of point P

Note that these equations use a coordinate system defined by the photo-coordinate axes having
an origin at the photo principal point and the x-axis typically through the mid-side edge of the
photo (i.e., along and in the direction of flight). Then the local ground coordinate axes are placed
parallel to the photo-coordinate axes with an origin at the ground principal point. The equations
for horizontal ground coordinates are exact for truly vertical photographs and typically used for
near vertical photographs. The horizontal distance between points A and B is given by:

𝐷𝐴𝐵 = �(XA − XB )2 + (YA − YB )2

where: XA and YA are the ground coordinates of point A and

XB and YB are the ground coordinates of point B

This solution is not an approximation because the effect of scale variation caused by unequal
elevations is included in the computation of the ground coordinates. It is important to note,
however, that the elevations hA and hB must be known before the horizontal ground coordinates
can be computed.

(c) Relief displacement. Relief displacement is another characteristic of the perspective

geometry recorded by an aerial photograph. The displacement of an image point caused by
changes in ground elevation is closely related to photographic scale variation. Relief
displacement is evaluated when analyzing or planning mosaic or orthophoto projects. Relief

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displacement is also a tool that can be used in photo interpretation to determine heights of
vertical objects. Relief displacement is always along radial lines from the principal point of a
truly vertical photograph or the nadir of a tilted photograph. The magnitude of relief
displacement is given by the formula:

d = rh / H

where:

d = image displacement

r = radial distance from the principal point to the image point

H = flying height above ground

h = ground elevation of image point

Because the image displacement of a vertical object can be measured on the photograph, we can
solve for the height of vertical objects:

ht = d (H - hbase) / rtop

where:

ht = vertical height of the object

hbase = elevation at the object base above datum

(d) Exterior Orientation of Photographs. Unavoidable aircraft tilt causes aerial photographs
to be exposed with the camera axis tilted away from vertical. An accurate photogrammetric
solution using aerial photographs, whether film or digital images, must account for the camera
position and angular orientation at the instant of each exposure. The exterior orientation of a
photograph is the spatial position of the focal point and its angular orientation with respect to the
ground coordinate system. Six independent parameters (X/Y/Z and ω/φ/κ) are required to define
exterior orientation for each photograph’s exposure station. The space position is normally given
by three-dimensional X/Y/Z coordinates of the exposure station in a ground coordinate system;
the vertical coordinate corresponds to the flying height above datum. Angular orientation is
given by the ω/φ/κ orientation about the x, y and z axes in flight, applied sequentially:

ω (omega) is the (roll) rotation about the photograph’s x-axis (direction of flight)

φ (phi) is the (pitch) rotation about the photograph’s y-axis

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κ (kappa) is the (yaw) rotation about the photograph’s z-axis

The angular orientation of a truly vertical photograph taken with the flight line in the X-axis
direction is: ω=0, φ=0 and κ=0. The omega-phi-kappa angular orientation system is used to
express the exterior orientation of a photograph and produce accurate map information from
aerial photographs.

(2) Stereoscopic (Stereo) Photography. Stereoscopic vision determines the distance to an

object by intersecting two lines of sight. In the human vision system, the parallactic angle
between converging lines of sight associates the observed angle with a distance. Similarly,
overlapping aerial photographs can be viewed stereoscopically with the aid of a stereoscope. The
stereoscope forces the left eye to view the left photograph and the right eye to view the right
photograph. Since the right photograph images the same terrain as the left photograph, but from a
different exposure station, the perceived parallactic angles of the two images are visually
combined. As the viewer scans the entire overlap area of the two photographs, a continuous
stereo model of the ground surface can be seen. The stereo model can be measured in three
dimensions, yielding the elevation and horizontal position of unknown points. The limitation that
elevation cannot be determined in a single photograph solution is overcome by the use of stereo
photography.

(a) Stereo models. The basic unit of photogrammetric mapping is the stereo model formed
in the overlapping ground coverage of successive photographs along a flight line. Along each
flight line, the overlap of photographs, termed end lap, is typically designed to be 60 percent. End
lap must be at least 55 percent to ensure continuous stereoscopic coverage and provide a
minimum triple overlap area where stereo models can be matched together. Between adjacent
flight lines, the overlap of strips, termed side lap, is typically designed to be 30 percent. Side lap
must be at least 20 percent to ensure continuous stereoscopic coverage.

(b) Neat Models. The neat model is the net area to be mapped within each stereo model. For
flight planning and estimating of 9” x 9” aerial photographs, photo coverage and stereo model
ground dimensions were traditionally computed by assuming truly vertical photography and flat
terrain at average ground elevation. By using average photographic scale, the ground coverage
(G) of one side of a square format photograph is:

G = d/Savg

where d is the negative format dimension. The flying height above datum is also found using
average scale and average ground elevation.

H = havg + f/Savg

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Let B represent the air base between consecutive exposures in the strip. Then from the required
photo end lap (E1ap)

B = G (1 – Elap/100)

Let W represent the distance between adjacent flight lines. Then from the required side lap (Slap)

W = G (1 – Slap/100)

Match lines between contiguous stereo models pass through the center of the triple overlap area
and the center of the side lap area. These match lines bound the neat model area, the net area to
be mapped within each stereo model. The neat model has width equal to B and length equal to
W. Note that with modern flight planning software, and aerial digital imagery that has
essentially replaced aerial film imagery, such manual computations are no longer performed.
Still, it is good to understand the concept of stereo models and neat model areas for further
understanding of photogrammetry.

(c) Parallax equations. The parallax equations may be used for simple stereo analysis of
vertical aerial photographs taken from equal flying heights, that is, the camera axes are parallel
to one another and perpendicular to the air base. Conjugate image points in the overlap area of
two truly vertical aerial photographs may be projected, such that when the photographs are
properly oriented with respect to one another, the conjugate image rays recorded by the camera
will intersect at the true spatial location of the object point, as shown in Figure 1-1.
Photographic parallax is defined as the apparent movement of the image point across the image
plane of the camera as the camera exposure station moves along the flight line. The parallax of
the image point a: Pa = xa – xa’, where xa and xa’ are coordinate distances on the left and right
photographs, respectively. Because parallactic image motion is parallel to the movement of the
camera, the parallax coordinate system must be parallel to the direction of flight. All parallax
occurs along the x-axis in the axis of flight photo coordinate system. The ya and ya' coordinates
are equal. Given truly vertical aerial photographs and photo coordinates measured in the axis of
flight system, the following parallax equations can be derived:

X = xB / p

Y = yB / p

H = H - (f B / p)

where:

X, Y = horizontal ground coordinates

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x, y = photo coordinates on the left photograph

p = parallax

Note that the origin of the ground coordinate system is at the ground principal point of the left
photograph, and the X-axis is parallel to the flight line.

(d) Parallax difference equation. The parallax equations given above assume that the
photographs are truly vertical and exposed from equal flying heights; thus, the camera axes are
parallel to one another and perpendicular to the air base. Scale variation and relief displacement
are not regarded as errors in the parallax method because these effects are measured as image
parallax and used to compute elevations; however, tilted photographs, unequal flying heights,
and image distortions seriously affect the accuracy of the parallax method. Absolute elevations
are difficult to determine using the parallax equations given above because small errors in
parallax will cause large errors in the vertical distance H - h. More precise results are obtained if
differences in elevation are determined using the parallax difference formula

hA = hC + Δp(H – hC)/Pa

where:

hA = elevation of point A above datum

hC = elevation of point C above datum

Pa = parallax of image point a

Pc = parallax of image point c

∆p = difference in parallax (Pc - Pa)

The formula should be applied to points that are close to one another on the photo format. The
differencing technique cancels out the systematic errors affecting the parallax of each point. If C
is a vertical control point, the absolute elevation of A can be determined by this method.

(e) Resection. Except where airborne GPS and Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) are used
for direct georeferencing, resection is the process of recovering the exterior orientation of a
single photograph from image measurements of ground control points. In a spatial resection, the
image rays from total ground control points (horizontal position and elevation known) are made
to resect through the lens nodal point (exposure station) to their image position on the
photograph. The resection process forces the photograph to the same spatial position and
angular orientation it had when the exposure was taken. The solution requires at least three total

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control points that do not lie in a straight line, and the interior orientation parameters, focal
length, and principal point location. The exterior orientation must be determined from known
ground control points by the resection principle except when airborne GPS and IMUs are used
for direct georeferencing.

(f) Intersection. Intersection is the process of photogrammetrically determining the spatial

position of ground points by intersecting image rays from two or more photographs (see Figure
4-1). If the interior and exterior orientation parameters of the photographs are known, then
conjugate image rays can be projected from the photograph through the lens nodal point
(exposure station) to the ground space. Two or more image rays intersecting at a common point
will determine the horizontal position and elevation of the point. Map positions of points are
determined by the intersection principle from correctly oriented photographs.

(g) Photogrammetric Solution Methods. Correct and accurate photogrammetric solutions

must include all interior and exterior orientation parameters. Each orientation parameter must be
modeled if the recorded image ray is to be correctly projected and an accurate photogrammetric
product obtained. Interior orientation parameters include the camera focal length and the position
of the photo principal point. Typically the interior orientation is known from camera calibration.
Exterior orientation parameters include the camera position coordinates (X/Y/Z) and the three
orientation angles (ω/φ/κ). Typically, the exterior orientation is determined by resection
principles as part of the photogrammetric aerotriangulation solution, though a priori values for
the X/Y/Z position coordinates of each exposure station are now obtained from airborne GPS
data, and the a priori values of the angular orientations (ω/φ/κ) for each exposure are now
obtained from IMUs in modern mapping systems. The remaining parameters are the ground
coordinates of the point to be mapped. Planimetric and topographic details are mapped by
intersecting conjugate image rays from two correctly oriented photographs. Both analytical and
digital photogrammetric solution use mathematical models to represent the image rays recorded
by the camera. The image ray is assumed to be a straight line through the image point, the
exposure station, and the ground point. The following colinearity equation expresses this
condition:

where:

x, y = measured photo coordinates

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xo, yo = principal point photo coordinates

mij = nine direction cosines expressing the angular orientation

X,Y,Z = ground point coordinates

XL,YL,ZL = exposure station coordinates

These colinearity condition equations include all interior and exterior orientation parameters
required to solve the resection and intersection problems accurately. Analytical and digital
photogrammetric solutions consist of systems of colinearity equations relating measured image
photo coordinates to known and unknown parameters of the photogrammetric problem. The
equations are solved simultaneously to determine the unknown parameters. However, because
there are usually redundant measurements producing more equations than there are unknowns in
the problem, a least squares adjustment is used to estimate the unknown parameters. The least
squares adjustment algorithm includes residuals vx and vy on the measured photo coordinates that
estimate random measurement error.

c. Analog Photogrammetry. Analog photogrammetry represents the first era (also called the
classical era) of photogrammetry. Either full-scale or reduced-scale film diapositives (positive
photographs on a dimensionally-stable transparent medium, film or glass, as opposed to a
positive paper print which is not transparent) are used with analog plotters that physically
replicate (at reduced scale) the spatial geometry that existed when a strip of overlapping stereo
photographs was taken. Aerial triangulation is performed manually with analog plotters and
requires a great deal of operator expertise.

(1) Optical Stereo Plotters. Among direct optical systems, Zeiss Multiplex projectors
(Figures 1-2 and 1-3) were widely used in the 1930s and 1940s to include World War II. The
Multiplex used reduced-scale (2”x2”) diapositives produced from the original film negatives
(9”x9”). Even- and odd-numbered projectors would project the images through red and blue
filters into image space. By using anaglyph glasses (similar to those now used in 3D movies),
the operator could see 3D stereo models in this image space by viewing only the red images with
one eye and only the blue images with the other eye. To obtain relative orientation, the angular
orientation of each projector would be adjusted to replicate the roll, pitch and yaw of each image
when originally taken by the camera – an extremely labor-intensive task. Additional labor-
intensive steps were taken to obtain absolute orientation to ground control. Furthermore, photo-
identifiable features did not come into focus in the stereo model until the platen of the tracing
table was at the correct elevation for each feature to be mapped. The platen would be moved up
and down as necessary to accurately trace planimetric features on the map manuscript in their
correct horizontal locations and to map contour lines with uniform elevations. Other optical
plotters were popular in the 1950s, using full-scale 9”x9” diapositives. Although Multiplex

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plotters are no longer used, these images are still a good way to explain to students how
photogrammetry works, whether using analog, analytical or digital procedures.

Figure 1-2. Multiplex projectors that physically replicate the Figure 1-3. A single pair of Multiplex
geometry that existed when a flight line of nine aerial photos was projectors, showing the stereo model,
taken. Without accurate relative orientation, the stereo images tracing table and map manuscript
could never be focused in 3D in the stereo model, and without drawn with a pencil directly below a dot
absolute orientation, the map would never fit ground control. on the platen of the tracing table.

(2) Optical-Mechanical Stereo

Plotters. Optical-mechanical
stereo plotters were popular
through the 1970s. They used
metal space rods to simulate the
direct optical projection of light
rays, e.g., o1 to P and o2 to P in
Figure 1-1. Figure 1-4 shows a
Wild A8 Autograph with
coordinatograph that plots map
manuscripts. Full-scale 9”x9”
diapositives were carefully Figure 1-4. Wild A8 Autograph with coordinatograph for plotting
mounted in the stages shown at the of map manuscripts from stereo photos. The A8 pictured here
was upgraded with electronics for data entry and digital recording
top of Figure 1-4. Looking through of data. The A8 was the photogrammetric “workhorse” for
eye pieces, operators could view nearly three decades – one of many different models of optical-
the left image directly with the left mechanical stereo plotters produced by Wild Heerbrugg, Zeiss,
eye and the right Kern and other photogrammetric equipment manufacturers
during the analog era.

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image with the right eye, without need for anaglyph glasses. One hand crank moved the space
rods (as well as the coordinatograph) in the X-direction, causing a “floating dot” in the eyepiece
to appear to move across the image in the direction of flight between the first and second
photographs, and the second hand crank did the same in the Y-direction. The foot petal changed
the elevation being viewed. When the “floating dot” appeared in focus on the ground (when
viewed in stereo), the two space rods were effectively intersecting at the correct elevation (as with
point P in Figure 1-1). Contour lines of equal elevation were plotted by moving the two hand
cranks to keep the floating dot on the ground while keeping the foot petal unchanged. With most
optical-mechanical stereo plotters, the photogrammetric solution was achieved by means of
physically altering the positions and rotations of the stages holding the film media relative to
each other. Aerial triangulation (AT) processes were very complicated, normally establishing
relative orientation only between two images at a time, then cantilevering independent stereo
models until photo-identifiable control points enabled absolute orientation of the models. Early
systems produced only hardcopy maps while the advent of computers enabled upgraded systems
capable of digital data recording. Although more expensive than optical projectors, the optical-
mechanical stereo plotters were preferred over direct optical systems because they were more
versatile (with later versions modified with encoders for digital recording of coordinates),
produced maps of higher accuracy, had better overall stability, and did not need to be operated in
dark rooms. Very few optical-mechanical stereo plotters remain in use today in the U.S.

d. Analytical Photogrammetry. Analytical photogrammetry, which represents the analytical

era of photogrammetry starting in the 1960s, also uses full-scale (9”x9”) film diapositives but
mathematically replicates the spatial geometry that existed when strips of overlapping stereo
photographs were taken. The analytical era included the development of advanced methods of
treating quantitative observations of phenomena affecting the photogrammetric operation, to
include atmospheric refraction, for example, where light rays may not be perfectly straight. The
metal space rods and linear scales from optical-mechanical plotters were replaced with colinearity
equations, computer models and microprocessors for analytical stereo plotters. Most
significantly, microprocessors record the 2D photo-coordinates of pass points and tie points on
stereo photographs, automate the AT solutions for large blocks of imagery, including multiple
flight lines, and compute the 3D ground coordinates of the pass points (that link common points
in the overlap areas of two or three images in the same flight line) and tie points (that link
common points in the overlap areas of adjoining flight lines).

(1) Figure 1-5 shows a Wild Heerbrugg BC2 analytical stereoplotter as well as a point
marking and transfer device (far right) that marks tie points and pass points in selected locations
so their photo coordinates can be accurately measured with the analytical stereoplotter. Upon
successful completion of aerial triangulation, photo control is passed from one photograph to the
next as well as to adjoining photographs in overlapping flight lines.

(2) Figure 1-6 shows a small block of eight aerial photos in each of four overlapping flight lines.
With 60% forward overlap, it is typical for six to nine pass points to be identified and

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marked in the overlap areas of each photo, where possible, and those pass points along the edges
also serve as tie points for overlapping flight lines. After the AT solution, each photograph has
newly established points to control the photogrammetric mapping for each stereo pair. All
output is digital for mapping with modern computers and plotters. Analytical plotters are now
phasing out because of the greatly diminished use of aerial film photography caused by the
modern era of digital metric cameras.

Figure 1-5. Wild BC2 analytical plotter that automates Figure 1-6. For an AT block adjustment, in
aerial triangulation and simplifies photogrammetric addition to surveyed control points shown
mapping processes. On the table to the right, a point here, pass points and tie points are identified
marking and transfer device is shown that drills very to “pass” X/Y/Z ground coordinates of
small holes in the film emulsion for measurement of pass points from one image to the next image in
points and tie points used in aerial triangulation (AT). the same flight line and “tie” flight lines
together.
e. Digital Photogrammetry. Digital photogrammetry, also called softcopy photogrammetry,
represents the third and current era of photogrammetry. This era started around 1990 with the
introduction of digital stereo photogrammetric workstations and high resolution scanners that
converted film into digital imagery. The subsequent introduction of modern digital metric
cameras further established softcopy photogrammetry as the dominant technology as film
photography became less and less viable, and as major film manufacturers halted production of
film for aerial cameras. Charge Couple Devices (CCDs) used in digital cameras have a wider
dynamic range, improving the accuracy and appearance of finished products, and digital imagery
eliminates processing steps necessary with hardcopy photos. With digital photogrammetry, the
costly optical-mechanical stereo plotters have been completely replaced by computers, monitors
and software that apply complex photogrammetric concepts and sophisticated image-processing
techniques, including automated image correlation that enables thousands of tie points and pass
points to be automatically generated rather than manually generated as with analytical
photogrammetry. Figure 1-7 shows a digital stereo photogrammetric workstation running
software for photogrammetry and lidargrammetry, coupled with GIS software for real time
display and analysis. If this looks similar to a typical desktop computer – that’s because it is
similar, and that’s the main advantage, i.e., photogrammetric firms now use mass-produced

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computers with specialized photogrammetric

software rather than purchasing expensive
specialized hardware required during the
analog and analytical eras. Simultaneous AT
block adjustments are now performed with
over 20,000 digital images per block of
images and millions of auto-correlated pass
points and tie points, rapidly and accurately
providing the six exterior orientation
parameters needed for each image (X/Y/Z
coordinates of the lens focal point, and roll/
pitch/yaw of the camera, when each image
was taken). Automatic image correlation also
enables the simplified generation of Digital
Surface Models (DSMs) and the highly Figure 1-7. A digital stereo photogrammetric
popular digital orthophotos produced by workstation running SOCET SET® photo-
grammetric software coupled with ArcGIS for real
draping unrectified digital aerial imagery over time display and analysis of data. This is used for
a DSM or DEM. Digital softcopy photogrammetry and lidargrammetry.
photogrammetric software is also used in
lidargrammetry discussed in Chapter 6 of this manual.
Project Specifications. Project specifications for aerial image acquisition are changing as a
result of the transition from film to digital cameras. Some of the specifications, below, pertain
to film cameras, while recognizing that most aerial imagery acquired today is performed with
modern digital cameras for which image quality, resolution, clarity, color balancing and
dynamic range are greatly improved and for which operators have far greater flexibility,
including the ability to change lenses in-flight. In all cases, specifications herein pertain to
metric aerial mapping cameras for which the defining characteristic is that they are stable and
perform consistently over long periods of time so that calibration parameters do not change.
Whereas the photo scale was the most important parameter for analog and analytical
photogrammetric mapping that used hardcopy aerial photos, the pixel size of digital orthophotos
and the ground sample distance (GSD) of the raw digital imagery are the most important
parameters for digital (softcopy) photogrammetry.
a. Contractor Responsibilities. The contractor shall be responsible for operating and
maintaining all aircraft used in conformance with all governing Federal Aviation Administration
and Civil Aeronautics Board regulations over such aircraft. Any inspection or maintenance of
the aircraft resulting in missing favorable weather will not be considered as an excusable cause
for delay. The flight crew and cameraman shall have had a minimum of 400 hours experience in
flying precise photogrammetric mapping missions. The contractor shall inspect and constantly
monitor the image quality and coverage, and shall undertake immediate reflights of areas where
coverage does not meet specifications. The reason for any imagery that does not meet the
standard specifications shall be noted on the flight log. Rejection of imagery by the contractor or

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the Contracting Officer shall not in itself be a reason for granting a delay or another photo
season. Failure to undertake reflights or delays in forwarding materials for preliminary
inspection (if required) that result in a lost season may be reason to invoke default of contract.

b. Operational Procedures. Operational procedures and best practices for aerial mapping
cameras and aircraft are itemized in this section.

(1) Aircraft. The aircraft furnished shall be capable of stable performance and shall be
equipped with essential navigation and photographic instruments and accessories (e.g., airborne
GPS and inertial measurement unit), all of which shall be maintained in operational condition
during the period of the contract. No windows shall be interposed between the camera lens
system and the terrain, unless high altitude photography is involved. Also, the camera lens
system shall not be in the direct path of any exhaust gasses or oil from aircraft engines.

(2) Aircraft utilization. Total aircraft utilization to, from, between, and over project sites is
based on the provisions contained in the contract. For the purposes of estimating aircraft
operational time, any day containing two or more consecutive hours of suitable flying conditions,
in any sizable portion of the area not yet photographed, will be considered a suitable day for
aerial photography. Additional crew costs will accrue during deployment at or near the project
site, where applicable. Aircraft and flight crew standby at the home base shall be considered as
an overhead expense.

(3) Emergency aircraft standby. Detailed requirements, conditions, notification procedures,

and compensation provisions for emergency dedication of an aircraft to a Command shall be
specified. Direct and indirect costs shall be clearly identified in establishing the day rate for such
an item.

(4) Flight line design. The ground distance between adjacent flight lines and the air distance
between consecutive exposure stations shall be determined to meet coverage tolerances with
respect to the flying altitude above mean ground height (H). For film photography, photo scales
for map compilation shall be as stated in the applicable contract section. For digital imaging,
modern flight planning software will be used for flight planning in order to acquire imagery with
the required ground sample distance (GSD).

(5) Weather conditions (flying conditions). Unless otherwise specified, aerial photographs
shall be taken between the hours of 10 a.m. and 2 p.m., local solar time, on days when well
defined images can be obtained. However, modern digital cameras can reduce the traditional
effects of shadows and offer greater flexibility in mapping through shadows at different times of
the day. Imaging shall not be attempted when the ground is obscured by haze, smoke, dust, or
snow or when the clouds or cloud shadows will appear on more than 5 percent of the area of any
one photograph without permission of the Contracting Officer or specifically defined differently
in the contracted task order scope of work. Photographs shall not contain shadows caused by

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topographic relief or sun angle, whenever such shadows can be avoided during the time of year
the photography must be taken. Any day containing two or more consecutive hours of suitable
flying conditions, in any sizable portion of the area not yet photographed, will be considered a
suitable day for aerial photography.

(a) Sun angle. Photographing shall be undertaken when the sun angle is 30 degrees or
greater, there is no atmospheric haze, and the lighting and weather conditions are suitable for
obtaining acceptable photos. Special care must be taken to minimize shadows in mountainous
and canyon areas because shadows on photos are black and contain little or no detail. Exceptions
to the stated sun angle requirement may be made if additional shadow detail will enhance ground
images or if reflections or hot spots will degrade the aerial imagery.

(b) Cloud cover. Aerial imagery shall not be obtained during poor weather conditions.
Excessive wind conditions that will not permit maintaining the allowable flight line tolerances
shall be avoided. Images that contain clouds, haze, or smoke so that critical ground areas are
obscured shall be rejected.

(c) Ground conditions. The season and any special requirements concerning foliage, snow,
or other conditions will be specified in the contract. Conditions that might obscure ground detail
shall be the responsibility of the contractor. However, if questions or concerns about conditions
exist, consultation with the COR before undertaking or continuing the work is advisable. Aerial
image acquisition shall be limited to the season specified in the contract unless otherwise
authorized by the Contracting Officer.

(6) Project area coverage. The centers of the first two and last two exposures of each flight
line shall fall beyond the project boundaries.

(a) Flight lines. The minimum area(s) to be imaged will be indicated on maps, shapefiles or
KMZ files provided for each image acquisition assignment. The contractor shall design the flight
lines to obtain proper side lap to assure full stereoscopic photo coverage. Generally, the flight
lines shall be parallel to each other, and outside of consideration for wind direction, align to the
longest boundary lines of the area to be photographed. With today’s cameras, automated flight
planning software, airborne GPS, and modern avionics, it is relatively easy to acquire digital
images at the correct altitudes and with photo centers correctly located for desired forward
overlap and sidelap. With film cameras it is important to maintain the desired photo scale; with
digital cameras it is important to maintain the desired ground sample distance (GSD).

(b) Flight height. Departures from specified flight height shall not exceed 2 percent low or 5
percent high for all flight heights up to 12,000 ft. above ground elevation. Above 12,000 ft.,
departures from specified flight height shall not exceed 2 percent low or 600 ft. high. During
inspection for acceptance of film imagery, the flight height can be verified by multiplying the
focal length of the camera by the calculated scale of the aerial photos; the photography scale is

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calculated by dividing the distance between two identifiable points as measured on one of the
photographs (as near as possible at the mean ground elevation) by the actual ground distance as
measured from the best available map. For modern digital image acquisition, airborne GPS data,
when available, provides the easiest and most accurate means for verifying that planned flying
heights were achieved.

(c) Stereoscopic coverage. The entire area of the project must be stereoscopically covered
by successive and adjacent overlaps of images within the usable portion of the field of the lens.
This is an essential requirement for photomapping work. Lack of acceptable stereoscopic
coverage caused by the contractor's failure to adhere to the specified flight design shall be
corrected by reflights at the contractor's own expense. Lack of acceptable stereoscopic coverage
caused by conditions that could not be avoided by the exercise of reasonable diligence and care
on the part of the contractor will be corrected by reflights at the Government's expense, when
authorized by the Contracting Officer.

(7) Camera Requirements. For aerial film photography, a single lens precision aerial
mapping camera equipped with a high resolution, distortion free lens shall be used on all
assignments. The camera shall function properly at the necessary altitude and under expected
environmental conditions. The lens cone shall be so constructed so that the lens and focal plane
comprise an integral unit, or are otherwise fixed in a rigid orientation with respect to each other.
Variations of temperature or other conditions shall not cause deviation from the calibrated focal
length in excess of ±0.05 mm or preclude determination of the principal point location to within
±0.003 mm. However, digital metric cameras are now preferred for most applications because of
their numerous advantages.

(a) Camera opening. The camera opening in the aircraft shall provide an unobstructed field
of view when a camera is mounted with all its parts above the outer structure. The field-of-view
shall, so far as practicable, be shielded from air turbulence and any effluents such as gasses and
oil. The camera port glass (if required) shall be free of scratches and shall not degrade the
resolution or the accuracy of the camera.

(b) Exposure control. An automatic exposure control device is permitted and recommended
for all aerial imaging, but a manual shutter-control capability can be used for some types of
terrain to achieve proper exposure.

(c) Camera Mount. The camera mount shall be regularly serviced and maintained, and shall
be insulated against aircraft vibrations.

(8) Camera Calibration and Tolerances. The aerial camera(s) furnished by the contractor
shall have been calibrated within 3 years of award of a contract. The camera calibration
certificate shall be presented to the Contracting Officer prior to use of the camera. Although

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digital cameras have diverse forms of calibration as described in section 4-3c below, film camera
features and acceptable tolerances are as follows:

(a) Focal length. The calibrated focal length of the lens shall be ±3 mm of the nominal
length, and measured to the nearest 0.001 mm.

(b) Lens distortion. The absolute value of radial distortion measured at maximum aperture,
as stated in the calibration report, shall not exceed 0.01 mm.

(c) Lens resolving power. With appropriate filter mounted in-place, the Area Weighted
Average Resolution (AWAR) shall be at least 60 lines/millimeter (at maximum aperture) stated
on calibration report. The lens shall be fully corrected for color photography.

(d) Shutter. The camera shall be equipped with a between-the-lens shutter of the variable
speed type, whose efficiency shall be at least 70 percent at the fastest rated speed.

(e) Image quality. The imagery shall be clear and sharp and evenly exposed across the
frame. The images shall be free from clouds and cloud shadows, smoke, haze, light streaks,
snow, flooding, excessive soil moisture, static marks, shadows, and any other defects that
interfere with the intended purpose of the photography. If, in the opinion of the Contracting
Officer, the contractor has adhered to specifications and has exercised reasonable care to meet
quality requirements, allowance will be made for unavoidable shadows, permanent snow fields,
or reflectance from water bodies.

(f) Image resolution. When there is doubt concerning the resolution of images obtained, a
comparison will be made of well-defined edges of manmade structures and other features in the
photo with previous imagery that is of acceptable quality, similar scale, and contrast. If the
imagery is obviously degraded when compared to previously accepted or acceptable images, the
images can be rejected for poor image quality.

(g) Image clarity. The contractor shall make appropriate measurements to determine edge
contrast for photos from several representative photos/images.

(h) Color balance. Any exposures within the project area with a color balance shift compared to
the remainder of the photography will result in unacceptable exposures.

(i) Dynamic Range. If necessary, exposure level balancing should be applied to extend the
contrast levels of digital images to span the entire working range available to the selected bit
storage range. Specular reflectors (such as water surfaces) or small, isolated brightness anomalies
within a scene shall not be used for determining the maximum or minimum usable contrast range
of the digital photos.

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c. Digital Orthophotos. Project specifications typically might include the following:

(1) Geographic area to be mapped (normally based on government-provided shapefiles); and

verbiage stating approximate square miles total for the area of interest (AOI).

(2) Pixel size of final orthophotos (e.g., 3”, 6” or 12” pixels), or ground sample distance
(GSD) of raw imagery to be collected – note, the pixel size is normally ≥ the GSD;

(3) Horizontal accuracy (normally RMSExy, RMSEr and/or Accuracyr at 95% confidence
level per NSSDA);

(4) Color bands to be acquired (normally R/G/B for natural color, near infrared, and/or
panchromatic); and how the bands are to be delivered, what order the bands are arranged.

(5) Acquisition window (range of dates for leaf-off or leaf-on conditions); Late spring, early
summer, etc.

(6) Other acquisition conditions (e.g., no clouds, snow, flooding);

(7) Ground control and/or direct georeferencing requirements (airborne GPS and IMU
positioning and orientation);

(8) GPS base station limitations, if any;

(9) Data void guidance, if any;

(10) Digital image format (e.g., GeoTIFF with specified tags and keys);

(11) Delivery medium (e.g., external hard drive, USB2)

(12) Digital image tile size (e.g., 1,000 meter grid with no overedge);

(13) Horizontal datum (e.g., North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83)/HARN adjustment)

(14) Vertical datum (e.g., North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88), using the
most recent National Geodetic Survey (NGS)-approved geoid model for conversions from
ellipsoid heights to orthometric heights, currently GEOID12A;

(15) Coordinate system (e.g., UTM or State Plane Coordinate System);

(16) Units (e.g., meters, or U.S. Survey Feet) – note, never specify “feet” but instead specify
U.S. Survey Feet or International Feet;

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(17) Additional image characteristics (e.g., limits on mosaic seamline placement,

misalignment, tonal/color balancing, building lean, and image artifacts);

(18) Accuracy testing and reporting requirements;

(19) File naming convention;

(20) Metadata requirements;

(21) QA/QC procedures;

(22) Deliverables and due dates

(23) Reports to be submitted (e.g., survey report with field work procedures, data acquisition
report, AT report, production report, QA/QC report); and Example Scopes of Work (SOWs) for
a digital orthophoto project are in Appendix F and Appendix G.

d. Planimetric Mapping. In addition to items in 1-2.b above that are not exclusive to digital
orthophotos, project specifications include clarification of source materials to be used for
planimetric mapping (e.g., TIFF images and final AT solution); scale of hardcopy maps to be
produced (if any); and specifications that will enable the development of a data dictionary with
collection rules (including topology) for populating a geodatabase with any or all of the
following planimetric features to be mapped:

(1) Paved and unpaved surfaces (e.g., roads; shoulders; driveways; parking lots; concrete
pads; alleys; sidewalks; trails)

(2) Airports (e.g., runways; taxiways; aprons; helipads)

(3) Railroads (e.g., individual tracks; crossings; roundhouse; abandoned railroad)

(4) Manmade structures (e.g., buildings >10’x10’; ruins >10’x10’; decks, patios and
canopies > 100 ft2; storage tanks; silos; bunkers; foundations >100 ft2; smokestacks; water
towers; stairways; below-ground pools; above-ground pools; windmills; turbines; levees)

(5) Water features (e.g., lakes >4 acres; rivers; streams/creeks >10’ wide; concrete drains;
ponds >1/4 acre; reservoirs; ditches; marsh/swamp; beaches

(6) Water structures (e.g., bridges; dams; piers; breakwaters; walls; small culverts <10’ long;
large culverts >10’ long; dikes, revetments, wharfs)

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(7) Barriers (e.g., fences; guard rails; walls; retaining walls; rock walls; breakwaters)

(8) Utilities (e.g., manholes; catch basins; fire hydrants; water valves; traffic signals; traffic
signal poles; light poles; utility poles)

(9) Disturbed areas (e.g., piles; construction site; quarries; open mines; rock outcrops;
boulders; disturbed areas)

(10) Landmark features (e.g., golf course outlines, greens, tees, sandtraps; public
playgrounds; athletic fields; open storage; cemeteries; tennis courts; public parks; public
monuments)

(11) Street hardware (e.g., large overhead signs; billboards; bus stop shelters)

(12) Vegetation features (e.g., tree outlines; single trees >10’ canopy; single bushes; brush
outline; orchards/nurseries; crops)

An example Scope of Work (SOW) for a planimetric mapping project is in Appendix F.

e. Topographic Mapping. In addition to items in 1-2.b above that are not exclusive to digital
orthophotos, project specifications include clarification of source materials to be used for
topographic mapping from stereo imagery (e.g., TIFF images and final AT solution); map scale
and contour interval of hardcopy topographic maps to be produced (if any); clarification of
vertical accuracy in vegetated and non-vegetated terrain (e.g., RMSEz and/or Accuracyz at 95%
confidence level per NSSDA, and/or equivalent contour interval); guidelines for hydro-flattening
(lakes are flat and dual-line streams are level from shore-to-shore) or hydro-enforcement (bridges
and culverts are “cut” so that water flows continuously downstream) of a bare-earth DTM or
DEM; and specifications that will enable the development of a data dictionary with collection
rules (including topology) for populating a geodatabase with any or all of the following
topographic features to be mapped:

(1) Elevation post spacing for gridded DSM and/or bare-earth DTM/DEM

(2) Breaklines for required feature classes (e.g., closed water body features; linear
hydrographic features; coastal shorelines; island features; road features; overpasses and bridges;
and low confidence areas where vegetation obscures stereo compilation)

(3) Contours (e.g., index; intermediate; supplementary; depression; obscured)

1-3. Aerial Photogrammetric Project Planning. Regardless of whether an aerial photogrammetry

project pertains to digital orthophotos, 2D planimetric map compilation, 3D topographic map
compilation, or generation of various geospatial databases produced by aerial photogrammetry,

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project planning always starts with the deliverables to be produced and dates by which those
deliverables are due to the client.

a. Review of Project Specifications. Planning is performed after careful review of the

project specifications and answering a series of questions: Should maps be compiled to NAD83
(HARN) for the horizontal datum and NAVD88 for the vertical datum? Should elevation data
(orthometric heights) be produced by converting from ellipsoid heights using the GEOID12A
model? Should the coordinate reference system use the relevant State Plane Coordinate System
or Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates? Should units be feet or meters? Should
U.S. Survey Feet or International Feet be used? If digital orthophotos are to be produced, what
image resolution is required, i.e., what should be the pixel size and raw image ground sample
distance (GSD) from which the pixels are interpolated? What spectral bands and bit depth are
required for the imagery? Are there building lean limits that dictate a higher-than-normal
forward overlap and sidelap for orthophotos to appear to look nearly straight down? Are there
limits on environmental factors such as shadows, clouds, dust, smoke, visible haze, topography,
climate, snow cover, standing
water, tidal and river levels? If
hardcopy maps are to be
produced, what are the published
map scale and/or contour
interval? Whether hardcopy or
digital geospatial data are to be
delivered, what are the
horizontal and/or vertical
accuracy standards to be
satisfied? What are the metadata Figure 1-8. Panchromatic, natural color, and color infrared images
requirements? How are accuracies captured simultaneously by a digital mapping camera.
to be reported in the metadata;
will the accuracy be reported
using the “Tested …” or
“Compiled to meet …” criteria
specified by the NSSDA?

(1) Image Resolution. With

aerial imagery, there is no such
thing as too much clarity.
Modern high-resolution digital
mapping cameras improve image
clarity over film and can capture
imagery with GSD as small as a Figure 1-9. Higher-resolution panchromatic image and lower-
half inch. Advanced 12-bits per resolution color image produced the “pan-sharpened” color image
pixel data capture provides much on the right.

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higher radiometric resolution (4,096 levels of grayscale vs. 256 levels in standard 8-bit imagery)
providing a wider tonal range. This provides better visual detail, especially at the extremes of
highlight and shadow. Such images are superior for photogrammetric interpretation and
analysis, orthophoto production and general viewing by users. Because of the expanded tonal
range, images exposed in less than ideal flying conditions can still provide usable information in
marginal light conditions and enable interpretation of features in darker shadows. This capability
effectively extends the flying day and flying season for acquisition “windows” when natural
sunlight provides adequate illumination for features to be seen on the imagery.

(2) Spectral Bands. With modern digital mapping cameras, multiple image products can be
captured in a single flight, whereas film cameras are required to separately load different types of
film. Figure 1-8 shows examples of panchromatic (grayscale), natural color (RGB) and color
infrared (CIR) images, all acquired from the same digital camera in a single flight.

(3) Pan-Sharpened Imagery. In addition to using the three primary image products in their
native form, an additional process called “pan-sharpening” can be applied to combine the higher-
resolution panchromatic image with the corresponding lower-resolution natural color image to
create a new, higher detail color image, as demonstrated with the example at Figure 1-9.

b. Aerial Cameras. Although film cameras may still be used for small projects, the
Government prefers the use of modern, calibrated, digital metric cameras, for reasons cited above.
Consistent with principles of stereo photogrammetry (see Figure 1-1), two or more images must
be captured that view the terrain from different perspectives. Most airborne mapping cameras are
either frame cameras or pushbroom (line scanner) cameras. Digital frame cameras, like film
cameras, acquire rectangular blocks of imagery that obtain nadir-looking stereo views by
acquiring imagery with at least 60% forward overlap between consecutive images as shown in
Figure 1-10.

Figure 1-10. Frame cameras acquire Figure 1-11. Pushbroom cameras acquire single lines
rectangular block of images that overlap by at of pixels looking downward, forward and backward
least 60% to acquire stereo views in overlap to acquire multiple stereo view combinations.
areas.

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c. Pushbroom cameras obtain stereo views by acquiring single lines of pixels that typically
scan the terrain with nadir views as well as forward-looking and backward-looking views as
shown in Figure 1-11.

(1) Image Properties. For a thorough explanation of digital image processing, readers are
encouraged to read Chapter 5 in the 6th edition of the ASPRS Manual of Photogrammetry or
other reference books on digital image processing. Images from digital cameras are superior to
scanned film images due to the absence of film grain and the higher radiometric range of
digitally sensed pixels. Film supports a dynamic range of about 8 bits per color channel whereas
digital sensing routinely offers 12 to 16 bits. Most imagery is panchromatic or 3- or

4-band multispectral imagery where 3-band (RGB) imagery provides natural color and the 4th
band normally provides color-infrared (CIR) images. The ultimate image property, however, is
the ground sample distance (GSD). Compared with 6 inch or 12 inch GSD, a GSD of a few
inches enables much smaller features to be resolved, however it presents challenges for area
coverage, data storage, and data transmission. Once a GSD is chosen, detector element size,
system focal length and altitude will be determined by the acquisition firm and should not be
specified by the government. On occasions, the requirements for hyperspectral imagery with
dozens or hundreds of different spectral bands, or thermal imagery used for energy audits of
installations or other applications where temperature differences need to be mapped. The
following sections assume that vertical imagery is required for photogrammetric mapping, but it
is fully recognized that may have special requirements for oblique, panoramic, or even terrestrial
imagery; but these are beyond the scope of this manual. After the above details are resolved, a
determination will be made as to which camera system can best satisfy user requirements.

(2) Digital Frame Cameras. Digital cameras offer numerous advantages over film-based

cameras, to include: superior radiometric resolution; increased accuracy of photogrammetric

measurements; reduction of materials and labor costs to produce digital imagery; faster
turnaround time from flight to image data; multispectral image acquisition during one flight;
electronic forward motion compensation (FMC); clean digital data for better-quality image
products (orthophotos); more potential flying days and flying hours per day; completely digital
workflow throughout GIS and remote sensing projects. There are numerous small-, medium-,
and large-format digital frame cameras used for aerial photogrammetric mapping. This section
will review only a few of the most common large-format metric cameras in use today for high-
accuracy photogrammetric mapping.

(a) Digital Mapping Camera (DMC). Z/I Imaging’s DMC has a strong customer base and is
widely used throughout the U.S., especially for engineering applications. As of 2014, the latest
model is the DMC IIe (see Figure 1-12) which includes five camera heads, one large format PAN
camera using a single optics and single CCD and four multi-spectral cameras for RGB and NIR.
Because of its 1.8 second frame rate and more than 14,000 pixel in flight direction (as well as
cross-track), the Z/I DMC IIe can be operated at high airspeeds. For example, the user can

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collect data with 10cm GSD at 90% forward

overlap and 150 knots airspeed. Using fixed wing
aircraft, it can collect 3D stereo data from 2cm to
80cm GSD. The Z/I DMC IIe uses four MM30
SD storage modules, each with 1.2 TB capacity for
a total storage of 4.8 TB (about 4300 image
capacity).

(b) UltraCam. Microsoft has developed

numerous large format digital frame cameras in
recent years, the latest being the UltraCam Eagle Figure 1-12. The DMC IIe, which collects
frame images (more than 14,000 x 14,000 pixels)
shown at Figure 1-13. The UltraCam Eagle as small as 2cm GSD, is commonly used for high
provides panchromatic and four multispectral accuracy engineering applications.
bands (red/green/blue and near-infrared),
supplying panchromatic images with GSD as
small as 1.3 inches (3.25 cm) and color images
with GSD of 3.8 inches (9.75 cm), acquired from
an altitude of 500 meters, with final panchromatic
images of 20,010 x 13,080 pixels or color images
of 6,670 x 4,360 pixels. Post-processing of
UltraCam imagery is performed with UltraMap
and UM/AT extension. Photogrammetric
production is performed with the customer’s
photogrammetric production software or ortho
production workflow by GXL Aerial. Figure 1-13. The UltraCam Eagle stores
approximately 3.3 terabytes (3,800 images) per
replaceable disk storage unit.
(3) Digital Pushbroom Cameras. Leica’s
ADS40/80/100 Airborne Digital Sensors are
pushbroom cameras that sense individual lines that
look downward, forward and backward, as shown
in Figure 1-11. These cameras offer panchromatic
and multispectral bands (red/green/ blue and near-
infrared), supplying color images with GSD as
small as 1.2 inches (3 cm) without pan-sharpening
while flying at 120 knots. Compared with the
original ADS40 (see Figure 1-14), the newer
ADS80 and current ADS100 have improved sensor
heads, providing perfectly co-registered
image data with equal resolution in panchromatic, Figure 1-14. Leica ADS-40 Airborne
color and color-infrared. The ADS40 and ADS80 Digital Sensor stores 480 GB in each of two
collect 8 CCD lines with 12,000 pixels each; the mass memory units.

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ADS100 collects 13 CCD lines with 20,000 pixels each. Leica’s software includes flight
planning and evaluation system, flight and sensor control management, advanced inertial position
and attitude system, and download and ground processing software. Together, these software
systems provide trajectory calculations, georeferencing of each CCD line, and aerial triangulation
that includes automatic point measurement and bundle adjustment. Leica’s XPro ground
processing software provides extremely fast production of DTMs, digital orthophotos and other
image products.

d. Camera Calibration. Camera calibration is the process of determining the parameters that
describe the precise internal geometrical and optical characteristics of a camera system so that
highly accurate photogrammetric mapping and orthophotography can be performed. For
example, lens distortion causes a camera lens to fail to image a straight line in object space as a
straight line in image space. In Figure 1-1, the lines from o1 to p1 to P and o2 to p2 to P should be
straight lines, but those lines aren’t perfectly straight when lens distortion exists. With digital
frame cameras, numerous lens distortion coefficients, as well as focal length and principal point
coordinates, are parameters determined in a laboratory geometric calibration which models the
geometry of a complex camera system which may have multiple camera cones for panchromatic
images and/or multiple camera cones for multispectral imagery. With digital line scanners, each
panchromatic and multispectral line (forward, backward, and nadir) is calibrated for positioning
of each pixel. Geometric and radiometric calibrations are typically performed separately. After
the initial factory calibrations, geometric recalibrations should be performed every three years
unless there is a major camera rebuild. Radiometric recalibrations are not mandatory on a
scheduled basis but should be performed as required to maintain acceptable image quality. For
technical details, readers are invited to read a paper by M. Cramer, entitled: “EuroSDR Network
on Digital Camera Calibration.”

(1) Laboratory calibration. From a classical photogrammetric viewpoint, laboratory

calibration is the standard method used for analog film cameras, resulting in well-known USGS
camera calibration certificates (in the U.S.), typically repeated within specified time intervals.
With digital cameras, laboratory geometric and radiometric calibrations are performed by the
camera manufacturer when a new camera is delivered or when a digital camera is rebuilt with a
new lens or CCD, for example. With digital frame cameras, laboratory geometric calibration
certificates provide initial values of the camera calibration parameters (principal point
coordinates, focal length, radial distortion, decentering (tangential) distortion, and other
distortions) for each camera head, recognizing that large-format digital cameras have numerous
panchromatic camera heads and numerous multispectral camera heads, e.g., four panchromatic
heads and four multispectral heads for the DMC and UltraCam digital frame cameras. With
digital line scanners, laboratory calibration determines the positioning of each pixel for each
panchromatic and multispectral CCD line, including forward-looking, backward-looking and
nadir lines. For example, the ADS40 and ADS80 cameras have eight CCD lines with 12,000
pixels each, and the ADS100 camera has 13 CCD lines with 20,000 pixels each.

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(2) Field calibration. Laboratory calibration parameters may be subsequently refined with
in-flight calibration over test range(s), accounting for the entire camera system including
airborne GPS and inertial measurement unit (IMU) that provide direct georeferencing.
Experience has shown that digital camera systems can be calibrated at a high accuracy provided
that the camera body, lenses, and sensor assemblies have the rigidity required of a metric camera.
In addition to laboratory camera calibration, field calibration, including “boresight calibration”
of the inertial measurement unit (IMU) orientation angles (roll, pitch and yaw) and “lever arm
calibration” of the positional offset between the GPS antenna and the IMU sensor origin, are also
required for camera systems that use airborne GPS and IMU sensors for “direct georeferencing.”
Regardless of the cameras used, aerial photogrammetric mapping subcontractors must utilize
laboratory-calibrated metric cameras with camera calibration certificates that essentially calibrate
the location of each pixel on the image. It is up to the practicing professional to establish a field
calibration test range where the camera is continually bore-sighted under conditions (including air
temperature) similar to that of a specific project. The cost for calibration and other compliance
will be borne by the contractor.

(3) Microsoft UltraCam Calibration. Microsoft uses a 3-step process for calibrating its
family of UltraCam cameras, including laboratory calibration, the stitching process, and the self-
calibration process which images the same targets from multiple tilt/rotation perspectives. The
laboratory calibration is based on a highly redundant set of images from a 3D calibration target
with hundreds of points known to ±0.1 mm in X and Y and ±0.2 mm in Z. One calibration
dataset for an UltraCamX, for example, consists of nearly 90,000 measured image points used in
a least squares bundle adjustment to determine the principal distance (focal length); coordinates
of the principal point; specific UltraCam parameters for each CCD position in the focal plane of
each camera cone (shift, rotation, scale and perspective skew of each CCD); and traditional
radial and tangential lens distortion parameters for each of the eight lens cones. These
parameters provide the basic geometric description of each sensor. Within the post-processing of
each frame after the download of the raw images of a photo mission, the transformation
parameters between layers of a multi lens cone design are computed via a so-called stitching
method. This stitching method includes physical parameters of the camera body. The geometric
performance of the camera system is improved by introducing self-calibration capabilities into
the process of aerial triangulation. After the geometric laboratory calibration the performance of
every UltraCam is verified by a specific validation flight over a well-known test area, using high
overlap (80% endlap, 60% sidelap) and cross strips that offer a redundant dataset which allows
confirmation of the interior geometry of the camera. Automatic tie point matching with aerial
triangulation software yields image coordinates of approximate 1 µm accuracy. In summary,
Step 1 is the laboratory calibration; after this the camera description is available. Step 2 is the
stitching; after every flight every single frame needs to be post-processed, and the stitching is
one of the major parts of the post-processing. Step 3 is the validation flight; the validation flight
is nothing but a first flight mission done with every camera to prove the functionality, making
use of the well know test area with ground truth and the flight pattern with large overlaps.

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(4) Hexagon (Z/I Imaging) Digital Mapping Camera (DMC) Calibration. The DMC is
comprised of eight synchronously operating CCD cameras – four parallel multi-spectral cameras
and four panchromatic cameras that are slightly tilted and for which the high-resolution images
are mosaicked and transformed into one virtual image equivalent to a normal perspective
projection. DMC cameras are factory calibrated both geometrically and radiometrically. Similar
to the UltraCam, the DMC geometric calibration certificate for each of the eight camera heads
provides principal point coordinates, calibrated lens focal length, radial distortion parameters,
decentering distortion parameters, and in-plane distortion parameters. Z/I Imaging uses single
head calibrations for each of its eight camera heads, followed by platform calibration of all four
panchromatic camera heads that produce the virtual image registered to the four multispectral
images. For details on how the DMC is calibrated, see Zeitler, W. & Dörstel, C. (2002).
Geometric Calibration of the DMC: Method and Results, Proc. ISPRS Com I Symposium,
Denver.

(5) Hexagon (Leica) ADS Camera Calibration. There are currently three types of Airborne
Digital Sensors (ADS) in use as line scanners, also called pushbroom scanners. The ADS40 and
ADS80 both collect eight CCD lines with 12,000 pixels per line, whereas the ADS100 collects
13 CCD lines with 20,000 pixels per line. The calibration file that accompanies a Leica camera
calibration certificate contains calibrated pixel coordinates for each of the 12,000 to 20,000 pixels
per CCD line; and the calibration certificate also provides the inertial measurement unit (IMU)
misalignment in omega, phi and kappa. The IMU and airborne GPS are essential for line scanner
direct georeferencing, an alternative to traditional aerial triangulation with ground control. Leica
uses a laboratory calibration followed by self-calibration by bundle adjustment. For details on
how ADS cameras are calibrated, see Fuchs, T. & Adiguzel, M., Enhancement & Simplification
of Leica ADS Calibration Process.

e. Aircraft/Camera Platforms. Aerial acquisition firms have business models that determine
which airborne platform is the most cost-effective for specific projects. This section summarizes
considerations for alternative airborne platforms, to include single-engine and twin-engine
aircraft, helicopters, and unmanned aerial systems (UASs).

(1) Single-Engine Aircraft. Major advantages of single-engine aircraft for aerial image
acquisition are their low costs for initial investment, operation and maintenance. Single-engine
aircraft are not allowed to acquire imagery over some cities because there is no back-up should
the single engine stall or fail for any reason. Other disadvantages have been their relatively slow
rate-of-climb and cruising speeds, low service ceilings and limited space, power and take-off
weight to accommodate heavy equipment and crew. In recent decades, single-engine aircraft
have been less-used than twin-engine aircraft; but this is changing because modern aerial imaging
systems are becoming so automated that aerial image acquisitions can now be performed by a
pilot only, without camera operator in some organizations. Furthermore, single-engine aircraft
are now available with higher horsepower, higher speeds, and higher service ceilings, e.g., 7600
meter ceiling for the Cessna T210N single turbocharged piston platform.

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(2) Dual-Engine Aircraft. Major advantages of dual-engine aircraft for aerial image
acquisition are their higher performance (speed and altitude) and broader area coverage from
sensors that perform well at higher altitudes. They may be pressurized for operation at higher
altitudes. The larger aircraft offer more space for crews, cameras, and ancillary equipment such
as a flight management system (FMS), airborne GPS, inertial measurement unit (IMU) and data
storage units. Larger dual-engine aircraft are better suited for multiple sensors (e.g., both
imagery and LiDAR) with larger support equipment racks and electric power requirements.
Weight, power, and system stability must all be assessed prior to data collection. Major
disadvantages include higher costs for initial investment, operation and maintenance of dual-
engine aircraft. Potential weather delays will also cost more for a dual-engine aircraft than for a
single-engine aircraft when idled; therefore, the potential for weather delays may have a bearing
on decisions to use a single- or dual-engine aircraft.

(3) Helicopters. Major advantages of helicopters for aerial image acquisition are their
versatility and agility in quickly changing altitudes and direction of flight to follow meandering
roads, streams, levees, beaches, or power lines for corridor mapping or for mapping areas
inaccessible for fixed-wing aircraft. Helicopters are often used for engineering applications
where very high accuracy is required. Major helicopter disadvantages are much higher
operational costs per hour.

(4) Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs). Although not yet approved for use in the U.S.,
Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs) are becoming increasingly popular in other countries for
acquiring imagery of dangerous areas such as war zones or disaster areas where pilot safety
could be jeopardized by fixed- or rotary-wing aircraft flying over volcanoes, radiological,
chemical, or biological sites for example. They are also popular because they are far less
expensive to operate for simple mapping missions. In some cases, UASs with special sensors are
superior in searching for fugitives who would otherwise hide from noisy aircraft flying overhead.
Cost comparisons with alternative aerial platforms are currently unavailable, but UAVs are
expected to become more common for aerial data acquisition in the future.

f. Flight Planning. Flight planning is always the responsibility of the aerial acquisition
contractor. For much of the 20th century, flight maps were prepared manually using USGS
topographic quadrangle maps overlaid with project boundaries, flight lines and estimated photo
centers for each photograph to be acquired. As explained in section 1-1, these flight lines and
photo centers required complex computations of photo scale (as a function of camera focal length
and flying height); air base (distance between exposure stations of each stereo pair of images);
base/height ratios to achieve optimum imagery for selected applications; dimension of ground
coverage per photograph (as a function of photo scale); dimensions of “neat models” that can be
mapped in stereo from overlapping photographs; sidelap and flight line spacing; endlap and
spacing between individual photographs; integer number of flight lines (to include coverage
outside the project boundary lines); integer number of photographs for each flight line (to include

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coverage outside the project boundary), and estimated coordinates of each photo center to be
acquired. Today, this flight planning process is automated after entering basic information.
Trajectories are planned for each flight line. Furthermore, modern Flight Management Systems
(FMS) enable the pilot to fly these trajectories with close tolerance, and modern digital cameras
enable exposures to be taken at or near the planned 3D coordinates in the air for each photo
center without the highly skilled aerial photographers of the past who looked through viewfinders
to determine the aircraft’s approximate location and determine when imaging should commence.
Whereas the planned X/Y/Z coordinates of photo centers are now relatively easy to control, and
modern cameras have some forms of stabilization, the roll, pitch and yaw of the aircraft still
depends upon wind conditions. Regardless of camera(s) to be used, flight planning also includes
the assessment of military, DHS and other controlled air space where special permits may be
required. Flight planning will vary, depending on the characteristics of the film or digital camera
to be used and the acquisition aircraft selected for the project.

(1) Planning with Aerial Film Cameras. Many photogrammetrists are experienced with the
National Map Accuracy Standard (NMAS, 1947) and the ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-
Scale Maps (ASPRS, 1990) developed for topographic maps with a published map scale and
contour interval. With film, photogrammetric procedures have long been developed for camera
calibration, photo acquisition, film processing, aerial triangulation, and photogrammetric
compilation to achieve specified photo scales, map scales and/or contour intervals. The principal
photo acquisition flight planning parameters included flying height above mean terrain (AMT),
camera focal length, percent forward overlap and percent sidelap. Although stereo operator
expertise was a factor in determining what contour interval could be compiled, map accuracy was
predictable and maps were often accepted without the need for independent QA/QC to ensure that
accuracy standards are met. For topographic mapping, a lens with 6-inch (152-mm) focal length
was standard, although many firms used a lens with longer focal lengths (up to 12-inch) and flew
at higher altitudes to produce imagery more suitable for digital orthophotos. Other than the focal
length and flying height, not much else varied in planning for aerial photo acquisition – but the
success of a photo acquisition project remained unknown until the film was processed in a photo
lab and the imagery was examined to determine if there were any issues. Only then was it known
if re-flights were necessary. Even then, faulty optical scanners or faulty scanning procedures
sometimes damaged the film, causing the need for re-flights.

(2) Planning with Aerial Digital Cameras. With digital cameras, it no longer makes sense to
specify standard flying heights and other standard acquisition parameters. The principal flight
planning parameter changes from photo scale to ground sample distance (GSD) with digital
cameras; and the GSD is a function of flying height, lens focal length, and the pixel size of the
CCD sensors in the camera. With digital frame cameras, the rules for forward overlap and
sidelap are basically the same as film, except that it is much easier to acquire digital images with
80% or even 95% forward overlap for production of near “true orthophotos” in urban canyon
areas to minimize building lean. With digital pushbroom cameras looking downward, forward
and backward, every point on the ground is imaged three times from different angles, providing

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imagery with triple overlap everywhere. The major advantage of digital cameras is that the
camera operator can view acquired images in flight to determine if correct areas were
successfully acquired with cloud-free imagery and determine, in near-real time, whether there is
a need to re-acquire selected images. This in-flight review process differs for digital frame
cameras like the Digital Mapping Camera (DMC) and UltraCam cameras, or line sensor
(pushbroom) cameras like the ADS40, ADS80 or ADS100 airborne digital sensors. With
pushbroom cameras, each line scan is totally dependent on airborne GPS (ABGPS) acquisition of
X/Y/Z coordinates of the camera lens and inertial measurement unit (IMU) acquisition of
roll/pitch/yaw for each line scan for direct georeferencing. Only after processing the digital
imagery with auxiliary information (ABGPS and IMU) for direct referencing is it known for sure
that pushbroom image acquisition was successful, but this process has become so automated that
camera operators can determine in-flight that their acquisitions were successful. With digital
cameras, the film magazine is replaced with a ruggedized mass storage unit that stores thousands
of digital images for each sortie, subsequently downloaded to different media like removable
hard disk drives so that the mass storage unit is quickly ready for the next flight.

(3) Aircraft Planning. Although single piston engine aircraft are still used for some mapping
projects, twin engine aircraft are used for the bulk of airborne remote sensing capture needs
today. Twin engine aircraft provide
efficient operations for sensors up to
20,000 feet above sea level; they are
equipped with power sources to
handle a suite of modern digital
sensors; they offer workspace and
comfort to the pilot and camera
operator; and the twin engines
provide additional safety in the event
a single engine should stall.
Maintenance, operation, ferry and
collection costs can be quite variable
among different twin engine aircraft.
For altitudes above 20,000 feet,
performance is improved when using
turboprop or jet aircraft instead of
piston aircraft.

(4) Flight Line Planning. Flight

maps should be prepared by the
contractor. Such maps are produced Figure 1-15. Aerial photography flight map showing
pre-flight with planned flight lines and pre-planned flight lines and photo centers to achieve
photo centers. Figure 1-15 shows a desired forward overlap and sidelap.
flight diagram with 21 planned flight

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lines and photo-center coordinates for images to be acquired. Automated flight planning
software computes flight parameters to ensure proper photo scale (or digital image GSD), end
lap, side lap, terrain clearance and stereo coverage extending well beyond the project
boundaries. With modern Flight Management Systems on acquisition aircraft, and an
experienced crew, actual photo center coordinates (in the air) when acquired are often within 1
meter of pre-planned coordinates.

Ground Control. This section covers ground control requirements for photogrammetric
mapping projects so as to establish local accuracy and/or network accuracy. Local accuracy is a
value that represents the uncertainty in the coordinates of a data point relative to the coordinates
of other directly connected, adjacent data points at the 95% confidence level; local accuracy
may be used for stand-alone projects where it is not necessary for the mapping project to fit
adjoining projects or a national network. Network accuracy, is a value that represents the
uncertainty in the coordinates of a control point with respect to the geodetic datum at the 95%
confidence level. For National Spatial Reference System (NSRS) network accuracy
classifications in the United States, the datum is considered to be best expressed by the geodetic
values at the Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS) supported by the National
Geodetic Survey (NGS). By this definition, the network accuracy values at CORS sites are
considered to be infinitesimal, that is, to approach zero. It is not necessary to directly connect to
a CORS to compute the network accuracy of a control point; however, it is necessary that the
survey be properly connected to existing NSRS control points with established network
accuracy values.

a. Control Survey References. Control surveys associated with projects shall be in

compliance with the FGDC Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, Part 4: Standards for
Architecture, Engineering, Construction (A/E/C) and Facility Management. The fundamental
requirements for control network configuration, point location, and image characteristics are
discussed in this EM manual. However, the overview presented is not intended to be used for
field survey design or survey procedural instruction. The specification writer or
photogrammetric engineer should refer to appropriate survey standards and specifications for
guidance in designing the project control surveys. Current standards should be employed.
Outdated unrevised standards can provide outdated technology and procedure guidance and cost
the Government unnecessary time and money. Listed below are some of the other current (at the
time of the publication of this Engineering Manual) publications that may be used.

(1) FGDC Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, Part 2, Standards for Geodetic
Networks, 1998

(2) EM 1110-1-1002 Survey Markers and Monumentation, September 1990

(3) EM 1110-1-1003 Navstar Global Positioning System Surveying, February 2011

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(4) NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NGS-58, Guidelines for Establishing GPS-
Derived Ellipsoid Heights (Standards: 2 cm and 5 cm), version 4.3, November 1997

(5) NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NGS-59, Guidelines for Establishing GPS-
Derived Orthometric Heights, March 2008

(6) ASPRS Positioning Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data, 2014

b. Ground Control Requirements for Photogrammetric Mapping. Field surveying for

photogrammetric ground control is generally a two-step process to establish basic and photo
control. If ground control is being established for the purpose of orienting stereo models in a
stereo photogrammetric workstation, an ASPRS Certified Photogrammetrist shall be involved in
planning the basic and photo control requirements for aerial triangulation.

(1) Basic Control. The first

step consists of establishing a
network of basic control in the
project area. This basic control
consists of horizontal control
monuments and benchmarks of
vertical control that will serve as a
reference framework for subsequent
surveys. The basic control network
is normally established using GPS
surveys relative to CORS stations,
with negligible positional errors, or
to control monuments documented
with NGS Data Sheet positional
accuracy statements. Whereas NGS
previously published Orders of
Accuracy based on proportional
accuracy statements (with orders
AA, A and B being the most
accurate), since the national
adjustment of 2007, NGS has Figure 1-16. Sample NGS Data Sheet that shows horizontal and
published the accuracy of the vertical network accuracy at the 95% confidence level. Much
horizontal and ellipsoid height additional data is also included with NGS Data Sheets beyond
components of the National Spatial what is shown here.
Reference System (NSRS) as a positional accuracy statement, e.g., 0.41 cm horizontal accuracy
at the 95% confidence level per the example at Figure 1-16. Go to http://www.ngs.noaa.gov,
then click on Survey Mark Datasheets and/or CORS for a defined search area. If a control
network of horizontal control monuments and vertical control benchmarks does not exist, a

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control network will first need to be established per references cited above. Figure 1-16 shows an
example NGS Data Sheet with the red arrow pointing at the horizontal and vertical network
accuracy at the 95% confidence level. In addition to data shown here, Data Sheets typically also
include additional information such as: State Plane and UTM coordinates; U.S. National Grid
spatial address; explanations of how horizontal coordinates, ellipsoid heights and orthometric
heights were determined; station description and instructions for finding the monument; station
recovery history, etc.

(2) Photo Control. The second step involves establishing photo control by means of surveys
originating from the basic control network of higher accuracy. Photo control points are photo-
identifiable points that can be observed and measured on the aerial photograph and in a stereo
model. Photo control points are the actual points appearing in the
images, either pre-marked painted targets (Figure 1-17) or
removable panels (Figure 1-18), or photo-identifiable points, as in
Figures 1-19 and 1-20, that are surveyed relative to the basic control
network and used to control photogrammetric operations.

(a) Pre-Marked Targets or Panels. Dimensions of painted and

removable targets or panels are computed as a function of planned
photo scale or digital image resolution so that the targets or panels
are visible on the
imagery and can be
accurately
measured.
Removable panels
are typically
constructed from
plastic or cardboard
with colors that
contrast with the
surrounding terrain.
Figure 1-17. Painted photo control targets are
commonly used when paved roads are available in
Such temporary
desired locations. panels are normally
used in remote areas
where there are no man-made features that can be used or painted
on concrete or asphalt. When permanent paint marks are considered
Figure 1-18. Three typical
unsightly, biodegradable paint can be used that will disappear in shapes of removable photo
time. For planning purposes, care must be taken to ensure removable control panels.
targets are not disturbed/moved prior to image acquisition, and
permission and right of entry must be obtained from the land owner. Pre-marked targets or
panels must be established prior to commencement of aerial photography.

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(b) Photo-Identifiable Points. Figures 1-19 and 1-20 illustrate a good example of a point
feature that is photo-identifiable at common image resolutions. Figure 1-19 shows how the 90-
degree corner between trimmed grass and concrete provides a clear survey point for the GPS
tripod and antenna used for photo control surveys; and Figure 1-20 shows how that 90-degree
corner appears clearly on an image requiring photo-identifiable control. Photo-identifiable
points can be established after commencement of aerial photography, especially if pre-marked
targets or panels were obscured or disturbed at time of image acquisition. If not used for photo
control, such photo-identifiable points are commonly used as QA/QC check points for accuracy
testing.

Figure 1-19. Photo control or QA/QC check Figure 1-20. The corner is clearly photo-identifiable
point surveyed at 90° corner of grass and on the image to be controlled or tested.
concrete.
(3) Control Point Location/Distribution. Figure 1-21 shows the location of nine “Von Gruber
points” selected in the triple overlap areas of adjoining photographs when airborne GPS is not
used to provide control. The number of control points and their optimum locations depend on
whether or not direct georeferencing is used from airborne GPS recordings of X/Y/Z coordinates
and inertial navigation system (INS) recording of angular orientation angles ω/φ/κ (roll, pitch,
and heading) for each image. Prior to the use of direct georeferencing, it was common practice
that each stereo pair of images should have three or four horizontal and vertical control points
widely spaced in the corners of stereo models to cover overlapping flight lines. However, with
modern digital cameras and direct georeferencing systems, as few as four control points may be
adequate for an entire block of images in a single aerial triangulation. Automated image
correlation of hundreds of tie points and pass points per stereo pair also helps to strengthen the
aerial triangulation solution better than in the past when a high number of expensive control
points were used. Care should be exercised to ensure that photo control points do not fall in
shadowed areas.

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(a) Without Airborne GPS. When

airborne GPS control is not used to record the
3D coordinates of the camera lens’ focal point
when each image is acquired, then it is
common to survey photo control in one of
three central “Von Gruber points” (Figure 4-

21) in the triple-overlap area in each third

stereo model (also see Figure 1-6). In this
example, points d, e or f would provide
minimum photo control for the first, second
and third images. Continuing this sequence,
points m, n or o would provide minimum
photo control for the fourth, fifth and sixth
images. Therefore, there are approximately
one-third as many photo control points
required as there are images acquired. See the
aerial triangulation section, below, for
establishment of supplemental photo control
(pass points and tie points). Figure 1-21. Von Gruber points. With 60% forward
overlap, any of these nine locations (a through i) on an
(b) With Airborne GPS. When airborne aerial image, in the triple-overlap area, can enable
GPS is used and integrated into the aerial photo control to be established for three consecutive
triangulation, the amount of photo control images over land areas. With 30% sidelap between
flight lines, points c, f or i can also tie adjoining flight
points can be greatly reduced. Airborne GPS
lines together.
projects require a block of imagery that
includes the mapping area. Photo control point configuration for an airborne GPS project should
include horizontal and vertical points at defining corners of the block plus selected skeletal
horizontal/vertical points selected throughout the block. The amount of additional skeletal
primary ground control is based on considerations such as map accuracy, terrain, geoid model in
the project area, equipment, and available network control. A Contractor with proven experience
should be used for airborne GPS projects. The amount and location of ground control necessary
is site dependent. The primary ground control points and airborne GPS points (at photo centers)
will all be used in the aerial triangulation solution.

c. Photogrammetric Mapping Accuracy Requirements. The accuracy of the basic control

network is of higher order than subsequent photo control surveys; however, it does not dictate
survey control requirements – only the required accuracy of the photogrammetric products as
delivered. Nevertheless, the following subsections are from the ASPRS Positioning Accuracy
Standards for Digital Geospatial Data that define best practices within ASPRS.

(1) Accuracy Requirements for Aerial Triangulation. The following is quoted from section
7.7 of the ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data (see Appendix C).

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“The quality and accuracy of the aerial triangulation (if performed) and/or the Inertial
Navigation System –based (INS-based) sensor orientations (if used for direct orientation of
the camera) play a key role in determining the final accuracy of imagery derived mapping
products. For photogrammetric data sets, the aerial triangulation and/or INS-based direct
orientation accuracies must be of higher accuracy than is needed for the final, derived
products. For INS-based direct orientation, image orientation angles quality shall be
evaluated by comparing check point coordinates read from the imagery (using stereo
photogrammetric measurements or other appropriate method) to the coordinates of the check
point as determined from higher accuracy source data. Aerial triangulation accuracies shall
be evaluated using one of the following methods:”

“1) By comparing the values of the coordinates of the check points as computed in the
aerial triangulation solution to the coordinates of the check points as determined from higher
accuracy source data;

“2) By comparing the values of the coordinates read from the imagery (using stereo
photogrammetric measurements or other appropriate method) to the coordinates of the check
point as determined from higher accuracy source data."

“For projects providing deliverables that are only required to meet accuracies in x and y
(orthoimagery or two-dimensional vector data), aerial triangulation errors in z have a smaller
impact on the horizontal error budget than errors in x and y. In such cases, the aerial
triangulation requirements for RMSEz can be relaxed. For this reason the standard recognizes
two different criteria for aerial triangulation accuracy:”

“1) Accuracy of aerial triangulation designed for digital planimetric data (orthoimagery
and/or digital planimetric map) only:

RMSEx(AT) or RMSEy(AT) = ½ * RMSEx(Map) or RMSEy(Map)

RMSEz(AT) = RMSEx(Map) or RMSEy(Map) of orthoimagery

“Note: The exact contribution of aerial triangulation errors in z to the overall

horizontal error budget for the products depends on ground point location in the image and
other factors. The relationship stated here for an RMSEz (AT) of twice the allowable RMSE
in x or y is a conservative estimate that accommodates the typical range of common camera
geometries and provides allowance for many other factors that impact the horizontal error
budget.

“2) Accuracy of aerial triangulation designed for elevation data, or planimetric data
(orthoimagery and/or digital planimetric map) and elevation data production:

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RMSEx(AT), RMSEy(AT) or RMSEz(AT) = ½ * RMSEx(Map), RMSEy(Map) or RMSEz(DEM)”

The full ASPRS standards are at Appendix C, for which Annex B, Data Accuracy and Quality
Examples, provides practical examples of these AT requirements.

(2) Horizontal Accuracy Requirements for Digital Orthophotos. Different RMSE values may
be appropriate for different applications as shown in Table 1-1, extracted from Table 3-4.

Table 1-1. Digital Orthoimagery Accuracy Examples for Current Metric Large and Medium Format
Cameras (Metric Units), abbreviated from Table 3-4. See Chapter 3 for a similar table in English units.
Recommended
Common Horizontal Accuracy Orthoimage
Orthoimagery Class RMSEx & RMSEy Recommended use
Pixel Sizes 1 RMSEx & RMSEy (cm) in terms of pixels

≤1.25 ≤1-pixel Highest accuracy

1.25 cm 2.5 2-pixels Standard high accuracy
≥3.75 ≥3-pixels Lower accuracy - visualization
≤2.5 ≤1-pixel Highest accuracy
2.5 cm 5 2-pixels Standard high accuracy
≥7.5 ≥3-pixels Lower accuracy - visualization
≤5 ≤1-pixel Highest accuracy
5 cm 10 2-pixels Standard high accuracy
≥15 ≥3-pixels Lower accuracy - visualization
≤7.5 ≤1-pixel Highest accuracy
7.5 cm 15 2-pixels Standard high accuracy
≥22.5 ≥3-pixels Lower accuracy - visualization
≤15 ≤1-pixel Highest accuracy
15 cm 30 2-pixels Standard high accuracy
≥45 ≥3-pixels Lower accuracy - visualization
≤30 ≤1-pixel Highest accuracy
30 cm 60 2-pixels Standard high accuracy
≥90 ≥3-pixels Lower accuracy - visualization
≤60 ≤1-pixel Highest accuracy
60 cm 120 2-pixels Standard high accuracy
≥180 ≥3-pixels Lower accuracy - visualization

1
It should be noted that in Table 1-1, it is the pixel size of the final digital orthoimagery that is used to associate the horizontal
accuracy class, not the Ground Sample Distance (GSD) of the raw image. When producing digital orthoimagery, the GSD as
acquired by the sensor (and as computed at mean average terrain) should not be more than 95% of the final orthoimage pixel size.
In extremely steep terrain, additional consideration may need to be given to the variation of the GSD across low lying areas in order
to ensure that the variation in GSD across the entire image does not significantly exceed the target pixel size. In all cases, the
orthoimage mosaic seamline maximum mismatch is 2 x the value for RMSEx and RMSEy, and horizontal accuracy at the 95%
confidence level is 2.4477 x the value for RMSEx and RMSEy.

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As explained in Chapter 3, horizontal accuracy standards for digital orthophotos could be any
horizontal accuracy class for which RMSEx and RMSEy is specified (see Table 1-2).

Table 1-2 Horizontal Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data

Relative Accuracy
Absolute Accuracy
Horizontal Measures
Accuracy RMSEx and Horizontal Accuracy at Orthoimagery Mosaic
RMSEr
Class RMSEy 95% Confidence Level Seamline Mismatch
(cm)
cm) (cm) (cm)
X-cm or
≤X ≤1.41*X ≤2.45*X ≤ 2*X
X-inch

(3) Horizontal Accuracy Requirements for Planimetric Maps. Similarly, as explained in

Chapter 3, horizontal accuracy standards for digital planimetric maps could be any horizontal
accuracy class for which RMSEx and RMSEy is specified (see Table 1-2). However, different
RMSE values may be appropriate for different ground sample distances (GSDs) of source
imagery and/or for intended map scales, as shown in Table 1-3 below. For standard high
accuracy applications, the map scale listed in the Table 1-3 column for ASPRS 1990 Class 1
remains relevant also for the new ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data.

Table 1-3 Horizontal Accuracy/Quality Examples for High Accuracy Digital Planimetric Data (Metric
Units) See Chapter 3 for a similar table in English units.
Equivalent to map
ASPRS 2014
scale in
Horizontal Horizontal
Accuracy Accuracy at Approximate ASPRS ASPRS Equivalent to
Class RMSEx RMSEr map scale in
the 95% GSD of Source 1990 1990
(cm) Confidence Imagery (cm) Class 1 Class 2 NMAS
& RMSEy
(cm) Level (cm)
2.5 3.5 6.1 1.25 to 2.5 1:100 1:50 1:63
5 7.1 12.2 2.5 to 5 1:200 1:100 1:127
7.5 10.6 18.4 3.75 to 7.5 1:300 1:150 1:190
10 14.1 24.5 5 to 10 1:400 1:200 1:253
15 21.2 36.7 7.5 to 15 1:600 1:300 1:380
20 28.3 49.0 10 to 20 1:800 1:400 1:507
30 42.4 73.4 15 to 30 1:1,200 1:600 1:760
60 84.9 146.9 30 to 60 1:2,400 1:1,200 1:1,521
100 141.4 244.8 50 to 100 1:4,000 1:2,000 1:2,535
200 282.8 489.5 100 to 200 1:8,000 1:4000 1:5,069

(4) Elevation Accuracy Requirements for Topographic Maps. Vertical accuracy standards
for topographic maps and data could be any vertical accuracy class for which RMSEz is specified
(see Table 1-4).

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Table 1-4 Vertical Accuracy Standards for Digital Elevation Data

Absolute Accuracy Relative Accuracy (where applicable)

Vertical Within-Swath Swath-to-Swath Swath-to-Swath

RMSEz NVA at 95% VVA at
Accuracy Hard Surface Non-Vegetated Non-Vegetated
Non- Confidence 95th
Class Repeatability Terrain Terrain
Vegetated Level Percentile
(Max Diff) (RMSDz) (Max Diff)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
X-cm or
≤X ≤1.96*X ≤3.00*X ≤0.60*X ≤0.80*X ≤1.60*X
X-inch

(5) Table 1-5 specifies primary vertical data accuracy classes applicable to topographic maps
or digital topographic data compiled at ten vertical accuracy classes. The last two columns on the
right pertain to LiDAR swaths and non-relevant to photogrammetric data.

Table 1-5 Vertical Accuracy/Quality Examples for Digital Elevation Data (Metric Units). See Chapter 3 for a
similar table in English units.

Relative Accuracy Max Diff (cm)

Absolute Accuracy (cm)
(where applicable)
Vertical
NVA
Accuracy RMSEz VVA Appropriate Within-Swath Swath-to-Swath
at 95%
Class Non- at 95th Contour Hard Surface Non-Veg
Confidence
Vegetated Percentile Interval Repeatability Terrain
Level
1-cm 1 2 3 3 0.6 1.6
2.5-cm 2.5 4.9 7.5 7.5 1.5 4
5-cm 5 9.8 15 15 3 8
10-cm 10 19.6 30 30 6 16
15-cm 15 29.4 45 45 9 24
20-cm 20 39.2 60 60 12 32
33.3-cm 33.3 65.3 100 100 20 53.3
66.7-cm 66.7 130.7 200 200 40 106.7
100-cm 100 196.0 300 300 60 160
333.3-cm 333.3 653.3 1,000 1,000 200 533.3

d. Survey Control Planning. In planning for aerial photogrammetric mapping projects,

managers must be familiar with FGDC-STD-007.4-2002, Geospatial Positioning Accuracy
Standards PART 4: Standards for Architecture, Engineering, Construction (A/E/C) and Facility
Management.

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Other references relevant to mapping control include EM 1110-1-1002, Survey Markers and
Monumentation; EM 1110-1-1003, Navstar Global Positioning System Surveying; NOAA
Technical Memorandum NOS NGS-58, Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Ellipsoid
Heights (Standards: 2 cm and 5 cm), version 4.3; and NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS
NGS-59, Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Orthometric Heights. These standards and
guidelines are relevant to the three forms of mapping control for aerial photogrammetric
mapping, i.e., ground control, airborne GPS control, and quality control check points.

(1) Ground Control Planning. In planning for ground control surveys, several questions
need to be answered: Q1: Will airborne GPS be used to record the approximate coordinates of
the camera as each exposure is taken? If “yes,” the requirements for basic survey control and
photo control will be greatly reduced. Q2: For basic survey control, is there already a network of
accurate survey control in the project area that can be used to establish network accuracy for
subsequent GPS or conventional ground surveys? See network accuracy reference in sample
NGS Data Sheet example at Figure 1-16. Q3: For photo control in areas without existing photo-
identifiable point features, are there impervious surfaces around the project area suitable for
painted targets (see Figure 1-17), or will removable survey panels (see Figure 1-18) be required
to establish photo-identifiable targets in required locations? Q4: For photo control, is the area to
be mapped a built-up area with existing photo-identifiable point features throughout the project
area that can be surveyed for photo control? See photo-
identifiable feature examples at Figures 1-19 and 1-20.

(2) Airborne GPS Control. In most photomapping

companies, it is now common to include ABGPS for
recording the 3D (X/Y/Z) coordinates of the camera’s
focal point, plus an inertial measurement unit (IMU) for
recording the roll, pitch and yaw of the camera, when
each photo/image is taken (see Figure 1-22). This is
called direct georeferencing. When six exterior
orientation parameters of each image (X/Y/Z and
roll/pitch/yaw) are known, requirements for surveyed
ground control are greatly reduced and the aerial
triangulation process is simplified. With digital
pushbroom cameras (e.g., ADS40/ADS80/ADS100
airborne digital sensors), ABGPS and IMU are
mandatory but either or both are recommended for film
or digital frame cameras such as the UltraCam or Digital Figure 1-22. With direct
Mapping Camera (DMC). Planning for ABGPS control georeferencing, airborne GPS (ABGPS)
includes consideration of the project area (size and site records the position and the inertial
measurement unit (IMU) records the
access for base stations); flight times and maximum orientation as each photo/image is
acquired.

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allowable GPS baseline distance between GPS base stations and aircraft; basic photogrammetric
and aerial triangulation requirements, including forward overlap between images and sidelap
between flight lines; satellite availability during the collection period; location of suitable GPS
base stations; location and number of ground GPS receivers required; data collection rate for the
receivers; aircraft and ground crew logistics (base stations and aircraft receivers must use the
same satellite configuration and limitations); calibration of antenna/ camera “lever arm” offset;
ABGPS system cost; and experience of pilot, operator and post-processing personnel.
Furthermore, back-up alternatives should be planned for in the event the ABGPS/IMU data are
unusable. ABGPS receivers must be capable of tracking both coarse acquisition (C/A) and
pseudo range (P-code) data. They must provide dual frequency (L1 and L2) and multi-channel
capability with on-the-fly ambiguity resolution and be able to log GPS data at 1-second epochs or
better. ABGPS is not necessarily less expensive than obtaining conventional ground control,
though it is generally recognized that projects for 1”=100’ mapping with 2 foot contour accuracy
or smaller can realize significant savings in time with the use of ABGPS. ABGPS technology
usually provides maximum benefit for projects that can be accomplished in larger blocks of
photography with multiple flight lines. This technology has been highly successful on mapping
projects to date.

(3) Pre-Marking of Photo Control. Pre-marking of photo control points is recommended for
high accuracy mapping. Marking control points with targets before the flight is the most reliable
and accurate way to establish photo control points. Appropriate survey points in the basic control
network can also be targeted to make them photo-identifiable. When the terrain is relatively
featureless, targeting will improve point identification accuracy and reliability; however, pre-
marking is also a significant expense in terms of survey hours, purchased materials, and the fact
that the targets must be placed and maintained in the field until flying is completed. The target
itself should be designed to produce the best possible photo control image by means of a target
design that has good color contrast, is symmetrical in shape, can be readily centered over the
control point, and is a target size that yields a satisfactory visible image on the resulting imagery.

(a) Target Location. The optimum location for photo control points is in the triple overlap
area of adjoining images (see Figure 1-21, points d, e and f). However, when control is pre-
marked, it is difficult to ensure that the target will fall in the center of the triple overlap area
when the photography is flown. Care should be taken that targets are not located too near the
edge of the strip coverage where the target might fall outside of the model.

(b) Target Material. Targets may be made of cloth or plastic or may be painted on plywood,
fiberboard, or similar sheet material, or on pavement or flat rock outcrops. Flexible targets may
be made by assembling pieces of the material to form the pattern, or by printing the pattern on
sheet material. Cloth, paint, and other material used for targets should have a non-glossy matte
surface. Targets should be held in place by spikes, stakes, small sandbags, or any other means
necessary to keep them in position and maintain flatness.

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(c) Target Shape. Targets should be symmetrical in design to aid the photogrammetric
operator in finding and measuring the control point. Panels can be developed in X, Y, T and V
shapes. The center portion of the panel should be centered over the survey control point, as this
is the point at which the image measurements will be made. The legs of the cross-pattern help in
identifying the targets on the photos, and also in determining the center of the target indirectly
should the image of the center panel turn out to be unclear.

(d) Target Size. Target sizes should be designed on the basis of intended photo scale so that
the target images are the optimum size for finding and measuring on the photos. With digital
cameras, the target size is related to the ground sample distance (GSD) or pixel size of the raw
imagery. An image size of about five square pixels or less for the central panel is a convenient
design value. If the ground dimension of the central panel of the target in Figure 1-18 is D, then
the leg width should also be D, the leg length should be about 5D, and the open space between
the central panel and each leg should be D. Target sizes are readily calculated once photo scale
and optimum target image size are selected. If, for example, a central panel size of 3 pixels is
desired, and imagery is to be acquired with a GSD of 10 cm, then D should be 30 cm.

(e) Target Maintenance. All targets should be maintained in place and protected from (or
restored after) damage by man, animals, or weather until photography has been completed. As
soon as feasible after photography, each target should be inspected to check whether it has been
moved from its proper position or otherwise disturbed in any way; this fact should be reported in
the photo control survey report. Damaged or lost targets will require that the photography on
which the targets should have appeared to be replaced with a new flight, if the lost targets will
jeopardize meeting the accuracy requirement for the photogrammetric product. As an alternative
to replacing or relocating lost targets and replacing the deficient photography, it may be
permissible (depending on accuracy requirements) to substitute natural features for the lost
targets, when acceptable natural objects are present and suitably located to replace lost targets.

(4) Post-Marking of Photo-Identifiable Control. Post-marking of photo control points after

the photography is flown is a method that may be used for lower accuracy mapping. The
postmarking method consists of examining the photography after it is flown and choosing natural
features in the image that most closely meet the characteristics for horizontal or vertical photo
control points (see Figures 1-19 and 1-20 for example). The selected features are then located in
the field by reconnaissance and then field surveyed from local basic control monuments. One
advantage of postmarking photo control points is that the control point can be chosen in optimum
locations at the corners of the stereo models and in the triple overlap areas. The principal
disadvantage of postmarking is that the natural feature may not be as well defined as a targeted
survey monument either in the field or on the image.

e. Ground Control Surveys. Section 4-4a, above, provides the major control survey
references. According to FGDC Standards, Part 4, the accuracy of control surveys may be

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specified as either positional tolerance accuracy or relative closure ratio accuracy, but stating:
“Where practical and allowable, positional accuracy standards should be used instead of closure
accuracy standards.” . In all cases Horizontal (radial) accuracy at the 95% confidence level =
RMSEr * 1.7308
and Vertical accuracy at the 95% confidence level = RMSEz * 1.9600.

(1) Conventional Surveys. If GPS-based positional accuracy procedures cannot be used,

then the closure standards from the FGDC Standards, may be used, as listed in Tables 1-6 and
1-7 for conventional horizontal and elevation surveys.

Table 1-6. Minimum Closure Standards for Table 1-7. Minimum Elevation Closure
Engineering and Construction Control Surveys Standards for Vertical Control Surveys
Horizontal Closure Elevation Closure
Classification Order
Standard Classification Order Standard
Engineering and Distance Angle (ft.) (mm)
Construction Control (Ratio) (Seconds) First-Order, Class I 0.013√M 3√K
Second-Order, Class I 1:50,000 3√N First-Order, Class II 0.017√M 4√K
Second-Order, Class II 1:20,000 5√N Second-Order, Class I 0.025√M 6√K
Third-Order, Class I 1:10,000 10√N Second-Order, Class II 0.035√M 8√K
Third-Order, Class II 1:5,000 20√N Third-Order 0.050√M 12√K
Fourth-Order (Constr.) 1:2,500 60√N Construction Layout 0.100√M 24√K

√N = square root of N (number of angle stations)

√M = square root of M (distance in miles)

√K = square root of K (distance in kilometers)

(2) Survey Report. Unless otherwise modified by the contract specifications, the following
materials will be delivered to the Government upon completion of the control surveys:

(a) General report describing the project and survey procedures used including description
of the project area, location, and existing control used; description of the basic and photo control
survey network and geometry; description of the survey instruments and field methods used;
description of the survey adjustment method and results such as closures and precision of
adjusted positions; justification for any survey points omitted from the final adjusted network.

(b) One set of images showing all control points. The points should be symbolized and
named on the image, and the point location coordinates should be included.

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(c) A list of the adjusted coordinates of all horizontal and vertical basic and photo control
points.

f. QA/QC Check Point Surveys. Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) check points
are used to test the horizontal accuracy of digital orthophotos and planimetric data (see RMSEx,
RMSEy and RMSEr in Tables 3-4 through 3-7 in Chapter 3) and/or to test the vertical accuracy
of elevation data (see RMSEz in Tables 3-8 and 3-9 in Chapter 3). These RMSE statistics are
then used to report the tested horizontal and vertical accuracy of geospatial data consistent with
the ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data, i.e., “Tested __ (meters,
feet) horizontal accuracy at 95% confidence level”, “Tested __ (meters, feet) non-vegetated
vertical accuracy (NVA) at 95% confidence level”, and “Tested __ (meters, feet) vegetated
vertical accuracy (VVA) at 95th percentile. Four rules generally pertain to the survey of QA/QC
check points: (1) where feasible, the number of check points should be consistent with those
recommended by ASPRS in Table 1-8, based on project area; (2) horizontal check points should
be point features clearly identifiable on the ground and on the dataset being tested (see Figures
1-19 and 1-20); (3) the survey procedure for horizontal and vertical check points should yield
accuracy at least three times better than required of the geospatial product being tested; and (4)
the check points should be well distributed with at least 20% of the points located in each
quadrant of the mapped area, spaced at interval equal to at least 10% of the map sheet diagonal, if
practical to obtain such distribution. QA/QC check points should always be surveyed relative to
existing NSRS control points with established network accuracy values.

Table 1-8 Recommended Number of Check Points Based on Area

Horizontal Accuracy
Vertical and Horizontal Accuracy Testing of Elevation
Testing of Orthoimagery
Project Area Data sets
and Planimetrics
(Square
Total Number of Static Number of Static Number of Total Number of
Kilometers)
2D/3D Check Points 3D Check Points Static 3D Check Static 3D Check
(clearly-defined points) in NVA Points in VVA Points
≤500 20 20 5 25
501-750 25 20 10 30
751-1000 30 25 15 40
1001-1250 35 30 20 50
1251-1500 40 35 25 60
1501-1750 45 40 30 70
1751-2000 50 45 35 80
2001-2250 55 50 40 90
2251-2500 60 55 45 100

g. Coordinate Reference Systems. The coordinate reference system is the backbone of a

mapping project. It provides the framework to tie together all field survey and map data. The
coordinate reference system must be specified for the final map product. Typically, the State

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Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) zone or the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) zone in
which the project is located is used to define a mapping coordinate system. When a discrete
project covers more than one zone, it normal to use the single more-predominant SPCS or UTM
zone for the overall project area. The North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) with the latest
adjustment of the National Geodetic Survey (NGS), currently NSRS2007, shall be used for the
horizontal datum, and the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88) shall be used as
the vertical datum for projects within the continental United States unless unique circumstances
make the use of these datums unreasonable. The photogrammetric engineer must be familiar with
the reference datums, the coordinate system definition, and the methods required for transforming
all data into the final map coordinate system. This includes the conversion of ellipsoid heights
(from data collected with airborne GPS) to orthometric heights (the correct term for elevation
data) by application of the latest geoid model endorsed by NGS. The latest geoid model for the
U.S. is GEOID12A. Horizontal and vertical reference datums, geoid model, and coordinate
systems used shall be clearly identified as part of the ground control metadata and in
specifications for surveying contractors performing photogrammetric ground control data
collection.

1-5. Aerial Image Acquisition. Section 1-3 summarizes the major project planning steps for
photogrammetric mapping projects to include review of project specifications, image acquisition
planning, aircraft and flight line planning, and planning for ground control and/or airborne GPS
control. Section 1-4 summarizes ground control survey procedures. Section 1-5 addresses other
considerations for successful aerial image acquisition. Before commencement of aerial image
acquisition by a subcontractor, the prime contractor shall furnish the Government Contracting
Officer, in writing, the name of such subcontractor, for advance approval by the government’s
Contracting Officer, together with a statement as to the extent and character of the work to be
done under the subcontract, including applicable camera reports/certificates consistent with
section 1-3c. Whereas the Government encourages the use of small business enterprises,
including woman-owned, minority-owned, disabled veteran-owned, and HUB Zone
subcontractors, the prime contractor remains responsible for what its subcontractors do, or fail to
do, as part of the prime contract. The aerial acquisition contractor is responsible for operating and
maintaining the aircraft used in conformance with all governing Federal Aviation Administration
and Civil Aeronautics Board regulations over such aircraft. Any inspection or maintenance of the
aircraft resulting in missing favorable weather will not be considered as an excusable cause for
delay. The flight crew and camera operator shall have had a minimum of 400 hours experience in
flying precise photogrammetric mapping missions. The aerial acquisition contractor shall
continuously monitor the image coverage and quality and shall undertake immediate reflights of
areas wherein coverage does not meet specifications. Subsequent rejection of imagery by the
prime contractor or the Government shall not in itself be a reason for granting a delay for another
photo season. Failure to undertake reflights or delays in forwarding imagery for preliminary
inspection (if required) that result in a lost season may be reason to invoke default of contract.

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a. Factors Impacting Acquisition Costs. Many factors impact the costs and overall success
of aerial image acquisition.

(1) Aircraft Utilization. Total aircraft utilization to, from, between, and over project sites is
based on the provisions contained in the contract. For the purposes of estimating aircraft
operational time, any day containing two or more consecutive hours of suitable flying conditions,
in any sizable portion of the area not yet imaged, will be considered a suitable acquisition day.

(2) Aircraft Standby. Detailed requirements, conditions, notification procedures, and

compensation provisions for emergency dedication of an aircraft to a Command shall be
specified. Direct and indirect costs shall be clearly identified in establishing the crew-day rate for
such an item. They do not routinely pay for aircrews idled by common weather conditions that
cause flight delays. Typical flight delays need to be factored into the original cost estimation
process as discussed below.

(3) Flying Conditions. Flying conditions must be considered in aerial image flight planning
because they influence the amount of flying time, project cost, delivery schedule, quality of
imagery, or accuracy of the mapping data. Aerial imaging should not be attempted without
permission of the Contracting Officer when the ground is obscured by haze, smoke, snow,
vegetation or dust, or when the clouds or cloud shadows will appear on more than 5 percent of
the area of any one image.

(4) Sun Angle. Aerial imaging should normally be undertaken when the sun angle is 30
degrees or greater above the horizon. Special care must be taken to minimize shadows in
mountainous and canyon areas because shadows are black or contain reduced detail. The sun
angle lessens during the winter to the point where it not only shortens the flying day but it also
creates long, dense shadows, especially on wooded north-facing slopes. When the sun angle
drops below 30 degrees to the horizon, imaging should normally be terminated. This condition
is a problem for only a few days in the southern two-thirds of the country. In the northern third
of the conterminous states, this condition could be more restrictive; but during that time frame
the northern latitudes could also be snow covered, which would also deter imaging. Exceptions
to the stated sun angle may be made with digital cameras with 12-bit image capture that provide
superior tonal range and visual detail in shadows. Because of the expanded tonal range, images
exposed in less than ideal flying conditions with 12-bit digital imagery can still provide usable
information in darker shadows, effectively extending the acquisition window each day. Flight
missions from AM to PM collect will place shadows on opposite sides of the structure, so must
be discussed.

(5) Weather Conditions. Aerial imagery should not be acquired during poor weather
conditions. Excessive wind conditions that will not permit acquisition within flight line
tolerances should be avoided. Assuming otherwise favorable conditions, wind and thermal
currents can create sufficient adverse conditions to prohibit a flight that would cause excessive

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tilt, crab or drift in the imagery. Turbulence is especially troublesome at lower altitudes. Images
should be rejected that contain clouds, haze, snow or smoke that obscures critical ground areas.
Images should be essentially free of clouds and cloud shadows. In warm weather, even if early
morning is clear, clouds usually begin to form before the flying day ends. When a cold front
moves through, a period (from a few hours to a few days) of good flying weather tends to follow.
In winter, there are cold days when the sky is clear and sharp, sometimes lasting from one to
several days. In certain situations, when it is advantageous to have a minimum of shadows,
photos may be exposed during overcast conditions. There is usually some haze present near
urban areas that can diminish image definition; this urban haze spreads a considerable distance
from the source, and the degree of haze tends to rise along with temperature. Again, 12-bit
digital imagery helps to identify features imaged during less-than-ideal weather conditions.

(6) Vegetation Conditions. If the primary purpose of the imagery is to perform topographic
mapping, the imagery should be acquired during leaf-off conditions during winter months. If the
primary purpose of the imagery is to map the vegetation itself, the imagery should be acquired
during leaf-on conditions during summer months. The season and any special requirements
concerning foliage, snow or other conditions will be specified in the contract. Conditions that
might obscure ground detail shall be the responsibility of the contractor. However, if questions
or concerns about conditions exist, consultation with the Contracting Officer or the COR before
undertaking or continuing the work is advisable. Aerial image acquisition shall be limited to the
season specified in the contract unless otherwise authorized by the Contracting Officer.

(7) Snow Conditions. Although some snow may be tolerated on aerial imagery, especially
thin, spotty patches, snow cover can have several adverse effects on aerial imagery. The surface
of the snow causes a high light reflection, creating high-density light flares on the image. Little
surface contrast on high-reflective material tends to flatten the terrain image. Depending upon
the snow depth, a certain amount of ground cover is obliterated on the image. Snow depth
obviously affects the measurement of terrain elevations.

(8) Site Conditions. Airports, military reservations and other sensitive locations (e.g.,
nuclear power plants) normally have restrictions on over-flights. These could be total exclusions
or restrictions limited to certain time periods.

(9) Flying Height Restrictions. In order to ensure the safety of both the flight crew and
general public, Federal flight regulations decree that an aircraft must not fly lower than that
altitude from which the plane can, if it were to lose its power source, glide far enough to clear
populated areas. This generally equates to a minimum altitude of 1,000 ft. above the ground.
Many areas require aerial image acquisition to be performed with dual-engine aircraft rather than
single-engine aircraft that have no back-up. At altitudes in excess of 18,000 ft., because the flight
crew is infringing upon the airspace of commercial airways, the pilot must file a flight plan prior
to commencing a mission. This may place scheduling restrictions on the photo mission.

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b. Flight Log. For each flight day, the pilot or camera operator shall prepare a flight log
containing the date, project name, aircraft used, and names of crew members. In addition the
following shall be prepared for each flight line: altitude, camera serial number, f-stop, shutter
speed, beginning and ending exposure numbers and times, and any other comments relevant to
the flight conditions. The flight logs shall be delivered to the Contracting Officer as specified in
the work order.

(1) Image Scale/GSD. The flight height above the average elevation of the ground shall be
such that the images have an average scale or GSD suitable for attaining required orthophoto
pixel size, photogrammetric measurements, map scale, and/or accuracy. Aerial imagery having a
departure from the specified scale or GSD of more than 5 percent because of tile, or any changes
in the flying height may be rejected.

(2) Overlap. Unless otherwise directed by the Contracting Officer, the overlap shall be
sufficient to provide full stereoscopic coverage of the area to be photographed, as follows:

(a) Project Boundaries. All of the area appearing on the first and last digital image in each
flight line that crosses a project boundary shall be fully outside the project boundary. Each strip
of images along a project boundary shall extend over the boundary not less than 15 percent or
more than 55 percent of the width of the strip.

(b) Strip Overlap. Where the ends of strips of images join the ends of other strips, or blocks
flown in the same general direction, there shall be a sufficient overlap of the stereoscopic
models. If the scales of the imagery are different, they shall be considered at the smaller image
scale. In flight lines re-photographed to obtain substitute imagery for any rejected imagery, all
images shall be exposed to comply with the original flight specifications, including scale/GSD
and overlap requirements. The joining end photos in the replacement flight line shall have
complete stereoscopic coverage of the contiguous area on the portion or portions not rejected.

(c) Shoreline Coverage. Strips running parallel to a shoreline may be repositioned to reduce
the proportion of water covered, provided the coverage extends beyond the limit of any land
features by at least 10 percent of the strip width.

(d) End Lap. Unless otherwise specified in the contract, the end lap shall average not less
than 57 percent. With modern digital cameras, it is now common for end lap to greatly exceed
60 percent, to include 80 percent end lap for orthophoto projects where building lean must be
minimized.

(e) Side Lap. Unless otherwise specified in the contract, the side lap shall average 25
percent or more.

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(f) Terrain Elevation Variances. When ground heights within the area of overlap vary by
more than 10 percent of the flying height, a reasonable variation in the stated overlaps shall be
permitted provided that the fore and aft overlap does not fall below 55 percent and the lateral side
lap does not fall below 10 percent. In extreme terrain relief where the foregoing overlap
conditions are impossible to maintain in straight and parallel flight lines, the gaps created by
excessive relief shall be filled by short strips flown between the main flight lines and parallel to
them.

(3) Crab. Any series of two or more consecutive images crabbed in excess of 10 degrees as
measured from the mean flight path of the airplane, as indicated by the principal points of the
consecutive images, may be considered cause for rejection of the images. Average crab for any
flight line shall not exceed 5 degrees. Relative crab in excess of 10 degrees between two
successive exposures may be rejected.

(4) Tilt. Tilt (angular departure of the aerial camera axis from a vertical line at the instant of
exposure) in any image of more than 3 degrees, an average tilt of more than 1 degree for the
entire project, an average of more than 2 degrees
for any 10 consecutive images, or relative tilt
between any two successive images exceeding 5
degrees, may be cause for rejection.

c. Photo/Image Report. A report shall be

included for each aerial image acquisition project
giving the following information: camera type and
serial number; lens type and serial number; filter
type and number; lens aperture setting and shutter
speed; date(s) of photography; start and end time
for each photo run in local time; frame numbers of
all offered photos/images; indicated flying height
and computed flying height above sea level;
average scale of film imagery or GSD of digital
imagery; outside air temperature; weather
conditions, clouds, visibility, turbulence; data of
image processing; method of image processing;
number of frames processed; general comment on
quality of imagery; contract number and/or
delivery order designation, as applicable; photo Figure 4-23. Orthophoto tile index map of Levy
numbers, flight line identifications, and index or County, FL, as flown. Compare with pre-
dates/times of photography. planned flight map at Figure 1-15.

d. Index Maps. Aerial acquisition firms normally maintain multiple map indices. A spot or
point index indicates the center of each aerial image along a flight line. A line index shows the

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paths or flight lines the airplane flew as it took images. A mosaic index shows all images used
to create individual orthophoto tiles or photomosaic. Figure 1-15, above, showed a flight map
with pre-planned flight lines and photo centers for Levy County, Florida. Figure 4-23 shows the
actual flight lines, photo centers, and orthophoto tile index map of Levy County, following
successful image acquisition. It shows individual images that will be used for pre-defined
orthophoto tiles. This color-coded index map also shows the three different dates during which
the imagery was acquired. The index map at Figure 4-23 enables the client to see how well the
acquired numbered flight lines and image centers from airborne GPS compare with the planned
flight lines and image centers at Figure 1-15.

Aerial Triangulation (AT). Aerial triangulation (AT), also known as aerotriangulation, is the
key to a successful aerial photogrammetric mapping project. AT is the simultaneous space
resection and space intersection of thousands of image rays recorded by an aerial mapping
camera. These image rays are mathematically modeled as colinearity equations, e.g., equations
that model the image rays from o1 through p1 to P and o2 through p2 to P in Figure 1-1 as well
as hundreds of other points imaged on each stereo pair of images, while simultaneously
modeling lens distortion that slightly warps the rays between P1 and O1 and between P2 and
O2 inside the camera, as well as atmospheric refraction that slightly warps the rays between P1
and P and between P2 and P outside the camera. Conjugate image rays projected from two or
more overlapping photographs or digital images intersect at common ground points to define
the three-dimensional space coordinates of each point. The entire assembly of image rays is fit
to known ground control points in a least squares adjustment process, a complex but well-
accepted mathematical process based on over-determined solutions, i.e., sets of equations in
which there are more known values than unknown values to be solved. When the adjustment is
complete, ground coordinates of unknown ground points are determined by the intersection of
adjusted image rays, and the six exterior orientation parameters for each image are established,
i.e., the 3D position (X/Y/Z coordinates) of the camera lens’ focal point, and the angular
orientation (roll, pitch and yaw, referred to mathematically as ω, φ and κ) at the instant that
each image was acquired. Other AT concepts were briefly introduced in prior sections. For
example, Figure 1-6 shows how pass points and tie points are identified to “pass” X/Y/Z
ground coordinates of imaged points from one image to the next in the same flight line and to
“tie” adjacent flight lines together, using only a few surveyed control points that are photo-
identifiable. Figure 1-22 shows how airborne GPS and an inertial measurement unit (IMU) can
directly record the approximate 3D position and angular orientation of each image, as
compared with precise 3D position and angular orientation parameters (X/Y/Z and ω/φ/κ) that
result from AT. Finally, Figure 1-21 shows how pass points and tie points in the triple overlap
areas of digital frame imagery are critical for passing control from one image to the next, and
from one flight line to the next.

a. AT Objectives. Aerial triangulation has three principal objectives: (1) to determine the
six exterior orientation parameters of each image in the block; (2) to determine the 3D ground
coordinates of any points measured on those images; and (3) to reduce the amount of field
surveying required to achieve objectives (1) and (2). The purpose of aerotriangulation is to

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extend horizontal and vertical control from relatively few ground survey control points to
unknown ground points (pass points and tie points) included in the solution.

b. Image Coordinate Measurements. AT first requires the measurement of conjugate points

in the overlapping areas of the block imagery (pass points and tie points) and the measurement of
the photo coordinates of surveyed control points. With analytical photogrammetry, this requires
photo-identification of the control points and the manual selection of pass points and tie points in
the nine Von Gruber points of each photo (see Figure 1-21); then point transfer devices are used
to drill small holes in the film emulsion of stereo images for these pass points and tie points,
followed by the accurate measurement of the photo coordinates of those small holes on each
hardcopy photo. With digital (softcopy) photogrammetry, automated image correlation
procedures are used for automated identification of pass points and tie points and measurement of
their image coordinates; rather than measuring only nine points per image, digital stereo
photogrammetric workstations enable the automatic identification and measurement of hundreds
of pass points and tie points per image. The least squares AT solution will identify outliers
resulting from poor correlation or measurement, still leaving a large number of redundant (over-
determined) observations. Over-determination, or redundancy, required for a strong least squares
adjustment, occurs because each pass point or tie point has three unknowns (X/Y/Z ground
coordinates) but four knowns (x/y image coordinates of each pass point or tie point in the double-
overlap areas) or six knowns (x/y image coordinates of each pass point or tie point in triple-
overlap areas. By selection and measurement of thousands of pass points and tie points for a
large block adjustment, there will be thousands of redundant observations that enable a stronger
least squares AT solution.

c. Least Squares Adjustment. Least squares adjustments involve a high level of error theory
and matrix algebra. A least squares adjustment includes condition equations that describe the
relationships among weighted observations and parameters, as well as normal equations that
minimize the adjustment residuals’ weighted sum-of-squares and optimize the various
parameters. The least squares adjustment process is iterative. AT software forms the colinearity
condition equations and solves for all photo orientation and ground point coordinates iteratively
until the solution converges. Lastly, the least squares solution also provides good estimates of the
accuracy of all adjusted input and output parameters.

d. Analysis of AT Adjustment. The least squares adjustment results should be examined to

check the consistency of the photo coordinate measurements and the ground control fit. Residuals
on the photo coordinates should be examined to see that they are representative of the random
error expected from the procedures used to measure them. Residuals should be randomly plus or
minus and have a uniform magnitude. Residuals should be checked carefully for outliers and
systematic trends. Standard deviation of unit weight computed from the weighted adjusted
residuals should not be more than 1.5 times the reference standard deviation used to compute the
weights for the adjustment. A large computed reference variance indicates inflated residuals and
possible systematic errors affecting the adjustment. For example, if photo

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coordinates were judged to have an overall measurement standard deviation of 0.005 mm and
this value was used to compute observation weights, the standard deviation of unit weight
computed by the adjustment should not exceed 0.0075 mm.

Digital Photogrammetric Mapping Workflow.

a. Using Digital Imagery. In order to bring the various photogrammetric mapping
procedures together in a logical sequence, Figures 4-24a and 4-24b illustrate a typical large scale
photogrammetric and orthophoto production workflow. Orthophoto production is typically part
of a standard photogrammetric project and utilizes much of the same information collected for
photogrammetric mapping to include aerial photography, ground control, aerial triangulation and
digital terrain model development. However, when only orthophotos are required for a project,
the amount of digital elevation model collection can be greatly reduced as well as the need for
larger amounts of vertical control. The end user should be aware that a digital elevation model
developed ONLY for orthophoto production will not be suitable for contour generation.

(1) Workflow through AT. Figure 4-24 diagrams the workflow up through the AT process.
The ground control and/or check points are surveyed and quality controlled (QC’d) along with
the field notes. The aerial imagery is acquired and the raw imagery is QC’d. If airborne GPS
and IMU data were acquired, the data are processed and QC’d to establish preliminary exterior
orientation parameters (X/Y/Z and ω/φ/κ) for each individual image. The raw imagery is then
processed into its final form required for AT; such image processing is especially critical for
ADS40/80 imagery where Level 0 raw imagery must be converted into Level 1 rectified image
strips. AT steps are then completed using software best suited for frame or pushbroom cameras.

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Figure 4-24 Typical Photogrammetric Mapping Production Flow Diagram through Aerial Triangulation

Pass Failed QC Review

Stereo Raw Stereo

Final AT QC Stereo
Compilation of Data in
Solution & Compiled Pass
Features and/or native
Report Data
elevation data format

Failed QC Review QC Final

Failed QC Review
Data
Final Editing
Final Data Pass QC Edits Map
Finishing Pass Pass

Failed QC Review
Final DEM
Data
Final
Create Metadata QC Metadata Pass
Metadata
Metadata

Digital Ortho
Production
QC Final
Pass
Orthophotos Orthophotos

Failed QC Review

Comprehensive
Final Data Validated
& Separate QA Pass Deliver to Customer
Final Data
of all products

Failed QC Review
Redistribute to Appropriate
Production Process

Figure 4-25 Typical Photogrammetric Mapping Production Flow Diagram after Aerial Triangulation

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(2) Workflow after AT. Figure 4-25 diagrams the workflow after completion of AT. Once
the AT is complete, photogrammetrists know the six exterior orientation parameters for each
image so that stereo models can be set up in digital stereo photogrammetric workstations. This
enables all photogrammetric operations to proceed. Planimetric features can be stereo-compiled,
and digital elevation models (DEMs) and digital orthophotos can be produced. All products are
QC’d. Metadata are also produced and QC’d. Any product that fails a QC review must be
corrected. Before final delivery to customer, all deliverables typically receive a comprehensive
and separate final quality assurance (QA) review and validation prior to delivery.

(a) Stereo Feature Compilation and Map Finishing. Once a valid AT solution is produced,
the solution along with the camera calibration information and the raw (un-rectified) imagery can
be imported into software capable of displaying the imagery in a stereoscopic (3D) environment.
Stereographic software allows analysts to accurately compile features visible in the imagery with
X, Y, and Z (elevation) coordinates. Each vertex of a polygon, line or individual point will hold
this spatial information. Stereoscopic viewing allows the analysts to accurately measure
elevation and heights of objects. Stereo imagery is also beneficial for photo interpretation
projects that do not require an elevation value associated with the line work. Stereo imagery can
assist the photo interpreter with identifying vegetation types by relying on the height of the
feature such as identifying a tree versus a shrub or distinguishing taller cattail from shorter
sedges.

(b) Stereo Compilation of DSMs and DTMs. Similar to feature compilation above, once all
valid parameters are loaded into stereoscopic viewing software, topographic features can be
collected with elevation values. Creating a digital surface model (DSM) or a digital terrain
model (DTM) requires the collection of topographic breaklines, i.e., linear features that describe
a change in the smoothness or continuity of a surface. For example, soft breaklines ensure that
known z-values are maintained along a linear feature such as a road centerline, drainage ditch, or
pipeline; and hard breaklines define streams, shorelines, dams, ridges, building footprints, and
other locations with abrupt surface changes. Mass points, which are individual 3D points, are
also stereoscopically placed on the ground equal distances apart where topographic breaklines do
not exist. Mass points are commonly generated by a process called Semi-Global Matching
(SGM) based on automated image correlation techniques. The placement of mass points will
vary depending on the required contour interval when contours are to be produced. The
difference between a DSM and a DTM is that the DSM represents the top reflective surface
including vegetation, bridges and buildings as well as the topographic breaklines and mass
points. A DTM is a bare-earth model where all surface objects have been removed leaving only
the ground terrain. Typically, only topographic breaklines and mass points are collected to create
a DTM. Once the area of interest has topographic breaklines and mass points, the data can then
be ingested into GIS software which can produce a TIN (Triangular Irregular Network). This
TIN is essentially a ground based elevation model that was computed by interpolating values
between the known elevations of the breaklines and mass points. Contours can then be created

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from the TIN file and viewed in the stereo software. Viewing the contours on the imagery in
stereo allows the analyst to see where additional breaklines or mass points may be needed, i.e. if
the contours are floating or cutting into the side of a hill. With modern softcopy
photogrammetry, contour lines are no longer compiled manually by moving a floating dot along
the ground at set elevations.

(c) Digital Orthophoto Production. Orthophotography, images that have been rectified
(pixel by pixel) and positioned spatially to the earth’s surface, are produced using specialized
software. The orthophoto software uses the camera calibration file, AT solution, digital elevation
files and the raw photography to produce the orthophotos. After individual orthophotos have
been created they can be mosaicked into one seamless image or several combined images based
on square tile grids (USGS Quad/Quarter Quad boundaries, or user specified dimensions).
Orthorectified images should be QC’d to ensure they are free of voids, sensor artifacts and
warped features. Warped features are typically caused by either an error in the elevation model
or by bridges being rectified to a bare earth model. File size should be considered when
producing orthorectified imagery and mosaics. The finer the resolution the higher the file size
will be. It is not uncommon for one uncompressed single frame image to be larger than 1GB.

(d) Geodatabase. A Geodatabase is a database which stores spatial data that can be viewed
and modified using GIS software. Geodatabases can have several layers of data within them, the
first being a Dataset. Datasets hold the defined projection of the feature classes that reside within
them. Feature classes can include line, polygon, point or multi point geometry types. Each
geometry type requires a unique feature class; however there can be hundreds of thousands of
features within one feature class. Those features can also have unique attribution. Elevation data
and imagery can also be stored in Geodatabases along with vector data. The specific types and
functions of the database depend on the software used to develop the database.

b. Using Film Imagery. Film imagery can also be used in a digital photogrammetric
mapping workflow by scanning film positives with a high-resolution scanner to convert the film
into a digital format. The ground pixel size is a function of the photo scale and scanning
resolution. The photo scale is a function of the focal length of the camera and the flying height
above the terrain. For example, when using a 6-inch (0.5 foot) focal length camera and flying at
3,000 feet above mean terrain, the photo scale would be 1:6,000. The scanning resolution is
commonly identified by dots per inch (dpi), e.g., 1,000 dpi. For this example, the ground pixel
size in feet = 6,000/1,000/12 = 0.5 ft. per pixel, and the ground pixel size in meters =
6,000/1,000/39.37 = 0.1524 meters or 15.24 cm. These formulas apply because dpi was used for
the scanning resolution, and there are 12 inches per foot and 39.37 inches per meter. Similar
formulas exist when the scanning resolution is in microns (10-6 meters). A common scan
resolution of 15 microns equates to 1,693 dpi, and the highest resolution scan is around 7.5
microns which equates to 3,386 dpi.

Aerial Photogrammetry 56
Aerial Photogrammetry Quiz Ezekiel Enterprises, LLC

1. True or False? Photogrammetry can be defined as the science and art of

determining qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects from the
images recorded on photographs.
o True
o False
o
2. Average scale is calculated by?
o Savg = f / (H - havg)
o Savg = (d*(H - havg)) / f
o Savg = xp (H - hp) / f
o Savg = yp (H - hp) / f
o
3. Stereoscopic vision determines the distance to an object by intersecting
_______ lines of sight.
o two
o three
o four
o six
o
4. What is the process of recovering the exterior orientation of a single
photograph from image measurements of ground control points?
o photogrammetric solution methods
o resection
o georeferencing
o collinearity
o
5. Which type of photogrammetry represents the first era (also called the
classical era)?
o Digital photogrammetry
o Analog photogrammetry
o Analytical photogrammetry
o Optical-Mechanical photogrammetry
o
6. What time of the day should aerial photographs be taken?
o After 10 am and before 7 pm
o Before 10 am
o Anytime from sunrise to sunset
o Between 10 am & 2 pm local solar time
Aerial Photogrammetry Quiz Ezekiel Enterprises, LLC

7. What is an essential requirement for photomapping work?

o Analog photography
o Stereoscopic coverage
o Coordination with FAA
o Exposure control
o
8. With aerial imagery, there is no such thing as?
o Too much clarity
o Image resolution
o Critical planning
o Planimetric mapping
o
9. Frame cameras require at least _______ to acquire stereo views in overlap
areas.
o 10%
o 25%
o 50%
o 60%
o
10. True or False? Laboratory calibration parameters may be subsequently
refined with in-flight calibration over test range(s).
o True
o False
o
11. What is the preferred aircraft type for high-altitude performance?
o Single-engine aircraft
o Helicopter
o Dual-engine aircraft
o Unmanned aerial system (UAS)
o
12. What accuracy is a value that represents the uncertainty in the coordinates of
a data point relative to the coordinates of other directly connected, adjacent
data points?
o Network accuracy
o 60% accuracy
o Confidence accuracy
o Local accuracy
Aerial Photogrammetry Quiz Ezekiel Enterprises, LLC

o
13. When airborne GPS is used and integrated into the aerial triangulation, the
amount of photo control points can be greatly __________.
o reduced
o enhanced
o increased
o observed
o
14. True or False? Marking control points with targets before the flight is the
least reliable and accurate way to establish photo control points.
o True
o False
o
15. What provides the framework to tie together all field survey and map data?
o Aerial image acquisition
o Coordinate reference system
o Project modeling
o GPS
o
16. Aerial imaging should normally be undertaken when the sun angle is
______________ above the horizon.
o 30 degrees or greater
o 45 degrees or greater
o 90 degrees or less
o directly vertical
o
17. For manned flight operations what is typically the lowest altitude above the
ground the aircraft may fly?
o 100 ft.
o 500 ft.
o 1,000 ft.
o 2,500 ft.
o
18. What is the simultaneous space resection and space intersection of
thousands of image rays recorded by an aerial mapping camera?
o Coordinate mapping
o Mapping array
o Aerial array
o Aerial triangulation (AT)
Aerial Photogrammetry Quiz Ezekiel Enterprises, LLC

o
19. Regarding Digital Photogrammetric Mapping Workflow, what is the very first
step?
o Reviewing project specifications
o Image processing
o Passing QC review
o Establish ground and control checkpoints
o
20. True or False? Film imagery can also be used in a digital photogrammetric
mapping workflow by scanning film positives with a high-resolution scanner
to convert the film into a digital format.
o True
o False