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Lecture 7

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Lecture 7

Uploaded by

marijgohan12
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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10/21/2024

Signals and Vectors


• Signals and vectors are closely related. For
example,
– A vector has components,
– A signal has also its components.
• g is a certain vector.
– It is specified by its magnitude or length g and
direction.
• Consider a second vector x.
• Different ways to express g in term of vector x
– g = 𝑐x + 𝑒 = 𝑐 x + 𝑒 = 𝑐 x + 𝑒
– e is the error vector
– c is the magnitude of projection of g on x
– Choose c to minimize e i.e., e = g − cx

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Inner product in vector spaces

• For convenience we define the dot (inner or scalar) product of two


vectors as
g, x = g x cos θ

• Therefore, x, x = x
• The length of the component of g along x is g cos 𝜃, but it is also
c𝑥.
c 𝑥 = g cos 𝜃
• Multiplying both sides by 𝑥
c𝑥 = g x cos 𝜃 = g, x

g, x g, x
c= =
x x, x
• When g, x = 0, we say that g and x are orthogonal to each other
i.e., geometrically, 𝜃 =
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10/21/2024

Signals as vectors

• The same notion of inner product can be applied for signals.


• What is the useful part of this analogy?
– We can use some geometrical interpretation of vectors to understand
signals.
• Consider two (energy) signals 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡).
• The inner product is defined by
𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• For complex signals


𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 ∗ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• The two signals are orthogonal if


𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) = 0

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Signals as vectors

• If a signal g(t) is approximated in terms of another real signal


x(t) over an interval (t1, t2), then the best approximation
would be the one that minimizes the size of error e(t) i.e.,
minimizes the error energy 𝐸𝑒.
t2 t2

Ee   e2 (t )dt   [ g (t )  cx (t )]2 dt
t1 t1
dEe
• Minimizing error energy would mean putting dc
0
• Which would eventually give
t2

 g (t ) x(t )dt 1 2
t

E x t1
t1
c t2
 g (t ) x (t )dt
 x (t )dt
2

t1

• which is optimum value of c that minimizes the energy of the


error signal in the approximation g(t)~cx(t).
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10/21/2024

Signals as vectors
Example
For a square signal g(t) shown below find the component in g(t) of the form sin 𝑡.

𝐠(𝐭) ~ 𝐜 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐭
Objective: Select c so that the energy of the error signal is minimum. As we already know that
this condition holds for
1
c= g t x t dt
E
Let, x(t) = sin t
So, E =∫ sin t dt = π
1 1 1 4
c= g t sin 𝑡 dt = sin 𝑡 dt + − sin 𝑡 dt =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Therefor, g(t) ~ sin t
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Energy of orthogonal signals

• If vectors 𝑥 and 𝑦 are orthogonal, and if 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 (Pythagorean Theorem)

• If signals 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) are orthogonal and if 𝑧(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑦(𝑡) then
𝐸 =𝐸 +𝐸
• Proof?

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10/21/2024

Power of orthogonal signals

• The same concepts of orthogonality and inner product extend


to power signals.
• For example,
• 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜃 ) + 𝐴 cos(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜃 )
• Where 𝜔 ≠ 𝜔

𝑃 = ,𝑃 =
• The signal 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑦(𝑡) are orthogonal: 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑥(𝑡) = 0.
Therefore,
𝐴 𝐴
𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃 = +
2 2
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