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MUTUAL INDUCTION PHYSICS

PROJECT

PHYSICS PROJECT REPORT

MUTUAL INDUCTION
INDEX

1.ACKNOWLEDGEME

NT

2.CERTIFICATE

3.AIM

4. INTRODUCTION

5. HISTORY

6. APPLICATIONS

7. ELECTRICAL GENERATOR

8. ELECTRICAL TRANSFORMER

9. EDDY CURRENTS

10. ELECTROMAGNET LAMINATIONS

11. PARASTIC INDUCTION WITH INDUCTORS

 12. BIBLIOGRAPHY

AIM

To make a

PHYSICS PROJECT REPORT ON

MUTUAL INDUCTION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is my duty to record my sincere thanks and deep sense of gratitude to my

respected teachers for their valuable guidance, interest and constant encouragement

for the fulfilment of the project. I am also highly obliged to our lab teacher who

provided me the required apparatus and materials.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

………………………………

has worked under my

supervision on The Project

PHYSICS PROJECT REPORT ON

MUTUAL INDUCTION
 and completed it to my satisfaction.

Teacher’s

……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..
Electromagnetic or magnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force
(i.e., voltage) across an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field.

Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831, and
James Clerk Maxwell mathematically described it as Faraday’s law of induction. Lenz’s
law describes the direction of the induced field. Faraday’s law was later generalized to
become the Maxwell–Faraday equation, one of the four Maxwell’s equations in James
Clerk Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism.

Electromagnetic induction has found many applications in technology, including

electrical components such as inductors and transformers, and devices such as electric
motors and generators.

Part of a series of articles about

Electromagnetism

Electricity
Magnetis
m

Electrostatics[show]

Magnetostatics[show]

Electrodynamics[hide]

Lorentz force law

Electromagnetic
induction Faraday’s law
Lenz’s law
 Displacement current
Magnetic potential
Maxwell’s equations
Electromagnetic field
Electromagnetic pulse
Electromagnetic
radiation Maxwell
tensor
Poynting vector
Liénard–Wiechert
potential Jefimenko’s
equations Eddy current
London equations

Mathematical descriptions of the

electromagnetic field

Electrical network[show]

Covariant formulation[show]

Scientists[show]

t
e

Contents
[hide]

1Histor
y
2Theor
y
2.1Faraday’s law of induction and Lenz’s law
2.2Maxwell–Faraday equation
2.3Faraday’s law and
relativity 3Applications
3.1Electrical generator
3.2Electrical transformer
3.2.1Current clamp
3.3Magnetic flow meter
 4Eddy currents
4.1Electromagnet laminations
4.2Parasitic induction within
conductors
5See also
6References
7Further reading
8External links

History[edit]

A diagram of Faraday’s iron ring apparatus. Change in the magnetic flux of the left coil
induces a current in the right coil.[2]

Faraday’s disk (see homopolar generator)

Electromagnetic induction was first discovered by Michael Faraday, who made his discovery
public in 1831.[3][4] It was discovered independently by Joseph Henry in 1832.[5][6]

In Faraday’s first experimental demonstration (August 29, 1831), he wrapped two wires
around opposite sides of an iron ring or “torus” (an arrangement similar to a modern
toroidal transformer). [citation needed] Based on his understanding of electromagnets, he
expected that, when current started to flow in one wire, a sort of wave would travel
through the ring and cause some electrical effect on the opposite side. He plugged one
wire into a galvanometer, and watched it as he connected the other wire to a battery. He
saw a transient current, which he called a “wave of electricity”, when he connected the
wire to the battery and another when he disconnected it. [7] This induction was due to the
change in magnetic flux that occurred when the battery was connected and
disconnected.
[2]
Within two months, Faraday found several other manifestations of electromagnetic
induction. For
example, he saw transient currents when he quickly slid a bar magnet in and out of a coil
of wires, and he generated a steady (DC) current by rotating a copper disk near the bar
magnet with a sliding electrical lead (“Faraday’s disk”). [8]

Faraday explained electromagnetic induction using a concept he called lines of force.

However, scientists at the time widely rejected his theoretical ideas, mainly because they
were not formulated mathematically.[9] An exception was James Clerk Maxwell, who used
Faraday’s ideas as the basis of his quantitative electromagnetic theory. [9][10][11] In
Maxwell’s model, the time varying aspect of electromagnetic induction is expressed as a
differential equation, which Oliver Heaviside referred to as Faraday’s law even though it is
slightly different from Faraday’s original formulation and does not describe motional EMF.
Heaviside’s version (see Maxwell–Faraday equation below) is the form recognized today in
the group of equations known as Maxwell’s equations.

In 1834 Heinrich Lenz formulated the law named after him to describe the “flux through the
circuit”. Lenz’s law gives the direction of the induced EMF and current resulting from
electromagnetic induction.

Theory[edit]
Faraday’s law of induction and Lenz’s law[edit]
Main article: Faraday’s law of induction

A solenoid

The longitudinal cross section of a solenoid with a constant electrical current running
through it. The magnetic field lines are indicated, with their direction shown by arrows.
The magnetic flux corresponds to the ‘density of field lines’. The magnetic flux is thus
densest in the middle of the solenoid, and weakest outside of it.
Faraday’s law of induction makes use of the magnetic flux ΦB through a region of space
enclosed by a wire loop. The magnetic flux is defined by a surface integral:[12]

{\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathrm {B} }=\int \limits _{\Sigma }\mathbf {B} \cdot d\
mathbf {A} \ ,}

where dA is an element of the surface Σ enclosed by the wire loop, B is the magnetic
field. The dot product B·dA corresponds to an infinitesimal amount of magnetic flux. In
more visual terms, the magnetic flux through the wire loop is proportional to the
number of magnetic flux lines that pass through the loop.

When the flux through the surface changes, Faraday’s law of induction says that the
wire loop acquires an electromotive force(EMF).[note 1] The most widespread version of
this law states that the induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to
the rate of change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit:[16][17]

{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}=-{{d\Phi _{\mathrm {B} }} \over dt}\ } ,

where {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}} is the EMF and ΦB is the magnetic flux. The
direction of the electromotive force is given by Lenz’s law which states that an induced
current will flow in the direction that will oppose the change which produced it. [18] This is
due to the negative sign in the previous equation. To increase the generated EMF, a
common approach is to exploit flux linkage by creating a tightly wound coil of wire,
composed of N identical turns, each with the same magnetic flux going through them.
The resulting EMF is then Ntimes that of one single wire.[19][20]

{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}=-N{{d\Phi _{\mathrm {B} }} \over dt}}

Generating an EMF through a variation of the magnetic flux through the surface of a wire loop
can be achieved in several ways:

1.the magnetic field B changes (e.g. an alternating magnetic field, or moving a wire
loop towards a bar magnet where the B field is stronger),
2.the wire loop is deformed and the surface Σ changes,
3.the orientation of the surface dA changes (e.g. spinning a wire loop into a fixed magnetic
field),
4.any combination of the above

Maxwell–Faraday equation[edit]
See also: Faraday’s law of induction § Maxwell–Faraday equation

In general, the relation between the EMF {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}} in a

wire loop encircling a surface Σ, and the electric field E in the wire is given by

{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}=\oint _{\partial \Sigma }\mathbf {E} \cdot d{\boldsymbol

{\ell }}}

where dℓ is an element of contour of the surface Σ, combining this with the definition of flux

{\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathrm {B} }=\int \limits _{\Sigma }\mathbf {B} \cdot d\mathbf
{A} \ ,}

we can write the integral form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation

{\displaystyle \oint _{\partial \Sigma }\mathbf {E} \cdot d{\boldsymbol {\ell }}=-{\frac
{d}{dt}}{\int

_{\Sigma }\mathbf {B} \cdot d\mathbf {A} }}

It is one of the four Maxwell’s equations, and therefore plays a fundamental role
in the theory of classical electromagnetism.

Faraday’s law and relativity[edit]

Faraday’s law describes two different phenomena: the motional EMF generated by a
magnetic force on a moving wire (see Lorentz force), and the transformer EMF
generated by an electric force due to a changing magnetic field (due to the differential
form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation). James Clerk Maxwell drew attention to the
separate physical phenomena in 1861.[21][22] This is believed to be a unique example in
physics of where such a fundamental law is invoked to explain two such different
phenomena.[23]

Einstein noticed that the two situations both corresponded to a relative movement
between a conductor and a magnet, and the outcome was unaffected by which one was
moving. This was one of the principal paths that led him to develop special relativity.[24]

Applications[edit]
The principles of electromagnetic induction are applied in many devices and systems,
including:
 Current clamp
Electric
generators
Electromagnetic forming
Graphics tablet
Hall effect
meters Induction
cooking Induction
motors Induction
sealing Induction
welding Inductive
charging
Inductors
Magnetic flow meters
Mechanically powered
flashlight Pickups
Rowland ring
Transcranial magnetic
stimulation Transformers
Wireless energy transfer

Electrical generator[edit]

Rectangular wire loop rotating at angular velocity ω in radially outward pointing

magnetic field B of fixed magnitude. The circuit is completed by brushes making sliding
contact with top and bottom discs, which have conducting rims. This is a simplified
version of the drum generator.

Main article: Electric generator

The EMF generated by Faraday’s law of induction due to relative movement of a circuit
and a magnetic field is the phenomenon underlying electrical generators. When a
permanent magnet is moved relative to a conductor, or vice versa, an electromotive
force is created. If the wire is connected through an electrical load, current will flow, and
thus electrical energy is generated, converting the
mechanical energy of motion to electrical energy. For example, the drum generator is
based upon the figure to the bottom-right. A different implementation of this idea is the
Faraday’s disc, shown in simplified form on the right.

In the Faraday’s disc example, the disc is rotated in a uniform magnetic field
perpendicular to the disc, causing a current to flow in the radial arm due to the Lorentz
force. It is interesting to understand how it arises that mechanical work is necessary to
drive this current. When the generated current flows through the conducting rim, a
magnetic field is generated by this current through Ampère’s circuital law (labelled
“induced B” in the figure). The rim thus becomes an electromagnet that resists rotation
of the disc (an example of Lenz’s law). On the far side of the figure, the return current
flows from the rotating arm through the far side of the rim to the bottom brush. The B-
field induced by this return current opposes the applied B-field, tending to decrease the
flux through that side of the circuit, opposing the increase in flux due to rotation. On the
near side of the figure, the return current flows from the rotating arm through the near
side of the rim to the bottom brush. The induced B-
field increases the flux on this side of the circuit, opposing the decrease in flux due to
rotation. Thus, both sides of the circuit generate an EMF opposing the rotation. The
energy required to keep the disc moving, despite this reactive force, is exactly equal to
the electrical energy generated (plus energy wasted due to friction, Joule heating, and
other inefficiencies). This behavior is common to all generators converting mechanical
energy to electrical energy.

Electrical transformer[edit]
Main article: Transformer

When the electric current in a loop of wire changes, the changing current creates a
changing magnetic field. A second wire in reach of this magnetic field will experience
this change in magnetic field as a change in its coupled magnetic flux, d ΦB / d t.
Therefore, an electromotive force is set up in the second loop called the induced EMF
or transformer EMF. If the two ends of this loop are connected through an electrical
load, current will flow.

Current clamp[edit]
A current clamp

Main article: Current clamp

A current clamp is a type of transformer with a split core which can be spread apart and
clipped onto a wire or coil to either measure the current in it or, in reverse, to induce a
voltage. Unlike conventional instruments the clamp does not make electrical contact
with the conductor or require it to be disconnected during attachment of the clamp.

Magnetic flow meter[edit]

Main article: Magnetic flow meter

slurries. Such instruments are called magnetic flow meters. The induced voltage ℇ
Faraday’s law is used for measuring the flow of electrically conductive liquids and

generated in the magnetic field B due to a conductive liquid moving at velocity v

is thus given by:

{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}=-B\ell v,}

where ℓ is the distance between electrodes in the magnetic flow meter.

Eddy currents[edit]
Main article: Eddy current
Conductors (of finite dimensions) moving through a uniform magnetic field, or stationary
within a changing magnetic field, will have currents induced within them. These induced
eddy currents can be undesirable, since they dissipate energy in the resistance of the
conductor. There are a number of methods employed to control these undesirable
inductive effects.

Electromagnets in electric motors, generators, and transformers do not use solid

metal, but instead use thin sheets of metal plate, called laminations. These thin
plates reduce the parasitic eddy currents, as described below.
Inductive coils in electronics typically use magnetic cores to minimize parasitic
current flow. They are a mixture of metal powder plus a resin binder that can
hold any shape. The binder prevents parasitic current flow through the
powdered metal.

Electromagnet laminations[edit]

Eddy currents occur when a solid metallic mass is rotated in a magnetic field, because
the outer portion of the metal cuts more lines of force than the inner portion, hence the
induced electromotive force not being uniform, tends to set up currents between the
points of greatest and least potential. Eddy currents consume a considerable amount of
energy and often cause a harmful rise in temperature.[25]

Only five laminations or plates are shown in this example, so as to show the subdivision
of the eddy currents. In practical use, the number of laminations or punchings ranges
from 40 to 66 per inch, and brings the eddy current loss down to about one percent.
While the plates can be separated by
insulation, the voltage is so low that the natural rust/oxide coating of the plates is
enough to prevent current flow across the laminations.[25]

This is a rotor approximately 20mm in diameter from a DC motor used in a CD player.

Note the laminations of the electromagnet pole pieces, used to limit parasitic inductive
losses.

Parasitic induction within conductors[edit]

In this illustration, a solid copper bar conductor on a rotating armature is just passing
under the tip of the pole piece N of the field magnet. Note the uneven distribution of the
lines of force across the copper bar. The magnetic field is more concentrated and thus
stronger on the left edge of the copper bar (a,b) while the field is weaker on the right
edge (c,d). Since the two edges of the bar move with
the same velocity, this difference in field strength across the bar creates whorls or
current eddies within the copper bar.[25]

High current power-frequency devices, such as electric motors, generators and

transformers, use multiple small conductors in parallel to break up the eddy flows that
can form within large solid conductors. The same principle is applied to transformers
used at higher than power frequency, for example, those used in switch-mode power
supplies and the intermediate frequency coupling transformers of radio receivers.

INFORMATION SOURCE:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction
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easily. Students make projects such as Full wave rectifier, Half wave rectifier, Fire alarm,
rain alarm, Electromagnetic Induction, Logic gates(AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate, XAND
gate, XNOR gate), Transistor as switch, Transistor as amplifier, Charging and
Discharging of Capacitors, Series and Parallel Resistance etc etc. Students also get help
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Physics Projects with Reports:

1.TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT FOR TOUCH ALARM.

2.EDDY CURRENT {WITHOUT MODEL }
3.PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELL
4.MUTUAL INDUCTION
5.TO STUDY NPN-TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER
6.TO CONSTRUCT A ELECTRIC MOTORS (D.C.MOTOR)
7.TO STUDY HOW A TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER WORK ‘PNP’ AMPLIFIER TRANSISTOR.
8.HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS
9.AC TO DC CONVERTER (FULL WAVE RECTIFIER)
10. AC TO DC CONVERTER (HALF WAVE RECTIFIER)
11. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF FENCE WIRE BURGLAR ALARM
12. TO SHOW THE PRINCIPLE OF FARADAY’S AND A.C. GENERATOR.
13. THERMOCOUPLE
14. TO STUDY FARADAY’S LAWS-TO FIND THE CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON
15. FARADAY’S LAW’S OF ELECTROLYSIS
16. TO STUDY A POSITIVE FEED BACK CIRCUIT OF AN AUDIO OSCILLATOR (LC OSCILLATOR)
17. HOW DOES AN ELECTRIC GENERATOR WORK
18. TO SHOW THAT A SOLENOID CARRYING AN ELECTRIC CURRENT PRODUCES A
MAGNETIC FIELD SIMILAR TO THAT PRODUCED BY A BAR MAGNET.
19. ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL (PRIMARY CELL)
20. BOOLAN LOGIC GATE
21. TO STUDY THE CHARGE AND DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR IN SERIES
22. WORKING OF POTENTIOMETER
23. KIRCHOFF’S LAW
24. TO DEMONSTRATE THE WORKING OF AN ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR BY MEANS
OF ITS CHARGING AND DISCHARGING WITH THE HELP OF AN AUDIO OSCILLATOR
AND TO STUDY AND COMPARE THE TWO CAPACITORS UNDER SERIES AND
PARALLEL COMBINATION.(Z)
25. RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS.
26. RADIOISOTOPE THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR.
27. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF SOUND OPERATED SWITCH.
28. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF TIME OPERATED SWITCH.
29. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF SOUND AMPLIFIER.
30. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF A FIRE ALARM.
31. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF CLAP SWITCH.
32. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF TRANSISTOR SWITCH
33. TO FIND OUT OPTICAL ACTIVITY ARISES WHEN THE POLARIZATION AXIS OF LIGHT
IS ROTATED AS IT PASSES THROUGH A SUBSTANCE
34. PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER
35. HARTLEY OSCILLATORS
36. PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER
37. REPORT ON MAGNETIC FIELDS, MAGNETIC FORCES, AND ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION LAWS OF REFRACTION (Z).
38. RAY OPTICS-TO FIND REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE MATERIAL OF THE PRISM BY
TOTAL INTERNAL REFRACTION (Z).
39. TO DEMONSTRATE THE WORKING OF AN ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR BY MEANS
OF ITS CHARGING AND DISCHARGING WITH THE HELP OF AN AUDIO OSCILLATOR
AND TO STUDY AND COMPARE THE TWO CAPACITORS UNDER SERIES AND
PARALLEL COMBINATIONS.
40. TO STUDY THE EFFECT OF THE DIAMETER AND THE NUMBER OF TURNS OF THE
SPRING ON ITS STRENGTH HAS BEEN INVESTIGATION IN THIS STUDY.(Z)
41. TO FIND OUT THE THERMAL COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE FOR A DIVAN SET OF
WIRES AND THUS SUGGEST THE WIRE IN WHICH ENERGY LOSS DUE TO HEAT
GENERATION IS MINIMUN.(Z)
42. TO SEE THAT WATER CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY BETTER WHEN IMPURITIES ARE ADDED IT.
(Z)
43. TO MAKE NOR GATE WITH THE COMBINATION OF TWO GATES. (Z)
44. PASCAL’S LAW AND ITS APPLICATIONS
45. BRIDGE RECTIFIER- A CIRCUIT USING FOUR DIODES TO PROVIDE
FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION.CONVERTS AN AC VOLTAGE TO A
PULSATING DC VOLTAGE.
46. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF QUIZ BUZZER.
47. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF LASER SECURITY SYSTEM.
48. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF RAIN ALARM.
49. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF WATER LEVEL INDICATOR.
50. THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DISPOSABLE AND NON DISPOSABLE BATTERIES
51. TO INVESTIGATE THE EFFECT OF THE FOLLOWING FACTORS ON THE INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF A LACLANCHE CELL.
52. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF OPTICAL SWITCHING.
53. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OFCAPACITOR CHARGE OSCILATOR
54. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OFCAPACITOR STORAGE LED
55. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF TWO TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR
56. EXPERIMENTS IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY
57. TO SHOW THE UNIDIRECTION ACTION OF DIODE
58. OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION
59. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF ELECTRONIC EYE
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