MOVING INTO CONSTANTINOPLE

 Capturing of Constantinople by Ottomans on May 29th 1453, led by Sultan Mehmed II.
Significant event. For Muslims, it was a fulfillment of their dream, due to
Constantinople’s strategic geography and topology, its imperial symbolism, and since the
majority of the Mediterranean area was already Muslim, and Constantinople was a
Christian enclave in the Mediterranean. For Byzantines, it was the end of a very
successful empire. For the holy roman empire, even though they were enemies of the
Byzantine empire, were not pleased because now they have a Muslim Empire at the
doorstep of Europe, which is powerful, mighty, and ambitious, so this provoked fear in
Latin Europe.
 Mehmet II had universalist visions, wanted to create a universal world empire. He also
had a strong desire to appreciate the imperial essence of the city.
 Hagia Sophia represented this imperial essence, it was where all the emperors were
crowned, a huge monument hovering above the rest of the city, this caught Mehmed II
attention. Ordered the repair of the building, especially the dome, ordered the removal of
all the symbols, crosses, icons and relics of Christianity, ordered the addition of a mihrab,
minbar, and two minarets, ordered to cover the figural mosaics and frescos at eye-level
with plaster. Hagia Sophia became the standard, whenever an imperial mosque was built
it was inevitably compared to Hagia Sophia.
 Repopulation of Constantinople, The Sultan sent officers all over Ottoman territories to
encourage people and families to move into the capital and the incentive was that they
would get free state property to build their houses. Second step was doing this by force,
ordered deporting families of different religion and ethnicities (Muslims, Jews, Greeks,
Armenians…) from every city and bringing them in, settling ethno-religious communities
in specific areas.
 Reconstructed the city by ordering all financially capable officials to build magnificent
buildings like public services, religious, educational, recreational, commercial buildings
that would contribute to the physical development of the city and the growth of quarters
around these public facilities and to the economic growth of Constantinople. Earliest
important institution that adorned the city was a multipurpose complex of vizier Mahmud
Pasha. On the land he was given he built a mosque, a college, a bazaar, a hammam. These
served to develop the neighborhood. Buildings were reused, Pantokrator church housed a
medrese, later became a mosque after the religious multipurpose complex of Mehmed
was completed.
 First palace of Mehmed II (Eski Saray), served as the residence of the court and imperial
family and the seat of government, was in the middle of the city and in the heart of the
most commercial part of the city, column of Theodosius was integrated into the palace,
shows Mehmed appreciated its value and wanted it to become his.
 Yedikule, another fortress used as a treasury and a prison for VIP people, located at the
golden gate, incorporates the gate into its structure, strategic place where land meets sea,
interesting architecture shows manifestation of Italian renaissance of recent military
architecture.
  Commercial core. Some of the byzantine markets remained active. Mehmed built an
enclosed market around which further markets developed over time.
 Topkapi palace, started to be built only few years after the completion of the first palace
(old palace), served same purposes as first palace, composed of a succession of
courtyards (first court: most public/palace services, second public court and divan,
audience hall at third gate, third court: sultan’s private chambers/harem and pages’
dorms, fourth court: most private Sultan’s retreat), situated in a much more open part of
the city, an argument made about this was that by four/five years after the conquest
Mehmed’s vision of the court and its etiquette and its rules and regulations were already
in place, this new palace reflects imperial ideal. Middle gate of the palace was built in a
European medieval military style. Cinili Kiosk at the palace had a style of Persian and
Timurid tradition which is shown in its architecture and ceramic tiling- coexistence of
different styles.
 Mehmed’s Kulliye was on the site of the holy apostles, a church and mausoleum that
carried imperial significance because it was where byzantine emperors were buried.
Mosque of Mehmed II had the intent to surpass the Hagia Sophia, make it grander,
higher dome, but failed. Had a courtyard in front of it and a mausoleum behind it, was
enclosed by 8 medreses, additional boys’ school, library, hospital, soup kitchen,
caravansaray, and travelers’ inn. Criticism raised about how architects were killed by
orders from the sultan, lack of justice, unlike how architects of Hagia Sophia were
respected. Plan of the Kulliye was reminiscent of constructions in Renaissance Italy, in
terms of axiality and symmetry and the whole site being levelled, wanting to reflect great
monumentality.

THE 16TH CENTURY URBAN LANDSCAPE

 Sultan Suleiman wanted to give the empire a new image that would reflect this new
direction, landscape becomes more dominated with monumental Friday mosques, face of
city fully turns towards the Golden Horn.
 Golden Age. Territorial expansion, very successful empire in terms of military
perspective. Some criticism about corruption, excessive spending by religious elites,
increasing oppression of tax-paying society. 1. Consolidation bringing order to
everything, court had a desire to project a new image of the empire to the world. Creating
a visual identity for the empire that would speak of a new identity and would be
understood by the inhabitants and the rest of the world. Reflection of political, regional,
and global changes. 2. Great importance of monumental imperial patronage. Building
patronage used to project one’s financial power and social status in relation to the Sultan.
3. Contribution of architect Sinan, entrusted with creating the new visual order. 4.
Climate of increasing Sunni orthodoxy, developed in relation to the quickly rising
Safavid empire who followed the Shia faith, Ottomans wanted to distinguish themselves
and be the representatives of the Sunni orthodox. 5. rules of decorum – prescribed set of
rules and regulations that govern one’s behavior, dress, headgear, house, furniture…
 specifically at the level of the ruling elites – become more rigid. House and residence
must fit one’s taste and rank so that he stays within his limits.
 International Timurid-Turkmen style as a visual language. Cleansing of everything that
was foreign in the visual language of the Ottomans. International style was possible
because the workshops at court where craftsmen produced were international. Dismissing
Greek, Arab, Persian artisans and starting the workshops from scratch. Devsirme boys
with no stylistic knowledge learn everything from scratch, this helps in standardizing the
language.
 Suleymaniye Mosque first expressed this visual style. Displayed dominance due to its
position on a hilltop and its size and grand and because its form adds to the hill in which
it sits. Outer façade of the Suleymaniye mosque is more streamlined, purified, structured,
and composed compared to the façade of the Sehzade mosque. Its decorations are focused
around the mihrab. Suleymaniye mosque was also the first to illustrate the proclamation
of the Sunni ideology, in terms of functional level, for the first time medreses represent
all four schools of Muslim jurisprudence – a clear way of saying the Sharia is central to
our empire. Also, for the first time, a presence of Dar Al-Hadith – school to learn the
traditions of the prophet, ranked higher than any other of the medreses which is an
emphasis to the world that the empire is very keen on the Sunni Orthodoxy. This is also
reflected in the mosque’s interior decorative program.
 Rules of decorum govern the architecture of Friday mosques in terms of form, elements,
construction, materials… to reflect social standing/status in relation to the Sultan.
Number of minarets, location (how visible), height of dome, composition of the roof
structure, kind of material/stone/precious metal that goes into the mosque and their
quantities, the decoration/ceramic tiles/glazed windows/inscription… -how much is
acceptable and fits your status, so mosque does not go over your status in quality and
quantity. Only the Sultan could have more than two minarets, members of the ottoman
household (princes/princesses) two minarets, grand viziers one minaret.
 Rustem Pasa mosque, an endowment approved by Suleyman, one minaret to fit the status
of grand vizier, in the same visual frame as the Suleymaniye mosque and looks very
modest compared to it, most decorated Friday mosque in Istanbul, usually mihrab/qibla
wall was the area that was most adorned but in this mosque all the walls were fully
covered with decorations/ceramic tiles- doing of his wife Mihrumah (daughter of Sultan)
who supervised its construction after her husband’s death. Contrast between exterior and
interior of mosque is pronounced and catches the eye.

LIVING IN THE CITY

 Concentration is on the walled part of the city which is the heart of the city’s economy
and the empire’s political center.
 Each big district had a main judge and a central court and several sub-courts.
 Non-Muslims (Christians & Jews) were referred to as zimmis. Allowed to follow their
religious traditions and rituals, allowed to keep their churches and synagogues under
 certain conditions, allowed to manage their affairs as a community and have their own
judicial courts to go to their own judge, they could also resort to the Muslim Sharia
courts.
 Two main churches- Greek orthodox church headed by the Greek orthodox patriarch, and
the Armenian apostolic church, headed by the Armenian apostolic catholic patriarch.
Majority of Jews are ones who fled Spain, also Jews who had been in Balat since
Byzantine times and Romanians who came from the Balkans, all under one chief Rabbi.
 These groups had to abide by zimmi laws/Sumptuary laws – rules and regulations
regarding consumption, type of social regulation, in return for this relative freedom they
were given to manage their own affairs with their community. Main point of sumptuary
laws was to distinguish the non-Muslims from the Muslims. Allowed to rebuild churches
and synagogues if they were destroyed by a fire or an earthquake, they could not ring
bells, they had to pay a special tax- jizya.
 Visual signs also distinguish non-Muslims from Muslims, dress, shoe color, head gear,
material of the clothes… Muslim men- yellow shoes, Armenian men- red shoes, Jewish
men- dark blue/black shoes.
 4 large jurisdictions- Istanbul, Eyup, Galata, Uskudar. Istanbul was divided into 13
sections; each section included a few neighborhoods. Neighborhoods consisted of a few
streets, between 30-100 households on average, contained a Mescit or church or
synagogue, had a few basic services (ex. Grocer). Predominantly non-Muslim
neighborhoods got incorporated into larger predominantly Muslim neighborhoods.
Mansion of highly-ranked member could be next to a hostel for migrant men. Certain
areas might in general seem more prestigious and other areas might have the reputation of
being poorer. Sense of belonging to one’s neighborhood because it is where you spend
most of your time. Socializing in public places (streets, coffee house, hammam). Often
residents of the neighborhood endowed the coffeehouse, hammam, fountain.
 Principle of collective responsibility- the whole neighborhood is responsible for the
act/behavior of one person in the neighborhood. One of the most important
responsibilities is the payment of taxes as a mahalle. Another responsibility is
maintaining security, cleaning, garbage collection of neighborhood. Also, informing on
acts contrary to the sharia in the mahalle. Each predominantly Muslim neighborhood was
headed by an Imam (for non-Muslims, head priest or head rabbi). This person had both
religious and administrative roles, was like a mediator between the residents of the
neighborhood and the state, mediated between the two by the office of the judge. Imam
decided on how taxes were going to be paid and then to collect the taxes from the
neighborhood according to the number of residences, allocating more to the rich and less
to the poor. Also responsible for the foundations that were in the neighborhood- mosque,
medrese… Also played the role of the kefil (moral guarantor) of the neighborhood
residents. Also represented the mahalle at court along with the mahalle notables and
elders (wrote petitions in the name of the neighborhood residents).
 Residents divided into ruling elites and Reaya (tax-paying society). Ruling elites
included military and administrators (Grand viziers, viziers, janissary agas), Palace
officials (Chief eunuch of the palace harem, they lived in the palace), Ulema- religious
 elites (Seyhulislam, judges, medrese professors, imams). Reaya included all the Muslims
and non-Muslims.
 Sumptuary laws governed public behavior and practices, used as a tool to 1. Distinguish
between different social statuses and ranks 2. To make these distinctions visible (ex.
Architectural decorum, dress…) 3. Distinguish between ethno-religious differences
within the Reaya.
 Muhtesib (market inspector) was in charge of inspecting the markets through market
regulations for any cheating and setting the prices and collecting taxes.
 Types of commercial structures: Enclosed and gated bedesten for luxury goods (good,
silver, silk), specialized markets (carsi), individual shops, Khans (urban hostels built
primarily for traveling merchants, accommodated merchants and their caravans of goods
and animals, places of residence and common transactions, typically built as courtyard
structures with open central court and rooms in galleries above, similar to caravansaray
except it is inside the city in urban centers, loading docks (where imported merchandise
arrived, usually specialized)
 Artisans, shopkeepers, service people, the large majority of the working population.
Organized in trade groups/guild organizations (production & commerce) by
specialization (butchers, bakers, candle-makers, shoe-makers…). Spatial concentrations
around the city by specialization. Guild organization built on a very strong sense of
collectivity and egalitarianism- members of the same trade were not after competing with
one another or profiteering and instead worked with one another. They all had to abide by
the same rules of behavior and rules of practicing their trade: could not cheat, standard of
the goods’ quality was fixed, prices were fixed. In each guild the members were two
groups: masters and apprentices. Guilds had some autonomy in making their own
decisions, they selected their leaders, they made decisions about how the raw material
they get is going to be distributed among the members, they made decisions on the
standards of meat/bread/candles they are going to sell. State also had control over these
guild through the Muhtesib.

PUBLIC LIFE
 Number of smaller palaces, kiosks, pavilions, mosques, and fountains on the shores right
on the water of the Bosphorus, and to a lesser extent, on the shores of the Golden horn
during the 18th century.
 Contributions to these developments: 1. The need to project a new imperial image by the
ottoman court (many setbacks (lost wars, rebellions in Anatolia, devaluation in currency,
treasury weakening…), increasing haziness in ranks/hierarchies, the court absent from
Istanbul for most of the 2nd half of the 17th century) 2. Accumulated changes in society
that will reflect in the city’s development (ruling class and Reaya divisions blurring,
accumulation of wealth and social influence among the Reaya (merchants/bankers),
changing culture practices and emerging lifestyles among the Reaya)
  New imperial image: from seclusion to public exposure. The Sultan and his household
are everywhere, attending festivities. Sultans shuttling back and forth from Topkapi
palace to Bebek. Idea of display is also present in the architecture: transparent walls, huge
number of windows-windowed facades (to show off the interior, magnificence, luxury).
Water was the most common form of transportation for people and members of the elite,
also foreigners coming into the capital were able to get a good glimpse of the Bosphorus
shores.
 From the state’s perspective: signs of empire’s degeneration and decline. From the
social/cultural perspective: more social mobility, social power and influence distributed
among larger segments of society- More involvement in architectural patronage (public
fountains most prized objects of patronage across broad section of society- water
infrastructure and distribution expanded to new areas of the intra-muros city. They are
relatively small, affordable, & keep patron’s name alive for posterity through
inscriptions), more agency in setting urban and architectural trends and new cultural
practices and lifestyles, greater contribution to the city’s development.
 With larger segment of society involved in architectural patronage, more visual
competition (size, location, visibility, decoration…) Imperial fountains become
spectacular, gilded, very ornate, extravagant. Fountains become accessible tools for many
to show off social status.
 In the 18th century more public gardens on the shores of the Bosphorus begin to develop
right around these fountains, area for walks, picnics, terrace, coffeehouse… new culture
of entertainment and sociability that happens outdoors in a public area. Coffeehouses
(mostly male since the middle of the 16th century) and hammams (male and female)
added to the space of leisure and sociability. These public venues are places for walks,
picnics, excursions, swings, pleasure boat rides, markets, coffee terraces.

MODERNIZATION, URBAN POLITICS, AND THE SPACES OF

MODERNITY
 Basic modern infrastructures were lacking in the major imperial capital city.
 Empire needed to provide the major cities with the spaces of modernity, demolition of
medieval city walls, opening up of boulevards.
 Transformation in terms of its architecture, urban fabric… due to economic &
commercial dynamic, and to political dynamic. Baltalimani Treaty (integration of the
empire into global capitalism, 1838) and Tanzimat Edict (Statement of intention by the
ottoman state to reform itself and modernize its administrative and legal structure and to
introduce the concept of modern citizenship whereby citizens (Muslims & non-Muslims,
because non-Muslims were subject to a lot of discriminations: jizya, sartorial restrictions,
architectural restrictions-building new churches and repairing burned/destroyed churches
required authorization from the state) would have equal rights and obligations, started the
era of comprehensive reforms, 1839) – 1. Influx of capital into port cities 2. New building
 types such as department stores and banks 3. Lifting of pre-modern restrictions on
architectural form and scale 4. Introduction of modern urban administration.
 Challenges of Urbanism in Ottoman port cities: 1. Modernizing the port, regularizing the
waterfront 2. Regularizing the dense urban fabric (street network was full of dead-end
streets and no sign of design, some were completely devastated as a result of a fire
providing the ottoman urban administrators/bureaucrats to redesign the streets-
introduction of grid network, enlargement of mese) 3. Preventing the outbreak of cholera,
plague, and other epidemics 4. Preventing devastating fires 5. Acquiring spaces of
modernity (public squares/public markets) 6. New public and commercial buildings
necessitated by the modern economic and administrative paradigms 7. Controlling urban
expansion, a result of sharp population increase.
 There were some ambitious proposals for the transformation of the city (ex. Proposals for
Sultanahmet and Beyazit areas by Joseph Antoine Bouvard), paid zero attention to the
topography of the city, historical monuments… Ottomans did not take it seriously.
 Era of global capitalism, whole new array of patrons who are now investing and building
monumental architectural. In 19th century, imperial mosques become less monumental
and no longer on prominent hills, tend to be on the waterfronts, architectural style far
from architecture of Sinan. New buildings included: Darulfunun university- neogreek
building/institution next to Hagia Sophia and functioned as the parliament building, train
stations/railway network were a sign of modernity and its architecture created an image
of an oriental building, high-schools founded by wealthy Greek merchants which had
neogreek architecture, monumental embassies that introduce new architectural forms,
department stores were crucial spaces where ottomans had access to European
commodities, public debt administration which is the institution whereby the ottoman tax
revenues were controlled by European powers because ottoman economy bankrupted,
row houses which were built as affordable housing by the middle-level ottoman
bureaucrats.
 Galata was where the first municipality in the Ottoman empire was established. The
Genoese walls lost their defensive functions because Galata was now part of a larger
Ottoman Istanbul and Istanbul was no longer a city state. The walls were initially an
important part of Galata’s urban topography and urban life (residential structures attached
to the walls). In 1860s these walls were mostly destroyed and eradicated from Pera’s
landscape, and the Sixth District Municipality was the main actor behind this destruction.
Sixth District municipality was the first modern municipal organization, they had their
own budget, personnel, and local powerbase/infrastructures (financial networks) on
which they based their policies- not a state institution. The foundational charter of the
municipality dictated that only individuals with a certain amount of money and real estate
could become members of the municipal council. Several reasons behind the destruction
of the walls: 1. They were seen as impediment to urban progress and beautification 2.
The need to clean parasitic constructions that were built around the walls (they were seen
to be clashing with the modern and orderly image that the sixth district municipality was
trying to cultivate).
 Creative destruction in Material terms: 1. New lands/streets/buildings 2. Cleaning of
parasitic elements 3. Policy-making & financial networks. Creative destruction in
Heritage-making: 1. Reclaiming the Genoese past. 2. Cleaning of the lived Ottoman
experience. 3. A historical connection between the Genoese middle ages and “European”
Pera.
 Inscriptions and coat of arms on the walls (commemorated certain events, marked battles
won by the Genoese, gave information about the royal family who commissioned these
constructions…) were salvaged by M. de Launay, and had to record them and write a
certain history of Pera based on this written evidence. M. de Launay also communicated
with the municipality of Genoa and the historical society of Genoa and connected Pera’s
history to that of Genoa. Launay presented the Genoese experience of Pera as a
westernizing European town within an oriental empire (Byzantion), this was in line with
how the elites of Pera fashioned themselves as this European modern town within an
oriental empire (Ottoman empire)