VRTIST TO

Gottfried Bammes 'S

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The vrtist's Guide to

Dover Publications, Inc.

Mineola, New York
 Translatedfrom the German by Judith Hayward in association
with First Edition Translations Ltd., Cambridge, England.

Copyright
German-language edition Copyright © 1990 by Ravensburger Buchverlag Otto
Maier GmbH
English-language edition Copyright © 1994 by Transedition Books, a division
of Andromeda Oxford Limited
All rights reserved.

Bibliographical Note
This Dover edition, first published in 2004, is an unabridged republication of
the English translation originally published by Chartwell Books, Inc., Edison,
New Jersey, and Transedition Books, Oxford, England, in 1994. The original
German edition was Studien zur Gestalt des Menschen, published by
Ravensburger Buchverlag Otto Maier GmbH, Wiener Neudorf, Austria, in 1990.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bammes, Gottfried.
[Studien zur Gestalt des Menschen. English]
The artisfs guide to human anatomy / Gottfried Bammes.
p. cm.
Originally published: Abingdon, Oxfordshire : Transedition Books, 1994.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-486-43641-1 (pbk.)
1. Anatomy, Artistic. 2. Drawing—Technique. I. Title.
NC760.B2813 2004
743.4'9—dc22
2004052764

Manufactured in the United States of America

Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501
 List of contents

Introduction / 7

1. Studies of proportion / 9

2. Studies of Standing and seated poses in repose / 20

3 • Studies of locomotive and expressive movements / 32

Studies of the skull and head / 36

Studies of the construction, function and plastic

behaviorof the leg/ 44

6. Studies of the construction, function and movement

of the torso / 55

"7. Studies of the skeleton based on visualization / 69

8 # Studies of the construction, functioning and

plastic behavior of the hand and arm / 75

9 • Studies of the whole figure /107

List of contents
Introduction

This book presents the reader with almost 200 study drawings
which demonstrate that a confident working understanding of
anatomy can be an invaluable tool for the artist. The drawings
were produced over a period of four Semesters of weekly three-
hour lessons. The Standard achieved after one year of study was
tested by an intermediate three-part exam lasting four hours
partly based on visual imagination, and the second year was
concluded by a drawing project, again in three parts and again
partly based on visualization.
For the tests at the end of the second semester (first year),
students were allowed a short time with a model to study his or
her pose and analyze the constructional skeletal forms, the
groups of functional muscles in action and the living form of the
leg (see fig. 63). The final exam at the end of the fourth semester
(second year) followed the same procedure - extended to the
whole figure - with a special bias (see fig. 162) relevant to the
student’s area of study This book also contains examples of
work produced by students attending Bammes intensive courses
at Zürich and Salzburg.
What training and educational objectives, beyond anatomical
knowledge, do the drawings reproduced in this book
demonstrate?
When faced with a nude model, beginners - as well as feeling
embarrassed - are usually confused about where to begin. The
information about proportion provides important basic guidance
suggesting that the figure be approached as an articulated entity
in which the parts relate to the whole (figs. 1-13). The forms of
the human body have varying characteristics and interactions.
Values relating to impression and degrees of visual weight are
discovered, to do with the main forms and the subsidiary,
intermediate and transitional forms that accompany them. We
work out a hierarchy of forms - not only in the context of
studies of proportion - and the Connections that exist within it.
Anatomy for artists aims to highlight what unites rather than
what separates, and it is only to work toward this end that we
undertake studies of individual parts.
Another priority for becoming fluent in figure drawing is
familiarity with the way the figure at rest and in motion
invariably conforms to certain rules (figs. 17-41). The rules
learned when studying proportion can easily be extended and
applied to the body It must be realized that a Standing or sitting
Position (figs. 13-16 and 28-34) is not just a question of
mechanics - there is always a psychological aspect as well. The
person drawing must always empathize with the model’s
gestures, sharing in the experience and endurance of tension
and its release. This book provides introductory examples and
methods of procedure that are practicable even for beginners.

Introduction
7
 %

Of course these first life drawings and what they can achieve in nature. The spirit behind the concept of something constructed
terms of a conceptual complexity have their limits. In Order to also favors this approach (figs 182-184, 78).
understand how the human body functions, students must also So, once more, effort is needed if the artist is to be free of total •
familiarize themselves with the structure of its individual parts. dependency on a model. When I insist that students must be
Only close studies supported by analytical methods enable able to construct a figure purely from their imagination without
students to convey form and function as they interact. If, for the presence of an actual model, they have to be such masters of
example, you want to understand the essence of what happens their craft that they can draw the figure in its natural, human
to the form of the knee when it bends (figs 57, 59-65), you must form (fig. 194). But this does not mean that from then on they
have a thorough knowledge of the construction of the skeleton can dispense with a model. Only once the fundamental facts
of the knee as regards form, components, structure and have been fully absorbed can the unique form of each and every
mechanics. The same is true of the torso (figs 83-95), pelvis (figs model - the head, arm, hand or complete figure - be fully
58-60), rib cage and the mechanics of the spinal column. The experienced and elaborated.
behavior of the soft, fleshy forms can then be inferred. Thus, we The capacity for personal and subjective interpretation can
have to construct the figure from depth if we want more than a come into play only once students have a command of the
clever but facile result. That is why the forms of the human complete repertory of rieh practical knowledge and the ability to
framework must be simplified as far as possible, and why I always visualize - combined with the development of the inner eye. At
put greater emphasis on the abstractive skeleton forms than on that point the wide field of artistic creativity opens up before
the musculature (figs 79,80,82,66,102-109). them. Of course no amount of teaching can succeed in
Of course, once individual parts of the body are known to the transforming the ‘mortal coil’ into a work of art. Everyone must
Student (and can be drawn from a mental image of them), they embark on that journey alone, but we can take the Student near
have to be fitted back into the whole. Consequently the to the cross-over point (figs 171,174,182-185,194). The naked
sequence of drawings contained in this book demonstrates that human body as an ‘object’ of life study is as great a mystery as art
all graphic studies of parts of the body or the body as a whole itself.
must first be supported by the ability to draw the constructional I see drawing human forms primarily as an organizational task.
forms. They are a distillation of form, conveying information Understood in this way it can capture an important piece of
regarding what is or is not possible in functional and plastic vividness from our world which is becoming ever less vivid.
terms. Conveying how the organism responds to the demands Creating Order through drawing means wresting a small bit of
made upon it to perform also becomes the purpose of the our world away from chaos and making it accessible to scrutiny
drawing. and certainty.
If you consider depicting forms of the body to be a kind of Seeing with understanding and drawing with understanding
structural drawing, then it is even more important to have an may at present be regarded with suspicion as having a science-
architectural understanding of the live appearance of the body in based, therefore indiscreet, relationship with the body. The veil
Order to portray it (figs 152,87,153-159). It is a question of covering a great mystery is lifted ever so slightly.
working out the structural interplay between supporting and
supported forms, between the relatively constant framework
forms that provide stability and the changeable, pendulous
V
fprms of the soft parts of the body. This applies not only to the
structural processes of the figure as a whole, but also to the
functional ones. In other words the body conceived as a building
must evoke in the person drawing it the main elements of a
building, the solid core shapes and the Container shapes, and at
the same time it must be possible to see through these so that
each individual item is assigned to its proper place.
Constructional form determines appearance and is a component
of essential form.
Drawing form constructionally may be a valuable training
exercise but there are other prospects and purposes implicit in
it. The behavior of the soft, fleshy forms is a consequence of the
behavior of the framework. In architectonic form - which Adolf
*

Hildebrand saw as a form of artistic nature study - this

consequence does not produce showy muscular figures, nor the
limp forms of dead matter which always crop up in artists*
anatomy even today. Anatomy for artists conceived in this way
has promoted an illustrative outer appearance of form, not
essential form. Perceiving form architecturally may be seen as a
special way of understanding nature, as a Statement about

8 Introduction
 are joined, a simple proportioned figure consisting of
geometrized forms emerges. This simple guide to proportion is
not a rigid dogma, and can be applied to every model.
It is extremely important to work out the rough, broad forms
of the sections of the body (e.g. the rectangle of the torso, the
trapezoid of the hips, the intermediate shape of the stomach,
the ovoid shape of the head, etc):
Studies of proportion • Simple forms are easy to remember and eye-catching.
• The fact that simple forms are easy to visualize helps you to
The approach we adopt rules out any rigid theory of proportion understand functional processes (figs. 18-22). Only once they
with set basic measurements (modules) and an established have been understood will you be able to convey the
esthetic canon. Instead we use a method that Starts with the behavior of the forms of the soft, fleshy parts of the body
individual proportions of each quite different model. The total clearly and convincingly, e.g. compression and Stretching.
height of the model is structured by establishing measuring After drawing up the geometrized proportioned figure, two
points and checking the sections marked off by them for further stages are necessary:
coincidences or similarities. In practical terms this means that we • Making sense of the contours and formal accents by drawing
first establish the Overall height of the figure from the sole of the in extremely simplified skeleton forms (fig 4, blue lines).
foot to the crown of the head, draw the middle axis of the body These represent the basis for the formal structure of each
as a connecting line and mark off on it as horizontal axes the section of the body and for understanding organic and
lengths measured from the model that are alike or similar functional processes (figs 17-24).
(height proportioning). The geometric center of a woman’s body • Filling in characteristic subsidiary forms (e.g. breasts, layers of
is certain to coincide with the position of the pubic bone, i.e. the fat on the hips, flanks and knees, figs 3, 5) on the outline
length of the upper part of the body corresponds with that of figure.
the lower part. It is a good idea to master all these stages using broad lines to
After the first basic proportioning, other reference points in avoid creating indeterminate images and to achieve precision of
the upper and lower parts of the body are investigated. For
form.
example we find the position of the nipples (figs 1-6) a little Only now is it appropriate to undertake three-dimensional
below the top quarter of the body, while the lower edge of the studies of the body in both front and back views (figs 6, 8):
kneecap (coinciding with the interarticular space) is in the
• Study the spatial gradations and draw in the forms of the
bottom quarter, which means that the length of the upper leg is
body nearest to the observer and those around them using
equal to that of the lower leg plus the foot. Height proportioning
denser or lighter shading.
is further refined as indicated. The height of the head (chin to
Drawings that have an almost pictorial quality (figs 9,16) can be
the top of the skull), the length of the neck, the position of the
achieved by producing a composite whole figure (these are not
navel and the waist, the length of the knee as an intermediary
form between the upper and lower leg and the height of the Silhouette cut-outs!).
New problems relating to proportion arise when we come to
inner ankle are also noted.
the profile. As well as the procedures that have already been
Once it has been established, the head height (H) is an
covered we have to consider the rhythmic pattern of the body
appropriate measuring unit or module for determining other
measurements and assessing how far an individual model (figs 10-13):
conforms to the canons of proportion. Figs 1-6 show that the • The figure is constructed around the structural line that runs
models used conformed to the 8-H canon in proportion. through the opening of the ear and the joints of the shoulder,
Measurements that are less than one head height can be elbow, hip, knee and ankle like a plumb-line.
expressed as fractions of it: neck-length c. V2 - V3H, height of • The slanting axes formed on the side of the stomach by the
ankle V3H, and so on. As well as being referred to the H module volumes represented by the rib cage and pelvis create an
all measurements should be compared with one another. obtuse angle (so there must be no vertical stratification!).
Once the height proportions have been established, a similar • The buttocks, front of the thighs and the calves along with
process is carried out to ascertain the widths of the horizontal the upper body form shapes that project alternately to back
axes of the body. Typically the widest measurement in a female and front.
body is across the broadest part of the hips, often exactly 2H,
while the narrower measurement between the edges of the
shoulders is often approximately IV2H.
Since the widest body measurement on a woman (across the
hips) does not exceed 2H, a rectangle 2H wide by 8H high can
be blocked in as a check on the figure; subsequent freer
proportion studies can then be sketched in to provide a broad
Overall view. If the widest points of the horizontal measurements
<

V,

Chapter 1
Studies ofProportion
1 GEOMETRICALLY SIMPLIFIED PROPORTIONED FIGURE
This study is executed in red chalk crayon using long
unbroken lines so as not to get lost in anatomical details. The
procedure for marking off height proportioning can be
recognized from the lightly drawn horizontal axes.
Student of stage design, first semester

2 GEOMETRIZED PROPORTIONED FIGURE, IN A

VARIATION OF THE STANDING POSITION
The new directions of the limbs and the shapes of the
intermediate spaces enclosed by axes produce useful Check¬
points in the drawing of the figure.
Student of stage design, first semester

3 DRAWING IN SUBSIDIARY, INTERMEDIATE AND

TRANSITIONAL FORMS ON THE PRELIMINARY
PROPORTIONED FIGURE
This phase uses what has already been learnt to introduce a
stronger Suggestion of individualized live appearance.
From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988

4 MAKING SENSE OF THE OUTLINE OF THE FIGURE

BY INSERTING SIMPLIFIED SKELETON SHAPES
The geometrized shapes should not be adopted by the
Student as schematic forms without any fiirther thought.
The lcorners\ or accents, of the outline shape are given a
primary anatomical and organic justification. Student of
painting/graphic art, first semester *

Chapter 1 -j -j
Studies ofProportion
 5 COMPLETED STUDIES OF THE
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE OF TWO
DIFFERENT MODELS
It is clear from the figures that the
‘flexible’ method of recording propor-
tions has nothing to do with stereotyped
‘Proportion templates’. Straight and
rounded contour lines join up.
From the Salzburg intensive course,

6 EXTENDING THE STUDY OF 7 STUDY OF ALTERED PROPORTIONAL 8 STUDY OF PROPORTION WITH

PROPORTION BY EXAMINING RELATIONSHIPS IN BACK VIEW MORE DIFFERENTIATION
THE BODY FROM A THREE- The horizontal axis at the middle of the It is not only external forms that are
DIMENSIONAL VIEWPOINT
body is still the basic guideline. The differentiated; internal shapes are also
The parts of the body that protrude perceived three-dimensionally in very
horizontal crease made by the buttocks is
farthest are indicated using different subtle gradations relating to spatial rather
below that level. The line of the shoulder
weights of shading. The proportional than anatomical factors. Light, open areas
bones runs down from the tip of the
construction of the body is now primarily
shoulder. indicate concavities.
based on estimation. From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988
From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988
From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988

Chapter 1
Studies ofProportion
 . ’« Am &
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Chapter 1
Studies ofProportion
 9 PROPORTIONALITY LINKED WITH
SURROUNDING SPACE
The two figures sketched in this study of
Proportion are placed in spatial relation
to one another (the intervening space)
and the surrounding space (the floor
surface and the partition). The kinetic
hatching is no longer tied to the linear
Silhouette.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

.*

‘M4

-| 4 Chapter 1
Studies ofProportion
10 RHYTHMIC PATTERN OF THE
BODY IN PROFILE
Awareness of proportional factors is
linked with the balance of the masses
lying one under another and projecting
both forward and backward. Red chalk
applied lengthwise gives the direction of
the masses as they first strike the viewer,
not relying on mechanical hatching.
From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988

11 RHYTHMIC PATTERN OF THE

BODY AS A COHERENT FLOW
To turn the sequence of forms into
something really fluid, use a well-primed
watercolor brush and trace the contours
of the body, varying the pressure used.
The figure materializes in a matter of
seconds - the brush is not lifted and
there has been no previous calculation of
proportions.
From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988

Chapter 1 -| g
Studies ofProportion
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-| g Chapter 1
Studies ofProportion
 12 RHYTHM OF THE FIGURE IN
THREE-QUARTER VIEW
As well as emphasizing the curves, it is
necessary here to pay attention to spatial
considerations such as the falling axis of
the shoulder-line and the rising axis of the
surface on which the model is Standing.
Rough proportioning guidelines can still
be seen.
From a Bammes course at the Schule für
Gestaltung, Zürich

13 INTEGRATING SPATIAL FACTORS

INTO THE RHYTHMIC PATTERN
OF THE FIGURE
A bristle brush half-filled with opaque
paint is a good medium for producing a
• profile that can be executed quickly, and
by using stronger or more muted shading
you can convey a sense of depth of
perspective.
From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988

14 COMBINATION OF
PROPORTIONING, RHYTHM
AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
EXPRESSIVENESS IN A STANDING
POSE
You can follow the rapid change in a
Standing pose in profile by using an
adaptable medium, in this case powdered
sepia applied with the finger. The loose
forms can be stabilized with a few
contour lines. The psychological state of a
model is evident even when he or she is
working, and this should not be
overlooked.
From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988

Chapter 1
Studies ofProportion
 I

<

15 RHYTHMIC PATTERN OF THE

. •-
BODY CONVEYED BY LINE ONLY
*tI Some artists are able to give rhythmic
definition to the human form using linear
flow only. This study of two nudes shows
the requisite mastery of outer and inner
closeness, of links and breaks between
the bodies.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

H.

Chapter 1
Studies ofProportion
 i * • :•

16 PROPORTIONAL PLANNING AND

PSYCHOLOGICAL
EXPRESSIVENESS IN A FRONTAL
STANDING POSE
A free execution with a bristle brush
supported by the broad division of the
body into quarters concentrates on the
gestures of the sure, self-confident pose.
In this case the figure is not defined by
line, but by a cömbination of tonal effects
and open spaces.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

<

• ...

Chapter 1 -| g
Studies ofProportion
 rectangle of the upper body in a single stroke when used on
its side.
• By twisting the chalk and applying it with varying pressure you
can create the forms assumed by the body in different poses:
compressions, tensions, relaxations, directions and precise
formal accents.
The point of this exercise would be lost if you just produced a
Studies of Standing and seated poses in preliminary drawing and then filled it in with mechanical
repose hatching. Though contrapposto studies tend to be decried today
as academic, a great deal can still be learnt from them in terms of
Implicit in what has been said of proportion and the understanding the interdependency of proportional principles
accompanying studies are structural problems relating to the and the functional working of the body (fig. 22). It is crucial to
body’s equilibrium which are particularly relevant when the construct the figure according to structural rules, i.e. to convey
model’s weight is supported on one leg. the relationships between the position of the center of gravity
If you make cut-outs of a proportioned figure using different- and the weight-carrying surface (the sole of the foot).
colored overlaying pieces of paper (figs 17,18), this also gives The procedure is as follows:
you negative outlines of the figure. You can then follow through • Decide how to break the figure down.
the Steps involved in structural and functional changes to the • Mark the weight-carrying sole and the center of gravity which
body by cutting up the positive Silhouette figures into the basic is directly above it.
geometric shapes you have already worked out; you can then • Establish the direction of the Standing leg, the curve described
simulate the processes of center of gravity shift and its by the central axis of the body and the directions of the cross
implications for form: axes intersecting it at a variety of angles.
• Over a negative Silhouette of a figure Standing on both feet lay Once this structural framework has been established,
the trapezoid of the hips of the positive figure so that the incorporate the geometrized sections of the body into it before
center of gravity which is located in the middle of the pelvis is proceeding with any further differentiation of form. Rather than
directly above the sole of the foot of the Standing leg. outlining the external forms, make the relationship between the
• All further consequences, such as the lowering of the pelvis on core parts quite clear. It is important throughout these exercises
the unsupported side, the slanting position of the Standing that movement and changing form should emerge from our
leg, the compensating position of the trailing leg, the way the purely functional studies with a live and coherent flow, be
upper body leans over toward the side of the Standing leg, etc imbued with the expression of the interdependency of the forces
follow from this. at work and carry conviction of the model’s ability to stand and
This exercise makes it clear how supporting and supported not suggest instability or toppling over!
forces, accents (the way the hip juts out on the side of the There are many possible ways of achieving this. It may be
Standing leg), compression and Stretching (gaps round the useful - using the structural framework - to work up a figure
intermediate form of the stomach) originate. Breaking the figure using chalk on its side. Starting from one center (say the
down into movable, adjustable individual cut-out parts in this trapezoid of the hips) you can gradually expand upward and
way is preferable to the fashionable but ill-devised schematic outward until you reach the contours (do not make a
methods proposed in some Studios. preparatory outline drawing; keep the lines broad and flat). You
If you cut your proportioned figures out of foil and allow for can use a graphite stick on its side to put in the curving main
overlapping pivotal points you can even develop an articulated masses and directions, stabilizing the form by sketching in a very
mobile figure which you can use to test structural and dynamic few lines (fig. 24). #

attitudes in movement (figs 19-21). Another similar approach A most appealing method is to use a paintbrush: the smooth,
involves printing; make geometric shapes of parts of the body (in quick, shorthand-like abbreviations can grasp what is most
the form of potato cuts, linocuts or woodcuts) and use them to essential (fig. 23). The brush must immediately work with
make prints following through what happens in different volumes applied with varying weight, and not be used as a pencil
Standing positions (fig. 20). Printing with blocks of movable to provide a preparatory drawing.
proportioned parts of the body encourages you to identify with Try always to experiment with expressive exaggeration to
the expression of the movement, especially if you are one of capture the essence, while working in pen and ink or combined
those people who cannot immediately apply what you have techniques (figs 25-27) too. When drawing you must constantly
learnt about proportion to different Standing poses. be on the look-out for changes, and this applies equally to seated
Closely related to the two elementary intermediate stages of poses (figs 28-34). The model should help students grasp the
cut-out exercises and printing is working with chalk: this is expressiveness of a pose by rapid changes of position which will
applied in broad lines to convey a rapid sequence of changes of force them to observe very quickly and prevent them from.
pose by the model (fig. 21): getting bogged down in anatomical detail.
• Take a piece of chalk which is the right length to give the

2q Chapter 2
Studies ofStanding and seated poses in repose
 • 1

e+smi ÄSSMe£&.
W*y*

17 CONTRAPPOSTO POSE BUILT UP

FROM PROPORTIONED CUT-OUTS
A lot can be learnt from understanding
the many regulär changes of form that
occur through observing the mutual
relationship of the center of gravity, the
gravity line (in white) and the sole of the
supporting foot. The disposition of forms
is based on preserving the balance when
the weight is supported on one side by
the sole of the supporting foot.
Student of set painting, first semester

18 THE UNITY OF PROPORTION AND

FUNCTION
The success of this study compared with
fig. 17 is enhanced by the drawing of
simple skeletal forms into the
geometrized sections of the body,
encouraging closer observation of the
pivotal points of movement and making
sense of the shape of the outer contours.
Student of painting/graphic art, first
semester
 I

19 TWO-DIMENSIONAL MODELS OF
MOVABLE PROPORTIONED
FIGURES IN ACTION
Besides concentration on proportional
factors, an understanding of the way in
which body is constructed is promoted
by determining the actual pivotal points
of movement. At the same time, moving
positions provide information about
proportional relationships and changes.
Student of set painting, first semester

20 PRINTS OF PROPORTIONED
FIGURES IN MOVEMENT
Keeping to the geometrized basic forms
of the body in producing the printing
block makes expression of movement a
playful discovery of fundamental
behavior of form.
Special school of painting and graphic
art

V 21 DRAWING MOVING POSES

USING BROAD CHALK LINES
These studies are closely linked to
previous investigations of proportion. It
is now important to render forms
concisely so as to grasp the important
formal accents that develop in movement.
Student of painting/graphic art, first
semester

Chapter 2
Studies ofStanding and seated poses in repose
 ■4

4,
4

«. >*■
v.. •*- •
SA A

//
 22 GRAPHIC AND LINEAR
CONTRAPPOSTO
CONSTRUCTION
The structural and proportional
framework serves as a basis for
introducing refinements of form into a
larger whole. The construction Starts
from the weight-carrying sole and the
central point of the mass (center of
gravity) lying above the middle of the
sole.
From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988

23 EXPRESSING MOVEMENT IN A
STANDING POSE USING A
PAINTBRUSH
This is a very rapid study aimed at seizing
the essentials of the movement, making
much use of abstraction. The directions
of the limbs and body make the
functional circumstances clear in an
elementary way.
Demonstration study by the author,
from a Bammes course at the Schule für
Gestaltung, Zürich

2^ Chapter 2
Studies of Standing and seated poses in repose
 /

|
m

24 STUDY OF MOVEMENT USING A

GRAPHITE STICK ON ITS SIDE
One of the model’s constantly changing
poses is captured at lightning speed with
a graphite stick used on its side, with the
help of visual memory.
Demonstration study by the author,
from a Bammes course at the Schule für
Gestaltung, Zürich
 25 EXAGGERATION OF
FUNCTIONAL EXPRESSIVENESS
IN STANDING POSES
Cutting out details makes it easier to
discover the expression of various forms
of Standing, some drawn from the
imagination.
Student of painting/graphic art, first
Semester

2g Chapter 2
Studies ofStanding and seated poses in repose
26 STUDIES OF STRUCTURE IN
CONJUNCTION WITH SIMPLE
THREE-DIMENSIONAL SKETCHES
In three-dimensional views of the model
you must consider simply represented
body volume. Here again you should
avoid any clutter - learners are only too
apt to get caught up in portraying a
‘beautiful’ nude.
Student of painting/graphic art, first
Semester

27 TEST STUDIES TO CHECK THE

QUALITY OF SKILLS ACQUIRED
From time to time it is necessary to check
your mastery of drawing skills by working
from the imagination. Quite often this
produces better results than short-term
or prolonged Observation of a model.
Student of painting/graphic art, first
Semester
 I

<
28 SKETCH-NOTES ON BASIC
FORMS OF SEATED POSES
The top row shows drawings done during
discussion of proportional, structural and
functional changes after a picture on the
board. The bottom row contains an
attempt to interpret the form of the basic
figure in rectangular format.
Student of painting/graphic art, first
semester

29 CHANGING SEATED POSES

This study concentrates on the
psychological impression made by seated
poses, at the same time clearly indicating
the connection between the pelvis and
the rib cage in rapidly changing poses.
Student of painting/graphic art, first
semester

2g Chapter 2
Stuäies of Standing and seated poses in repose
 #4 »
30 DECORATIVE FRIEZE FORMED
FROM KNEELING FIGURES
This work was done after a discussion
about Greek vase painting. The figures
are freely invented using a movable
proportioned block.
Student of set painting, first Semester

31 STUDIES OF SEATED POSES

USING A PAINTBRUSH
We are again concerned with fluidity of
movement; also with the significance of
positive and negative figures. Preparatory
drawings were strictly forbidden.
Student of painting/graphic art, first
Semester

• •

j
v:r %ri

Chapter 2 29
Studies of Standing and seated poses in repose
 I

<
32 SEATED POSITION WITH A THREE-
DIMENSIONAL ASPECT
In this three-quarter view using a half-dry
bristle brush a concern with intersecöons
receding depth is necessitated. Parts of
the body nearest to view are deeper in
tone.
V ;L
From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988

33 FLUID BRUSH DRAWING

The Student takes comfortable, casually
relaxed sitting as subject. Continuous
forms lightly and freely executed with a
watercolor brush are very well suited to
the task.
»

From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988

34 FRONT VIEW OF GESTURE IN

SITTING
The preceding studies of seated poses
were in profile and with clear contours.
Sitting viewed frontally requires more
powerful articulation. Thus linear
definition is used here as well as
indication of the main broad masses.
Demonstration study by the author,
from a Bammes course at the Schule für
Gestaltung, Zürich

oq Chapter 2
Studies of Standing and seated poses in repose
 <

Wi
äffüi

Chapter 2 q-|
Studies ofStanding and seated poses in repose
 I

antique vase painting, demonstrate a playful use of printing with

movable proportioned blocks, but are not so well adapted to
conveying the course of real movement. The reverse is true of
figs 38-41. It is obvious from fig. 38 that both the dynamic and
psychological components of walking, running and gesture had
previously been discussed. Even the relatively small figures
quickly drawn with chalk and brush, especially in their phased
Studies of locomotive and expressive sequences, do not call the ‘reality’ of these instantaneous
representations into question, even those of falling movements.
movements
To a large extent the studies illustrated in figs 38-39 are based
■ . w '*» 1 i H 1 i '| 4 \* on visual memory, visualization and sympathetic insight into
The transition to locomotive movements is always the movement covering hesitant, hasty, dragging, dancing, tired,
consequence of disturbed balance, with the body’s center of happy, vigorous or affected strides. It need hardly be pointed out
gravity shifted forward over the tipping edge (the front of the that the Student can build on particular discussions of structural
instep). A walking or running stride is essentially the rhythmic and dynamic rudiments as criteria for assessing whether figures
repetition of the body catching itself as it begins to fall forward. are Standing or falling, stable or unstable. These criteria are also
This causes a problem for artistic work that is seldom resolved applied when undertaking lively imaginative work.
satisfactorily: the Suggestion of a possible moment of fall with The Situation is similar in the studies illustrated in figs 39 and
the body leaning forward, perhaps still at the very moment when 41. The model who collaborated sensitively in the work was
the swinging leg is not yet ready to take the body’s weight. This constantly moving so that students had no time to go into detail.
makes the observer feel uncomfortable. We perceive any such The model pulled, lifted, pushed, feil over, carried weights
representation as a disturbing, frozen, chance snapshot, above his head or her back, sometimes Standing still and
searching for stability. Art has a significant role to play here. For sometimes moving forward. A suitable medium for conveying
instance, if we were mentally to convert a monumental painting this is the brush which can react quickly. It should be repeated
such as Hodler’s Departure of the Jena volunteers, with the that the round, well filled watercolor brush works quite
double Support of the wide apart legs, into the instantaneous differently from the pencil (fig. 40). When using a brush you
Situation of falling, what a disaster it would be! We accept lively, need only apply it and you have a volume, draw it along and you
illustrative graphic art far more readily, of the type used in have a complete arm, let it trail and the volume tapers. However,
Slevogt’s Leatherstocking illustrations, for example. Italian if the brush is constantly lifted off the paper and reapplied, no
Futurists opted to express relative movement or virtual forward flow of movement will be created and you will have only
movement through phases of movement represented splodges. The esthetic appeal will have been lost. In setting out
simultaneously, which go through the body and seem to lift its to convey form and expression the pencil study (fig. 40) can
physical weight. work with whole bundles of lines, or if the person drawing is
Strictly speaking, most representations of a stride are only confident he or she can define the flow of movement with a
illusionistic movements, irrespective of whether only one leg is single line. The tip of the pencil is also useful when you need to
functioning as a supporting, bracing member and the other as a go into individual aspects in more detail or to clarify a three-
swinging leg, or both legs are touching the ground at the same dimensional effect, foreshortening or an intersection. If you
time. You need only call on your own kinesthetic sense to know already have some experience of studying the skeleton, you can
whether you could not also hold still in such a position. Usually use the study of movement analytically to examine elementary
the answer is yes. aspects of function more thoroughly.
The behavior not just of the legs (figs 35-37) but of the upper In the chapters on proportion, structure and movement we
body too - its upright (figs 36,37), forward or backward position have shown the possibilities of a combined figural effect and the
reduces or reinforces the appearance of motion, the upright figural priorities that you should aim for. In future studies these
position suggesting a brisk march, the forward position haste, are generally not mentioned expressly. They must be assimilated
and the backward position with the body behind the front foot, into your work ‘silently’, present and available as a constant
dawdling or hesitation. means of self-correction.
Both figs 36 and 37 confirm that, in accordance with the
decorative character of the printed work, the specific tendency
in the student’s future profession toward enhancing real
dynamics of the stride, to the extent of exäggerating its length
(fig. 37), means that these are not genuine movements. The
dancing movement (fig. 35) shows the transition toward
expressive movement. Essentially it expresses an atmospheric
Situation through the simultaneous movement of the limbs for
no explicit purpose.
These three decorative works, produced after looking at an

22 Chapter 3
Studies of locomotive and expressive movements
35 DECORATIVE PLAY WITH
EXPRESSIVE MOVEMENTS
Printing with proportioned blocks
representing the moving parts of the
body stimulates an inventive approach to
movement and needs to be activated by
our kinesthetic sense.
Student of set painting, first semester

P'» : r •- ^
V ';’T-
'T
m -A , -^ v -wEEXheSSr
V? * :• V «5515a: .
36 STRIDING POSTURE SUGGESTING
A PEACEFUL MARCH
The upright posture of the upper body
the bent front leg placed supportingly on
the ground and the offloading back leg
combine to convey a relaxed stride.
Printing with movable proportioned
blocks is used as in fig. 37.
Student of set painting, first semester

37 EXAGGERATION OF THE
STRIDING POSTURE
The wide spacing of the legs makes the
movement appear extremely brisk, but in
actual fact it would not allow the rear leg
to swing over past the dead center.
Student of set painting, first semester

Chapter 3 go
Studies oflocomotive and expressive movements
 38 PHASES OF THE STRIDE WITH
DIFFERENTIATED MOVEMENTS
It is not only the movement of the legs
that provides Information suggesting
speed or hesitation; the position and
form of the upper body also come into
play.
Student of stage design, first Semester

39 LOCOMOTIVE MOVEMENTS wishes to convey. But the flow of the

The directions used in individual activities brush is too often disrupted in making
are also of fundamental importance here contrary series oflines.
in expressing the movement the Student Student of sculpture, first Semester
40 WORKING MOVEMENTS
EXPRESSIVELY EXAGGERATED
The fact that a heavy load is being pulled
is made clear by the way the body leans
far forward and the bracing leg is
stretched out far behind. Käthe Kollwitz’s
Plowmen was used as a source of
expressive inspiration.
Student of painting/graphic art, first
Semester

* *

41 RECORDING MOVEMENTS WITH interconnected expression of movement

THE BRUSH in rapidly changing actions by the model.
This work is more fluent than fig. 39, Student of painting/graphic art, first
concentrating mainly on the semester
 • The ear is not just a flap hanging down somewhere or other:
it is a folded, thin cartilaginous substance with the contours
of a curled-up spiral which is an articulated, shell-shaped, •
three-dimensional space (so a special study is called for!).
We begin studies of the head, ideally using your own head with
the help of a mirror, by establishing proportions (figs 48,49) of
Studies of the skull and head the position of the axis of the eyes (the center), the length of the
nose, forehead and lower face; each is usually a third of the
length of the face measured from the chin to the hair line. Once
Whereas the three previous chapters have been concerned with these measurements have been established, check the widest
the figure as a whole in terms of proportion, construction and measuement of the face and skull (usually 2/3H). Before pro-
motion, we now come to the structural and anatomical studies ceeding any further it is a good idea to grasp these basic propor¬
of the head as a module of the whole figure. tional factors really well, both in principle and two-dimensionally
Once again, in studies of the skull and head, establishing sizes (fig. 49), and you are then ready to move on to modeling (figs
and the connection of the two sections of the skull - the cranium 50, 51). The experience and skill you have gained in drawing the
and face - are of prime importance. The basic forms of these skull are applied again here. Work out the spatial gradients of the
volumes are depicted with the axis of the eyes halfway down the planes and how they meet corners and edges: it is better to
head height (crown of head to point of chin, fig. 42). Only after make the junctions relatively hard-edged rather than too indeter-
becoming thoroughly conversant with the functional and struc¬ minate. The volumes are encased in convex planes, and these
tural Systems of the skull in profile and front view should the another. These are events involving form >
Student embark on a study of the skull (figs 43-46). For this you meetings between forms. There are no intervening concave dips
should draw up a three-dimensional reference System (based on between the convex shapes leading from one to another: they
the central vertical axis and subsidiary cross axes). Using this collide. If we ignore this, the head becomes a wishy-washy lump
three-dimensional framework for conveying the three dimensions, of soap. What is called for here is articulation of form.
construct a view of the basic volumes of the cranial box and the Expanding on the drawing of the head (which should not be a
facial skeleton two-dimensionally; only once this has been done portrait study) again provides scope for the power of visualiza-
should you move on to subtle, detailed differentiations. tion and imagination, first with different physiognomies in pro¬
The fundamental principle is always to create unambiguous file (figs 53, 54) then proceeding to striking head types (fig. 55)
planes to view, establishing the front, side and ‘roof ’ planes in and grotesque heads from fables, fairy-tales or the theater (fig. 56),
their relative positions. They reflect the groundplan of the base The physiognomies based on visualization and imagination
of the skull depicted in perspective above which the dorne of the should not be pure fantasy with no plan or program. Start with a
cranium is situated. All concealed edges and corners should be striking profile view (fig. 53) and, like Dürer, draw the falling
drawn in as intersections (fig. 43). facial line, i.e. the line running from the highest point of the
The skull is a marvelous piece of architecture and its facets forehead down to the incisor teeth, which establishes the slant
should be observed and drawn with great attention. It is a or tapering of the profile (fig. 53, top left). This factor alone
building with supporting columns, consoles, recesses etc. Only opens up an infinite number of physiognomic possibilities, if you
by drawing the skull constructionally will you really discover the also shift the relationships of the elements of the face and
foundations on which the living appearance rests. include the full ränge of Variation in nose and mouth shapes.
After the shapes of the mouth, nose, eye and ear have been In three-dimensional representations of the head, the
considered, individual studies of them should be drawn (figs. 46, imagination can be stimulated and guided if you try to achieve
47), and finally studies of the head as a whole (figs. 48-52). In the maximum consistency in portraying the typical features of a
undertaking the individual studies and in drawing the head strict slim, lean person, an athletic, robust one or someone who is
attention should be paid to structure (fig. 46): squat and rotund (fig. 54). Otherwise you will end up producing
• The nose has a front ridge, side planes, nostrils and a tip some weird characters.
which are joined to one another by facets (be careful with the Even when drawing grotesque heads, and Leonardo da Vinci
intersections at the nostrils). provides some fine examples, a proper measure of anatomical
• The visible part of the eyeball is curved as part of a sphere possibility should be retained in all deviations from the norm
with bulky covering parts (the upper and lower eyelid). Here (fig. 56).
again you should carefully observe the. way in which the Using your imagination and powers of visualization when
eyeball and the lids overlap (figs 46,47). drawing and designing the shapes of the head is important in
• The mouth is a three-dimensional, curved shape, especially in Order to preserve the form and appearance of the head and body.
the notched area of the red of the lips, and protrudes and However, beginners should not be seduced into trying to turn
recedes (figs 48, 50, 51). In three-dimensional views (fig. 51) their first drawing of the head into a portrait. The head should
both the overlaps within the red of the lip and its foreshorten- be thoroughly understood graphically before an individual
ing, and th&intersections with the cheeks must be mapped out. Personality is elaborated in a portrait.

ßg Chapter 4
Studies of the skull and head
42 STUDIES OF THE PROPORTIONS OF SECTIONS OF
THE SKULL
Using collage you can link the ovoid cranial shape with the
vertical shape of the facial skeleton, incorporating a
Physiognomie effect and nose shape protruding to a greater or
lesser degree from the profile of the face.
Student teacher, first Semester

43 ARCHITECTONICALLY CONCEIVED THREE- Wk

DIMENSIONAL STUDY OF THE SKULL
It is the structure of the basic parts and the constructional and
functional assembly of the individual components (e.g. the
jawbone, nasal tunnel, the column running from chin to
forehead) that lead to successful execution of the task, not
drawing the skeletal details.
Student of restoration work, first semester

r *(<j * fi a

m wx

MH
t

44 USE OF GRAPHIC EFFECTS IN ARCHITECTONIC

DRAWING
The sloping planes enclosing the skull are drawn in with a
network of lines running in skillfully aligned directions with
maximum contrast to reinforce the solidity and three-
dimensionality of the skull.
Student of painting/graphic art, first semester

Chapter 4
Studies ofthe skull and head
 45 GRAPHIC PENETRATION OF THE
SKULL SHAPE
Starting from the three-dimensional
reference System, draw the simplified
forms of the base of the skull and the
skull cap resting on it, then the middle
and side columns of the facial skeleton.
You are thus compelled to draw through
all overlaps. In purely linear studies of
this kind carefully observed intersections
are particularly important.*
Student of restoration work, first
semester
••

46 STRUCTURALINVESTIGATIONS
OF THE SHAPES OF PARTS OF
THE HEAD
As in drawing the skull, the forms of the
soft, fleshy parts are also conveyed by the
main planes and gradients on view,
building on experience gained in
structural drawing of the skull. *
Student of painting/graphic art, first
semester

3g Chapter 4
Studies of the skull and head
WM*

^•
 I

<
47 STUDIES OF THE MODELING OF
THE EYE AND THE
SURROUNDING AREA
The assignment involves understanding
the modeling of the eye as part of the
surface of a sphere which is imbedded in
the space enclosed by the bridge of the
brow, the side of the bridge of the nose
and the jawbone.
Student of stage design, first semester

48 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE
SHAPE OF THE SKULL IN A SELF-
PORTRAIT BASED ON
VISUALIZATION
Within the contours of the individual
head form, checked by measurements of
proportions, the shape of the skull
underneath can be found. Yet another
indication of the extent to which the form
of the head is determined by the basic
skull.
Student of restoration work, first
semester

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4Q Chapter 4
Stuäies of the skull and head
49 PROPORTIONING THE HEAD AS THE BASIS FOR
INDIVIDUAL FEATURES OF THE FACE
In drawing, the unique appearance (‘likeness’) of an individual
can be created simply from careful measurement of the lengths
and breadths of the face, and the position, shape and size of the
component forms, without making any further attempt at
differentiation.
Amateur artist

50 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PLASTIC APPEARANCE OF

THE HEAD
If establishing the proportions (see fig. 49) is linked with
sketching in skull forms and their facets, the volumes of the
individual forms can be fitted into the formal solidity of the
whole head in a completely stable way.
Student of restoration work, first Semester

' y i

51 DEVELOPING THE MODELING OF THE HEAD FROM

THE STRUCTURAL SHAPES OF THE SKULL
Here again the ‘self-portrait’ is used to gain quiet self-
confidence in a general, basic drawing of the head; the face is
treated as an assembly of the forms of the parts into an integral
whole.
Student of painting/graphic art, first Semester •?

Chapter 4
Studies of the skull and head
 I

<

52 ASSIMILATING THE STUDY OF

THE HEAD
With side Iighting constituent forms are
brought together to make larger parts;
gouache has been used on a wet ground.
Special school of painting and graphic
art, first semester

53 ATTEMPTS AT INVENTING
PHYSIOGNOMIES
The course of the profile of the face is
determined to a large extent by the basic
direction of the face line (forehead-lip)
which indicates a steep or a flauer profile.
Within each profile the sections of the
face have been varied in length.
Student of stage design, first semester

54 IMAGINARY PHYSICAL TYPES

Discussions on the characteristics of
different types of physical build had taken
place, which are reflected in the drawings
in a free treatment of the face as a unit.
Student of stage design, first semester
55 STUDIES OF AN ACTUAL
PHYSICAL TYPE
The individual characteristics of the
Mongolian race are established in
depicting a person with Mongolian
features.
Student of stage design, first semester

56 IMAGINARY GROTESQUE HEADS

Intrinsic to the light-hearted assignment
of sketching figures was the maxim that
features, despite their abnormality, must
still be organic shapes.
Student of stage design, first semester

Chapter 4
Studies of the skull and head
 the head. If the construction of the skeletal vaulting of the foot is
ignored, a drawing of it can all too easily look like a shapeless
Slipper.
Finally come studies of the leg as a structured living form at
rest and in motion (figs 67-76). The examples show a variety of
ways in which it can be represented, but the following criteria
are valid for all of them:
Studies of the construction, function • Clarification of the viewing perspective (eye level = horizon
level) so that perspective alignments can be based on it
and plastic behavior of the leg
(views from above or below).
#

• Clarification of the space enclosed between the two legs.

Before hoping to become proficient in conveying the moving
• Clarification of the form of the various basic volumes (e.g.
mechanics of the body in drawing, in this case those of the leg,
conical and cylindrical forms) to ensure that they connect
the Student should undertake a careful review of the Overall
correctly.
construction of the body, the forms of the joints and their
• Elaboration of the principal forms so that subsidiary forms
mobile muscle forces. All skeletal shapes should be simplified so
that the constructional form can teil us something about can be integrated into them.
function: • Deduction as to how the forms move (short, abrupt convexity
• The most powerful joint is the knee joint which works on a as against gentle, extended convexity - taut forms as against
hinging principle, with a roller (a double roller with a curved ones).
projecting front surface for the knee-cap) which can roll over • Use of anatomical knowledge to pinpoint the precise location
an incongruent corresponding form, the top of the shinbone of the spaces - depressions, furrows, grooves, cavities (e.g.
or tibia, causing the joint to open (fig. 57). Constructional the hollow of the knee when bent) - powerfully or gently
simplifications of this kind help us to recognize what is impressed into the volumes (see especially figs 71,72,73,76).
happening. • Not least, elaboration of the functional expression: loading or
• The constructional simplification of the pelvis is based on the releasing of a load, supporting and supported, bending and
container-like character of the lesser and greater pelvis Stretching, and how the joints behave plastically. What is the
(forming a funnel shape), with the front part dropping down effect of loading, pressure (e.g. fig. 75) and Stretching on the
gradually. This creates the plastic reference points of the soft, fleshy forms?
pubic bone and the two front spines of the hip bone • Finally, working out the sexually specific formal character of a
(plasticity of the stomach). The crest of the hip bone then male and female leg.
runs out sideways and on round to the back. The pelvis is a It is up to each individual to meet all these criteria in his or her
constant spatial area, and its sexually specific shape forms the own way. Each Student is free to decide whether to work with
body’s center of movement (figs 58-60). constantly irregulär hatching, hatching that models the body,
The pelvis, thigh bone or femur and knee-joint considered as with cross-sections only, purely with line or with regularly
one overall unit form the functional basis where the muscles of applied parallel hatching, and whether just to sketch or to do a
the thigh-bone Start and are attached. After considering these, finished drawing.
we must examine the basic form of the live knee (figs 61,62) in Close observations of the stucture of the basic forms of
detailed studies, especially the knee skeleton’s capacity for
%
anatomical features - the skeleton, the pelvis, knee, foot and
changing in motion and the groups of functional muscles their joints, muscle Systems - from life, and conversely working
between the pelvis and the shin bone. We shall examine the from life back to an anatomical analysis, are indispensable.
planes to view and the three-dimensional distortions caused by Graphic insight into essence can be achieved only once it has
all factors affecting form. Bearing cross-sections in mind makes it really been understood. Otherwise it is all too easy to remain at a
easier to organize the hatching used for modeling. Working out superficial level.
the structural interplay between firm skeletal forms and soft, In all our previous graphic studies, rather than being content
fleshy forms should prevent the knee from turning into a to work only from a model who was actually present, we
shapeless mass. extended our field of action to drawing based on visualization.
Once the skeleton of the leg as a whole and its musculature This should be done with the leg too, and you should also
have been learned, with full studies of the skeleton of the foot loosen up again with an imaginative approach to the form (fig.
(fig. 66) and the thigh bone (figs 64,65), the Student has 78). A thing can only be considered to be understood if you can
sufficient knowledge and preparation to be tested in a three-part draw it from the visual imagination. When students can work
intermediate exam partly based on visualization (figs 63,67,68). successfully from the imagination (fig. 77), this shows that they
An understanding of the construction of the skeleton of the foot have understood a form as difficult and changeable as the knee-
(fig. 66) with its connecting, jointed forms, its character as a joint in its various functions and contractions.
recessed vault with cross-vaulting and lengthwise vaulting, is just
as important for the structure of the living foot as the skull is for

Chapter 5
Studies of the construction, function and plastic behavior of the leg
57 CONSTRUCTIONAL FORMS OF
THE SKELETON OF THE KNEE IN
ACTION
Simply copying the natural form without
understanding it is of no value in the
M ■

learning process. Only by simplifying the

form constructionally is one forced to
look thoroughly and form permanent
visual concepts.
Student of painting/graphic art, first
semester' *

58 CONSTRUCTIONAL form of the front of the greater pelvis

REPRESENTATION OF THE PELVIS must be expressed as a basis for the
AS A CONTAINER FORM
spatial ins and outs of the front and side
The way the torso finishes at its lower end
abdominal wall.
with the pelvis is impressively reflected by
Student of stage design, first semester
many accents in the modeling of the
living figure. Above all, the hollowed-out
59 CONNECTION BETWEEN THE
SKELETONS OF THE PELVIS AND
THE KNEE
The backward-leaning pose of the nude
model is analyzed on the basis of the
skeleton so that the back-tipped position
of the pelvis can be understood in
functional terms. Thus analysis of the
living form demands an imaginative, and
to some extent contingent,
reconstruction of the skeletal forms.
Student of stage design, first Semester

60 FROM SKELETON TO LIVING

FORM
Progression in relation to fig. 59 consists
in the development of a pure visualization
of the skeleton which can be used as an
aid to finding the external contours of an
assumed nude model. The spatial
positions of the skeletal forms in relation
to one another are also relevant.
Student of sculpture, second semester
61 THE KNEE JOINT IN US
MUSCULAR SETTING AND AS A
LIVING FORM
Studies of the knee usually fail because
of a lack of exact knowledge of
anatomical details and how to interpret
them, but also because the formal
components lack clear definition. The
best results are achieved by logically
assessing the various planes to view.
Student of paintin^graphic art, second
Semester

62 THE KNEE JOINT IN ITS PLASTIC

CONTEXT
Embedding the joint in the outstretched
leg and the sharp-edged projection of the
knee-cap in a bent position are among
the focal points of life studies, along with
depicting the plastic distortions of the
upper and lower leg by examining cross
sections.
Student of sculpture, second semester

Chapter 5
Studies of the constniction, function and plastic behavior of the leg
It
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63 THREE-PART INTERMEDIATE TEST AT THE END OF THE

SECOND SEMESTER
Düring the four-hour assignment - with no reference material
allowed - the nude model appears several times so that
students can prepare a complete muscle analysis, a
constructional drawing of the skeleton and an architectonic life
drawing of the pose.
Student of sculpture, second semester

64 RENDERING OF HIP TO KNEE

Implicit in this largely analytical way of looking at the figure is
the danger of an exaggerated emphasis on certain points, but
for some specialities it can be extremely useful.
Student of restoration, second semester

65 FREER TREATMENT OF THE HIP AND THIGH

Loose drawing lacking absolute precision is just as questionable
as excessive attention to detail.
From a Bammes course at the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich
%

66 THE SKELETON OF THE FOOT AS A

CONSTRUCTIONAL BASIS FOR UNDERSTANDING
ITS FORM
Thorough studies of the skeleton of the foot enable the
individual elements to be comprehended as a plastic whole.
From a Bammes course at the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich,
1988
 4

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67 MUSCLE ANALYSIS AS AN
EXERCISE BASED ON
VISUALIZATION
As in fig. 63, it is a question of
interpreting the living form concretely
through analysis.
Guest Student in an animated cartoon
film Studio, second semester
V,

68 WORKING BACK FROM THE

MUSCLE ANALYSIS TO A
SYNTHESIS
Muscle analysis must never be an end in
itself. Ultimately it should always be built
back into a whole.
Guest Student in an animated cartoon
film Studio, second semester

69 A WAY OF REPRESENTING THE ' *

BODY THAT IS CLOSE TO LIFE

This rendering concentrates mainly on ■

.
the modeling of soft forms. • (
Ä

Student of painting/graphic art, second -

semester
 70 RIGOR OF FORM WITH CONSTRUCTIONAL ACCENTS
V This rests primarily on the structural emphasis of large volumes
where the forms meet.
From a Bammes course at the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich,
tt
1985

71 EMPHASIZING THREE-DIMENSIONAL CONNECTIONS

This is expressed in the space formed by the insides of the two
thighs and particularly in the way that the continuation of the
*y/
diagonal furrow on the insides of the thighs along the inner
surface of the shin-bone which has no muscles has been
tu,**x*f
recognized.
Student of sculpture, second semester

4**a>V*/

**> %4t«W

72 EMPHASIZING THE GROUPS OF MUSCLES BEING

USED FUNCTIONALLY (TEST ASSIGNMENT)
T|£«X„
This study examines the groups of muscles active in maintaining
'♦y#
■*'• $ V* (, /■
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the pose, which also underlie the spaces formed, especially in

the hollows of the knee and rear foot.
Student of painting/graphic art, second semester

Chapter 5 |B|
Studies of the construction, function and plastic behavior of the leg
 73 POWERFUL REPRESENTATION OF thigh-bone and shin-bone cylinders as 74 CONCISELY FORMULATED STUDY
PLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF THE BENT they recede from the viewer, interrupted OF THE LEG
KNEE
by the sharp-edged shape of the knee. This representation is confined to
We are dealing primarily with the solid, economical indications of the soft and
Student of painting/graphic art, second
three-dimensional appearance of the two hard forms.
semester
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich, 1985

75 STUDY OF THE PLASTIC

BEHAVIOR OF SOFT FORMS
In a sitting position the inside parts of the
thighs are pressed outward, showing their
‘passively’ altered shapes and the two
groups of opposite muscles.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich, 1985

76 COMBINING PROCESSES
RELATING TO STRUCTURAL
FUNCTION WITH THE SENSUAL
ATTRACTION OF SOFT FORMS
Ebcperience gained in contrapposto
studies and the careful handling of the
behavior of muscles, fat and skin are
reflected in the modeling used here.
Guest Student in an animated cartoon
film Studio, second semester

Chapter 5
Studies of the construction, function and plastic behavior of the leg
 Chapter 5
53
Studies ofthe construction, function and plastic behavior of the leg
<

77 STUDIES OF THE PLASTIC

BEHAVIOR OF THE KNEE DONE
FROM THE IMAGINATION
These attempts to visualize the knee in
movement from different view-points
confirm that you can only draw what you
have really understood, especially in the
case of forms capable of such
transformations as those of the knee.
Student of sculpture, second semester

78 REVERTING FROM INTENSE

STUDY OF FORM TO FREE PLAY
Free expression is used at the end of a
teaching session when there has been
intense study involving thorough
investigation of the model. The illusions
using all kinds of tricks in this drawing
delve into the imagination.
Student of painting/graphic art, second
semester
 i
above forms an S-shaped curve, is linked to the skeleton of the
torso by a bony bridge at one point only, through its attachment
to the breast-bone (sterno-clavicular joints). It therefore Swings
the arm, which is linked to the glenoid cavity round the sides of
the rib cage and can be raised or lowered (fig. 79). At the tip of
the shoulder the spine of the triangulär shoulder blade is jointed
with the outer end of the collar bone (figs 79, 81). The shoulder
Studies of the construction, function blade moves round freely over the rib cage, especially in vertical
and movement of the torso lifting or when the arms are folded on the ehest, and this
mobility considerably extends the arm’s radius of action. The
#

changeable relief of the shoulder girdle should be studied in

The effects and phenomena on the torso are more pronounced
detail from a nude model (figs 82,84).
than those on the limbs. On the torso thin, surface muscles have
The way in which the surface of the front and side abdominal
to close gaps between parts of the skeleton. Their regulär
areas can extend (pure torso muscles, fig. 88) is the basis for
pattern of behavior stems from the relationships between the
understanding the three-dimensional effects and the alterations
plastic cores (the pelvis and the rib cage) and from the
caused in the abdominal wall by compression (figs 93,97),
arrangement of the shoulder girdle which is the adjustable basis
Stretching (figs 83-86,95) and twisting between the pelvis and
of the movement of the arms.
the rib cage (figs 87,90,92,94).
Before intelligent graphic study of the muscles of the torso can
The soft forms of the abdominal area must be drawn in all
be embarked on, studies of the pelvis and rib cage (figs 79,81)
these functional processes like transformable drapery, showing
and of the structure and mechanics of the shoulder girdle (figs
the consistent behavior of the abdominal wall and the skin. It is
79-84) must be undertaken. Unless all this preparatory work is
better to exaggerate these folding characteristics expressively
done you cannot expect to draw the structure of the torso at rest
(figs 85,90,94,96) than to kill the effect by dull, lame, uncertain
and in motion successfully (figs 83-87). Evenually, three- drawing.
dimensional studies (figs 100,101) can be appended.
The front and side abdominal wall extends as an intermediate
The spinal column with its double S-shape connects the
form between the front and side surfaces of the rib cage and
different sculptural cores (figs 79, 81). The rib cage or thorax is
pelvis. The way the pelvis and rib cage are made is responsible
treated as a self-contained receptacle finishing off the upper end
for the ins and outs that occur here. Thus solid constructional
of the torso in a dorne shape that has been compressed from
drawing must always be based on imagining and remembering
front to back. The following should be noted (fig. 81):
these two parts of the structure, so that the observer can see this
• The actual front surface is the breast bone or sternum and the
and share the experience. Compared with these two main
costal cartilages branching off from it.
masses and optical weights all other forms - pectoral muscles,
• The ends of the costal cartilages that connect with the ribs breasts, the shoulder girdle - are only subsidiary forms or layers.
together form an outward and downward curving, slightly In the upper part of the torso we must be able to see how the rib
bowed facet as opposed to the braced form of the ribs. cage dorne fits up into the shoulder girdle and works with it, and
• The sides of the rib cage then develop in depth (to study this, the front surface and the sides must be conveyed as stable,
draw cross sections of the rib cage at intervals). constant forms in contrast to the shapes of the soft parts.
• The dorne form opens upward in a kidney shape, widening We must also bear in mind an important phenomenon: the
markedly until about the third rib up, then gradually shield shape of the large pectoral muscle (connecting with the
becoming more convex as it continues; for that matter all arm) and the breasts lying on it. When the arm is raised,
areas of the rib cage are convexly braced. together they form a bulging cord cutting across the outer end
• The front section of the rib cage forms the rib arch starting of the collar bone (figs 83,85,90,96). From the rear view the
from the tip of the breast bone. broadest back muscle (latissimus dorsi) extends to the inside of
• The lower opening of the rib cage is considerably wider than the upper arm, and together with the large pectoral muscle and
the upper one, but a little narrower than its widest point the side of the rib cage forms the armpit. When the arm is raised
which is a short way above the bottom opening. vertically the deltoid muscle is inevitably compressed above the
In terms of drawing, it is best to proceed as follows: tip of the shoulder, causing a double fold to occur at that point
on the shoulder bone. The gap between the adjacent deltoid and
• Make a plan of the System of spatial relationships (the line
large pectoral muscles at the collar bone results in the formation
followed by the central axes at the breast bone and the spinal
of the hollow below the collar bone (fig. 89).
column),
The three-dimensional gradations of the front of the body
• And of the three-dimensional transverse axes at the top and
indicated in figs 85 and 86 must be supplemented by three-
bottom end of the rib cage, doing a sectional drawing of each.
dimensional studies of the back, similar to those already shown
• Then insert the convex forms of the dorne shape along with in figs 6 and 8. The parts of the body that are farthest in the
the studies of the transverse axes into the System of reference. background are almost incapable of being depicted, so that they
The collar-bone or clavicle (figs 79,81), which when viewed from merge into space without any break (fig. 100).

Chapter 6 gg
Studies of the construction, function and movement of the torso
 79 THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL
MOVEMENT OF THE SHOULDER
GIRDLE
Looking down on the skeleton in an on-
all-fours position gives particularly good
insight into the S-shaped curve of the
collar bone, and particularly into how it
travels from its jointed connection with
the breast bone backwards to its
connection with the shoulder blade.
Student of restoration work, second
*

semester

80 FUNCTIONAL STUDY OF THE

FRONT PART OF THE SHOULDER
GIRDLE-THE COLLAR BONE
When the arm is raised more than
horizontally this causes an associated
lifting of the collar bone near the tip of
the shoulder; the way the pectoral
muscles cut across it must be made clear.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

81 STUDIES OF THE SCULPTURAL

CORES-THE PELVIS AND RIB
CAGE
If you have not done a detailed study of
the two containing forms, you will have
difficulty in defining spatial directions
when you come to do a life drawing. The
shoulder girdle looks like an ornamental
cladding on the dorne formed by the
upper rib cage.
Student of set painting, second
semester

cg Chapter 6
Studies of the construction, function and movement of the torso
t
 I

82 FUNCTIONAL STUDIES OF THE REAR PART OF THE

SHOULDER GIRDLE - THE SHOULDER BLADE
Anatomically the position of the shoulder blade follows the
movement of the arm.
From a Bammes course at the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich

83 HOW BASIC FACTORS CAN BE CONVEYED

The front and side surfaces of the torso, the back-turned
cylinder of the arm and the armpit area are conveyed in their
complexity using broadly applied graphite stick.
Demonstration study by the author from a Bammes course

84 STUDY OF THE BEHAVIOR OF THE SHOULDER BLADE

The course of the shoulder bone, the inner edge of the
shoulder blade and the position of the tip of the shoulder are
used as reference points.
From a Bammes course at the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich

85 HOW THE PELVIS AND RIB CAGE JUT OUT

In Stretching, the abdominal wall is extended, causing the cores
- the pelvis and rib cage - to jut out.
Demonstration study by the author from a Bammes course

86 THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL TORSO

Basic three-dimensionality can be conveyed by dipping your
finger into powdered graphite and producing smudges with it.
Demonstration study by the author from a Bammes course at
the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich

gg Chapter 6
Studies of the construction, function and movement of the torso
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Chapter 6
Studies of the construction, function and movement of the torso
 t

87 WHAT HAPPENS TO THE TORSO IN TWISTING 88 ATTEMPT AT RECONSTRUCTING THE MUSCLES OF THE
MOVEMENTS TORSO
The altered position of the rib cage above the pelvis causes spiral A student’s knowledge of the positioning of the muscles of the
lines on the abdominal wall. torso is demonstrated in an analysis based on a nude model.
Student of sculpture, second Semester Student of restoration, second semester

Chapter 6
Stuäies of the constmction, function and movement ofthe torso
 I

89 RELATION OF THE ARM TO THE

PARTS OF THE UPPER BODY
In the upper body bony structures
alternate with soft forms. Carefully
observed intersections give Information
about what is happening three-
dimensionally, particularly about where
the arm Starts.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

90 FUNCTIONAL STUDIES OF THE

BEHAVIOR OF THE ABDOMINAL
WALL
If you have a good grounding in the
shape of the pelvis and rib cage, you will
find it easy to define the consistent
behavior of the soft forms resulting from
changes in the relationship between the
pelvis and rib cage.
Student of painting/graphic art, second
semester

Cbapter 6
Studies of the construction, function and movement of the torso
 91 THE MODELED FORMS WITH
SOME ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS
This drawing breaks away from strict
formal construction, using atmosphere
and surface effects. The free, light
drawing technique produces a lively and
impressive graphic presentation.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

92 STUDY OF THE PLASTIC IMPACT

OF FUNCTION ON THE
MODELING OF THE ABDOMINAL
WALL AND THIGH
This drawing concentrates on the
abdomen suspended between the pelvis
which is in a reclined position and the
. supported rib cage. The thighs are in a
relaxed position one above the other, and
between them and the abdomen there is
a deep groove.
Student of set painting, third semester

Tgt i s.Tmdt**/

Chapter 6 go
Studies of the construction,function and movement of the torso
<
4

uh rr

Chapter 6
Studies of the construction, function and movement ofthe torso
93 TWO FOCAL POINTS IN THE INVESTIGATION OF I

FORM
The supported backward-leaning upper body concentrates
attention on the behavior of the shoulder girdle which sinks
down between the two columns formed by the arms, and on
the crosswise folds on the stomach wall caused by compression.
Student of paintin^graphic art, third semester

94 STUDY OF SIMULTANEOUS FUNCTIONAL EFFECTS

The altered levels of the pelvis and rib cage in a twisted position
have been worked out, as have the diagonal pull on the
abdominal wall associated with them and its simultaneous
sideways compression and Stretching as a result of being
supported.
From a Bammes course at the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich

95 SHAPES CONSISTENTLY FORMED IN A SEATED,

STRETCHING POSE
Note how the pelvis remains vertical in a seated position so that
the forward curvature of the spine in the lumbar region is
flattened, and how the rib cage and breasts rise and the
stomach wall is stretched when the arms are raised.
From a Bammes course at the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich

Chapter 6 H|
Studies of the construction, function and movement of the torso
 98 FREE GRAPHIC TREATMENT OF
THE UPPER BODY
Fine hatching and contour lines create
more of an expressive approach than ac
organized study of forms and processes
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

99 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE

TORSO USING PURELY LINEAR
DRAWING
The fundamental layout of the three-
dimensional reference System can be
cleady recognized, especially the three-
dimensional, rhythmic course of the line
running down the center of the body. The
positions of the basic volumes of the
pelvis and upper body are oriented to it.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

96 HIGHLIGHTING THE BODY'S CONSTRUCTION WITH 100 STUDIES OF THE TORSO

OBLIQUE LIGHTING CONCENTRATING ON THREE-
DIMENSIONALITY
The straight abdominal muscle Stands out as a volume through
The solid volume of the body is
its gradation with the slanting stomach muscle beside it. The
suggested just by conveying the three-
side of the rib cage and the stomach muscles combine to form
dimensional gradations from the front of
the profile of the torso.
the body to the parts farthest from the
From a Bammes course at the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich
viewer. The dialog between three
dimensional and solid appearance must
always be present in drawing.
Student of painting/graphic art, third
Semester

97 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

STRETCHING AND
COMPRESSION
The way the rib cage is drawn down
toward the pelvis in a forward-bending
sitting position compresses the
abdominal wall, and the back is under
tension. The arm is brought forward,
pulling the widest back muscle
(latissimus dorsi) forward with it.
Student of painting/graphic art, third
semester

Chapter 6
Studies of the construction, function and movement of the torso
 101 SOLID AND THREE-

semester

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gg Chapter 6
Studies of the construction, function and movement of the torso
 All these examples demonstrate the skeletal System in action,
either through skeletal analyses from a model or in free
visualizations of movement, and show that the jointing and
foreshortening processes involved must have been understood.
In analyses after a model the most important principles are the
following (figs. 103-106):
• Use of the interplay of function and construction in action,
Studies of the skeleton based on particularly in regard to the shapes of joints, showing it has
visualization been understood. Graphic portrayal of the simplified skeletal
forms must carry ‘conviction’, i.e. the simplification of the
forms must reflect the capability of the joints, and what
So far, with the exception of the skeleton of the arm and the functional roles they are in a position to carry out.
hand, we have always examined the wider context of the body
• The convincing expression of movement inherent in the
when studying individual sections of the body from life.
modefs pose must be mirrored in drawing the constructional
However, such studies are indispensable stages, in working from
skeleton forms.
life, toward understanding the structure of the live human form.
• The three-dimensional considerations involved, i.e. which
By such studies we do not just mean the inside of the body
parts of the body are nearest to and farthest from view, must
which is remote to the eye and which is represented in the
again be clearly shown in the skeleton.
vessel-like character of plastic cores such as the skull, pelvis and
rib cage. These Container shapes also have the special The same principles apply to free visualization of movement.
characteristic of being able to be seen in conjunction with the This is a more difficult exercise because it entirely dispenses with
external modeling of the body the physical presence of a model (figs 107-109):
As well as such fundamental as spatial structure, the depths of • You should not invent just any type of ‘movement’. An
the body also conceal skeletal layout such as the shapes of joints; invented movement not based on an accurately visualized
only through studying them and the muscles is it possible to activity turns the figure into a jumping jack.
understand mechanical processes. In our emphasis on • So you should visualize a quite specific activity: Standing in a
constructional forms we have aimed to promote understanding specified context, e.g. sitting (fig. 107) or lying. The ränge of
of the essentials of organic forms. movements connected with Sport and work is inexhaustible
In setting out to equip students of drawing with some (figs 107,108).
knowledge of anatomy, it is intended not only to give them basic • To achieve a powerful expression of motion, you must involve
knowledge and graphic skills relating to organic living objects, yourself fully in the activity, empathize with it, imitate it;
but also to enable them to construct figures based on ideally the person drawing should try to imitate or
visualization; producing drawings of the skeleton based on approximate the activity with his or her own body. Since it is
conceptualization is particularly important in achieving this. not just a question of motion governed by the mechanics of
The shape of the body understood architectonically the body, but also of psychological emotion, you have to
undoubtedly provides important information about changing attune yourself to it spiritually.
structural appearance in living forms, and the ability of the inner The degree to which you decide to simplify or supply detail will
eye to visualize the form and behavior of the body’s framework vary from person to person. Expressing forms as individual
- the key to architectonic structure - is just as essential. elements is part of the process of assimilation. The Organization
My experience as a teacher has confirmed again and again that of volumes and their relationships with one another can be seen
studies of the individual parts of the skeleton from life constantly as criteria by which to judge whether the drawing makes sense if
need practicing by means of work based on visual imagination. the parts are reduced to elements. Where differentiation has
This makes greater demands on students, but also increases been developed, it is important to adhere strictly to the
their freedom of movement, for they are forced to assemble the hierarchy of forms; the intricacy of the interlocking skeletal
mental images they have formed of the construction of the System requires the especially careful consideration of the
individual forms into a larger whole and let the interplay of the volumes of the smaller joints, their Connections with the parts
parts within the whole emerge (figs 102-109). depending on them and with the all-embracing whole.
This is one of the important ways of checking what has been
well learned, providing evidence as to whether abilitiqs and skills
have been successfully absorbed or not yet acquired.
Tests can be set that cover a ränge of degrees of difficulty,
whether in the form of a ‘supplementary’ analysis of the
skeleton from a nude model, or the free invention of
movements. Both forms of investigation are presented in this
chapter, analyses after a model in figs 102-106, and free
visualizations of skeleton movements in figs 107-109.

Chapter 7 gg

Studies ofthe skeleton based on visualization

I

102 THE CONSTRUCTIONAL

SKELETON FORMS IN A SIMPLE
STANDING POSITION
As in every other study of the body, a .
clearly defined viewing angle is important,
in terms of which the model’s pose can
be analyzed down to its skeletal basics.
This will reveal where and how gaps in
the student’s ability to visualize
constructionally occur.
Student of painting/graphic art, third
semester .

103 THE CONSTRUCTIONAL

SKELETON FORMS USED TO
ANALYZE A SEATED POSITION
The endeavor to clarify the relationship
and behavior of the plastic cores
(Position of the pelvis and rib cage) and
the exaggeration of the limbs jutting
forward toward the viewer are clearly
«1

discernible.
Student of stage design, third semester
»•

M as & f & <J ü *?« 2L

Chapter 7 y-j
Studies of the skeleton based on visualization
 t

104 SKELETON ANALYSIS SHOWING CONSIDERABLE

DETAIL AFTER A MODEL'S POSE
Development of the skeleton forms and their functional
§0060*

processes, especially in the area of the crossed legs, is central to

this work.
Student of stage design, third semester

105 SKELETON ANALYSIS IN WHICH FORMS ARE

CONSPICUOUSLY SHOWN AS INDIVIDUAL
ELEMENTS
The shape and interrelationship of the sculptural cores (see also
the subsidiary drawing) in a backward-leaning seated position
are centered on the area of the shoulder girdle where the
skeleton of the torso is suspended between the supporting
arms.
Student of sculpture, third semester

106 SKELETON ANALYSIS AFTER A MODEL IN A SEATED

POSE WITH MULTIPLE FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS
The problem lies in resolving what happens when the body is
supported on one arm with the pelvis bearing the load on one
side, the pelvis and rib cage going in opposite directions, and
the bent leg resting on the floor.
Student of stage design, third semester

j2 Chapter 7
Studies of the skeleton based on visualization
107 FREELY CONCEIVED
MOVEMENTS FOCUSING ON
EXPRESSION OF MOVEMENT
The skeleton is shown in very different
activities; the ability to convey expressive
conviction comes from the very precisely
visualized functional processes.
Student of painting/graphic art, third
semester

108 FREELY CONCEIVED

MOVEMENTS WITH POWERFUL
FORESHORTENING CHOSEN BY
THE STUDENT
The successful drawing of difficult skeletal
foreshortenings largely depends on the
ability to visualize, and the constructional
shapes of the skeletal framework and
joints follow on from it.
Student of restoration, third semester

Chapter 7
73
Studies of the skeleton based on visualization
 109 FREELY CONCEIVED Student was allowed to omit the skeleton
MOVEMENTS EXECUTED AS A of the arm which had not yet been
PROVISIONAL FINAL TEST
covered, so that the testing of ability to
All the drawings of skeletons in figs
draw the skeleton from the visual
102-109 are excellent examples of work
imagination would not be delayed.
achieved under the Stimulus of
Student of restoration, third Semester
visualization. In the studies below the

Chapter 7
74
Studies of the skeleton based on visualization
 • The convexities of the masses formed by the soft forms (such
as the palm) meet, so creating mounds and hollows.
• Emphasize the change from soft to bony forms (esp. figs 118,
126,129,131).
• Always remember: every position of the hand is functional -
lying, hanging, clenched or curled up, gripping, forming a
Studies of the construction, functioning cup-shape, etc.
• Use tapered shapes for the palm and fingers (figs 15,116,
and plastic behavior of the hand and arm 120-123,125,132) otherwise you will end up with sausages.
In finished studies of the hand, the main criteria are these:
Perceptive and accurate studies are of vital importance when it • Pay careful attention to the most delicate intersections right
comes to the skeleton of the foot, arm and hand. The delicacy of down to the last finger tip.
the construction of the arm and hand and the extreme • Work out the finer structural details such as knuckles,
differentiation and functional universality associated with it are muscles and joint reinforcements (esp. figs 124,126,129,130,
still touchstones of an artist’s ability to convey functional and 136), following the forms of the large and small curves with
gesticulatory expression in graphic terms. A progressive hatching.
sequence of assignments is designed to tackle the complexities
The following procedure is recommended for studies of hand
of drawing the hand and arm:
gestures:
• Studies of the skeleton of the arm and hand in constructional
• Using very simple methods and not getting bogged down in
shapes and how these function (figs 110-113).
anatomical detail, look for the most attractive, eloquent form
• Studies of the living hand investigating the elements involved
of the hand, imagination. Work very quickly (figs 133-135,
in the construction and volume of the hand (figs 114-125).
137-139).
• Finished studies of the hand (figs 126-131).
• For this exercise use a medium that can keep pace with your
• Studies emphasizing spatial aspects (figs 130,132). imagination.
• Freely invented hand gestures (figs 133-139). For free studies emphasizing expressiveness these factors are
• Free studies of the hand emphasizing expression (figs especially important:
140-143) • Heightening the functional expression (figs 119,132,
These are followed by studies of the living arm as a whole, 140-142).
concentrating on understanding the constructional form of
• Experimentation with different methods of working such as
actions by the arm and hand (figs 144-151). free linear recording (fig. 141) or well calculated coordination
Coordinating a sequence such as this reveals how close
of masses and developed forms conveyed with a half-dry
Observation is called for to Start with, while in the end what is
brush (fig. 143).
required is a quickly executed study.
Studies of the living arm and attached hand concentrate on:
What graphic criteria should be arrived at in dealing with the
• Making constant basic forms and directions and the volumes
skeleton of the lower arm and hand (figs 110-113)?
of muscles layered over them visible (figs 144,146,147,148).
• The first essential is to ascertain the direction in which the
individual sections of this part of the body run. • Articulating the functions and platic behavior of the arm
convincingly as a preparation for the specific way in which the
• Then work out the constructional shapes of all joints,
hand is joined (figs 145,146,148).
proceeding from the grooved transverse roller of the elbow
joint by way of the ovoid wrist joint and the ball-and-socket • Working out the main volumes and their changing positions
joints at the base of the fingers (see especially figs 111-113) in space (figs 144,146,148).
on to the hinge joints at the ends of the fingers. With an increasingly secure grasp of the construction, function
• Grasp the complexity of the way the radius and the ulna twist and plastic behavior of the hand and arm the Student can move
round one another (figs 110 center, 112 left) and of the on to freer procedures. A relaxed approach may treat the soft,
metacarpus, paying special attention in the latter to the curving forms of skin and musculature in an open web of lines
gradient of the arch of the back of the hand (fig. 112). and create contrasts with the firm, stable bone shapes (figs 149,
• Pay particular attention to the formal connection of the 150,151). Once you are sure of your skill and know your subject,
you can use an artistic approach to life studies, and be free to
radius, via the inside of the metacarpus, to the index finger
(esp. fig. 113). omit, abbreviate, use Symbols, concentrate and condense, use
abstraction and combination; a freedom that will enable you to
ln constructing a graphic study of the living hand the following
cope both with diversity of form and what can be seen at any
points apply:
given time - particularly when dealing with the arm and the
• Each individual finger has its own spatial position within the
hand.
Overall curve of the bone structure of the hand (esp. figs 114,
116,117,132).

Chapter 8
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior ofthe hand and arm
 I

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Chapter 8
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the band and arm
110 HOW A VARIETY OF ü

DIFFERENTLY SHAPED JOINTS FIT

INTO THE SKELETON OF THE
LOWER ARM
The differently shaped joint forms, from
the complex elbow joint by way of the
ovoid wrist joint, the saddle joint of the
thumb or the hinge joints of the fingers,
are brought together in the main drawing
from a number of subsidiary studies, and
fitted into the Overall constructional
context.
Student of sculpture, fourth semester

111 A GRASP OF COMPLEXITY AND

DEPICTION IN DETAIL
WORKING TOGETHER
In the upper section of the drawing the
back of the metacarpus is depicted as a
coordinated curve, and in the lower part
the details of the components of the
arched shape are worked out.
Constructionally, every single bone in the
metacarpus is like a tension bridge. All
drawings of joints - even when they are
looked at constructionally - teil us
something about their functional capacity.
Student of sculpture, fourth semester

Chapter 8
Studies ofthe construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the band and arm
 4
4

112 REINFORCING SOLIDITY BY

INDICATING THE SPATIAL
DIRECTIONS OF THE
GRADIENTS
Here, the hatching follows the curves of
the arch on the back of the hand; this is
repeated further down the articulation,
and forms the basis of the position of * ■

each individual finger.

Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

I
«•

v ,

jq Chapter 8
Stuäies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the hand and arm
 113 SHORTHAND VERSION OF THE 1
SKELETON OF THE LOWER ARM
AND THE HAND
As soon as the constituent parts of the
structure and functional essentials have
been recognized and learned, the
M
methods used in depicting the hand are
almost automatically simplified, right
down to the shorthand of a purely linear
definition.
Student of restoration work, fourth
Semester

Chapter8 jg
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic hehavior of the hand and am
 I

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arm
 114 A STRUCTURAL APPROACH COMBINED WITH
DIRECTIONAL DEFINITION AND MASSING OF
VOLUMES
The way the hand is built up on the basis of clearly arranged
volumes makes it easier to control the problems of
foreshortening. There are also clear directional lines and
continued articulations which give a sense of stability.
Student of sculpture, fourth semester

115 THE FRAMEWORK OF THE HAND WITH BLOCK

SHAPES
Problems of foreshortening are easier to master if the marked
differentiations of form are first converted into simple block
shapes.
Student of set painting, fourth semester

116 THE UNITY OF OVERALL AND INDIVIDUAL CURVES

IN A STUDY OF THE HAND
The main task was to convey this unity, drawing in only the
curves relating to a spatial view. Students were allowed to draw
in a minimal number of stabilizing contour lines only once this
had been done.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth semester

Chapter8 g-|
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the hand and arm
117 SYNTHESIS OF FUNCTION AND
PLASTIC ORGANIZATION IN
THE HAND
The scope of the hand in action ranges
from the clenched fist to the holding of
delicate objects. The clearly organized
positions of the lines denoting solidity
also serve here to clarify the functional
processes.
Student of set painting, fourth semester

118 STUDY OF THE HAND

CONCENTRATING ON
STRUCTURE
The rigid forms of the skeleton are in
marked contrast to the padded soft
forms.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

119 SPATIAL AND FUNCTIONAL

EXAGGERATION
This study, largely based on visualization,
expresses the forward thrust of the hand
by exaggerating its size through the
progressions and by the marked
articulation of the finger positions.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester
 Chapter 8
Studies of the construction, functioning andplastic behavior ofthe band and arm
 120 CONVEYING SOLIDITY
WITHOUT USING OUTLINES TO
DEFINE SPATIAL TRANSITIONS
The study is based on indicating the
different spatial gradients of the planes
and marking the larger joints; no contour
lines are used in the drawing and this
produces fluid spatial transitions.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Semester

121 TWO HANDS PLACED

TOGETHER
The underlying purpose of the study is to
merge two separate bodies into a single
visual unit. It is also important to clarify
the way the shape of the upper hand fits
over that of the lower one.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Semester

q4 Chapter 8
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the hand and arm
 122 ORGANIZING OVERALL MASS
AND INDIVIDUAL SHAPES
Individual volumes are embedded into
the mass of the hand which is clenched
into a fist while the bent finger joints are
treated like pieces of angled pipe.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

123 CHOOSING APPROPRIATE

GRAPHIC TREATMENT FOR THE
FLOWING FORMS OF THE BACK
OF THE HAND AND FINGERS
Very few contour lines have been used,
and an attempt has been made to
emphasize the effect of the smoothly
flowing shapes with parallel hatching.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

Chapter 8
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the hand and arm
 124 HIGHLIGHTING AS A MEANS
OF DEVELOPING FORM
The use of white chalk on a black ground
gives gradations of lightness which both
highlight forms and enhance or
understate spatial factors.
Student of restoration work, fourth
Semester

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q g Chapter 8
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of tbe band and arm
 125 THE USE OF SHARP EDGES
The powerful impact of the outline shape
is produced by sharply turning contour
lines on the one hand, and close cross-
hatching within the internal shapes
enclosed by hard facets on the other.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

126 FINISHED STUDY OF THE HAND

Several aspects are realized using very
sensitive hatching executed with a
pointed nib: perspective depth,
foreshortening and intersections,
articulation of the shapes of the Fingers
emerging from the volume of the palm,
the distinction between bony and soft
parts, and the spatial recesses between
convex volumes.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

Chapter 8
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the hand and arm
 127 CONTRIBUTION MADE TO
FUNCTIONAL PROCESSES BY
DEPICTING CREASES OR FOLDS
Placing the thumb against the finger tips
is always accompanied by compression of
the skin between the thumb and the
index finger. Indicating this graphically
also emphasizes the functional process.
Student of set painting, fourth semester

129 THE HAND AS A FORM OF

'SELF-PORTRAIT'
Students were asked to look at their own
hands for those characteristics which may
128 UNITY AND SIMPLICITY OF FORM be expressed graphically, and seen as an
As well as differentiating forms when making graphic studies of expression of their personality and
the hand, you may be asked to create unified, simple forms, appearance as an overall formal
especially when considering basic functions of the hand, here Statement.
depicted in a cupped and a hooked shape. Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Student of stage design, fourth semester semester
 Chapter 8 gg
Studies of the construction, functioning andplastic behavior ofthe band and arm
 I

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 130 THE HAND AS A CREATOR OF
SPACE
As well as mastery of anatomical and
functional factors, it is a vital and equally d ?‘WSkJ&y*. '

important part of your study to take i

account of the spaces enclosed by the ...

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Semester
1?
131 SURFACE TEXTURE
In finished studies of the hand, the
experiential quality of surface textures can
be highlighted, so enhancing their
expressive power: when the hand is tight
shut the knuckles and muscles stand out,
with the skin tightly stretched across
them like thin parchment.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Semester

132 THE RECIPROCALINFLUENCE OF and farthest parts by hatching in differing

THREE-DIMENSIONAL AND densities. Result: by investigating spatial
SOLID REPRESENTATION
factors you convey solidity.
The set task: draw only the spatial
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
gradients of the fingers and the
Semester
metacarpus, careful weighting nearest
 I

133 IN SEARCH OF HAND GESTURE

Basic hand gestures, here indicating that something should
stop, can be more surely and easily found with some use of the
imagination. Use a medium that can keep pace with your
imaginative powers. Painstaking elaboration can sometimes
hinder rather than promote the spontaneity of the concept.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth semester

134 QUICKLY SKETCHED VISUALIZATION OF A HAND

GESTURE
Trying out the most attractive imaginary view, in which the
gesture has impact combined with spontaneous sketching,
often expresses the symbolic value of the hand.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth semester
I

135 NON FINITO AS AN EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF

STUDYING HAND GESTURES
Parts that have been left open and unfinished on purpose, can
work as indications of graphic spontaneity, turning the hand
into an expressive instrument.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth semester

g 2 Chapter 8
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the hand and arm
 +,K
*T

es 3
136 A CAREFULLY CONSTRUCTED
HAND PRODUCED AFTER
SKETCHES OF HAND GESTURES
A free approach to the expressive drawing
of gesture and finding the most
impressive vocabulary for it, often using a
fragmentary style, should be backed up
from time to time by close studies.
Student of paintin^graphic art, fourth
semester

»
 137 A RESPONSIVE MEDIUM FOR
GRAPHIC INVENTION
To record ideas quickly when visualizing
hand gestures, here the gesture of
pointing, the means used must be spare.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

138 EXPLOITING THE ELOQUENCE

OF THE BRUSH
The set task is the same as in fig. 137.
Here straight, long brush strokes and
light dabs are used together to convey a
pointing hand.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

139 THE NARRATIVE HAND

A model with a gift for mime told a whole
story using only hand gestures; this study
records an instant from it.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

95
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 140 STUDY OF THE HAND WITH THE Pages 98/99 143 EMPHASIZING THE UNITY OF
EMPHASIS ON EXPRESSION 142 HEIGHTENING THE IMPACT OF THE MASSES
The expressive character of the study THE JOINTS If we concentrate on amalgamating details
relies on a few important components: Excitement is demonstrated in this hand into an assembled mass, there is no need
the elongation of the proportions, the gesture by the exaggerated bending and for detail. The expressive power derives
emphasis of the skeletal points and the twisting of the joints and the elongated from the contrast of broad, open areas of
functional exaggeration of the gestures. sections of the fingers. black and delicate linear touches.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth Student of painting/graphic art, fourth Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Semester semester semester

141 LINEARLY CONVEYED

EXPRESSIVENESS OF THE HAND
In contrast to fig. 140 where the
expressive content of the study relies
largely on anatomical structure, this study
is restricted to extremely economic
linearity to convey the expression of the
gesture.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

Chapter 8
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the hand and arm
 % %

4
4

Chapter 8
arm
 Chapter 8 gg
Studies of the construction, functioning andplastic behavior of the band and arm
144 ARM FORM CONSTRUCTION 145 THE UNITY OF ARM AND HAND
Ascertaining how the basic directions and GESTURES
forms of the muscle mass relate to each Just as the arm can be distorted, turned
other must be the first consideration. The or bent to an extreme degree, similar
different directions in which the muscle changes of shape occur in opening,
masses extend and the way in which they spreading or laying down the hand.
lock together must also be worked out. Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth semester
semester

Chapter 8
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the hand and arm
1

&
1
 I

<
4

146 HOW THE SPATIAL PLANES

RELATE TO EACH OTHER
The pronounced faceting of the whole
arm and hand down to the finger joints*
draws together the hatchings marking the
spatial direction of the planes enclosing
the body; the facets convey the many-
sidedness of the arm’s three-dimensional
disposition.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

* • i«

147 SIMPLE STUDIES OF HOW THE

INDIVIDUAL PARTS FIT INTO A
WHOLE
Indication of how the sectional changes
in direction continue right through the
joints also indicates the position of the
whole arm and its elements in space.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

148 THE IMPACT OF FUNCTION ON

THE MODELING OF THE ARM
AND HAND
When the arm is leant on or supported
on the hip, i.e. used for specific tasks, the
muscles relate to the skeleton in a specific
way and this is expressed in an a
structural understanding of the form,
supported by mental visualization of how
cross-sections would run.
Student of sculpture, fourth semester
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 150 CONFIDENT UNDERSTANDING
OF FORM - THE BASIS OF FREE
EXECUTION
A free approach to investigating surface
texture and structural diversity can
succeed only on a foundation of acquired
understanding.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

149 CONTRIBUTION MADE BY

BASIC UNDERSTANDING OF
FORM
The treatment of the arm mass reveals
that the person drawing is alive to basic
concepts such as the four-sidedness of
the upper arm and the conical shape of
the lower arm.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester
v.

Page 106
151 COMBINED STUDY OF THE ARM
AND TORSO
The arm actions are ultimately derived
from its connection with the torso. White
highlights on a colored ground reinforce
the plastic effects.
Student of restoration, fourth semester

104 ^aPter $
Studies of the construction, functioning and plastic behavior of the hand and arm
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%

Chapter 8
 if you follow the spiral course of the central axis and show the
upper body and pelvis in each case occupying different positions
in space. Forming the habit of bearing cross-sections in mind is
effective also when the structure of the body is kept open (figs
161,172). In a contrapposto Standing pose both the interplay of
function and structure and supporting and supported forces
must be made clear (figs 165,167,168,174).
Studies of the whole figure The layout of a seated pose also Starts from the central axis of
the body and the first concern is to make clear basic solid forms
All the discüssions and assignments described in previous seen as constituent elements so that they can be used to control
chapters should be seen as necessary preliminaries for tackling any foreshortening that may occur (fig. 176). In forward- or
the whole figure. It should be absolutely clear that it is not now backward-leaning sitting positions (figs 175,180), Observation of
simply a question of assembling the sections of the body so far the Stretching or compression of the abdominal wall is required,
treated separately. The objective of anatomical study for artists is and attention is needed to the behavior of the shoulder girdle
to create indivisible and logical Connections, until the point is when the model is leaning back and supported on his or her
reached where the Student can invent freely (fig. 194). The arms. A relaxed, free approach should always be aimed at while
studies now to be undertaken require graphic clarification of thinking through the construction of the seated figure (fig. 181).
what is happening functionally and plastically, factors that It is amazing how little information the eye needs to turn
crucially affect the whole figure in some of its basic situations. indications into a complete whole.
We are now concerned with: If two models are used side by side as objects for a study, you
• Standing poses in repose in their simple forms and in forms should ensure that at least several intersections occur to prevent
involving movement (figs 152-174), the problems of solidity the two figures falling apart from each other (important for
in basic and three-dimensional views of the model from the sculptural assignments, figs 9,16,177,178,185).
strictly constructed study to the deliberately open, more Studies of intermediate positions between sitting and lying, in
impressionistic one. which different parts of the body (e.g. the arm, elbow and/or
• Seated poses in their basic forms and their manifold buttocks) take over supporting functions, have great charm.
variations (figs 175,176,179-186) with the most important Here you must always consider the implications in the torso area
consequences of function, progressing again from graphic when the loading on the two sides of the body is unequal (figs
layout (figs 176,179) by way of architectonic understanding 186-188): what happens to the shoulder girdle when the arm or
(figs 180,181) to free execution (figs 182-184). elbow is leant on, how the torso is stretched on the supported
• Tackling assignments involving two figures (figs 9,15,174, side, what effect the telescoping on the unsupported side has on
177,178,185). the soft, fleshy forms.
Apart from the caving in of the abdominal wall, a simple lying
• Reclining poses with their great scope for change and the
pose with the weight supported equally by the back and
necessary functional characteristics (figs 187-191,193,195,
buttocks affords very little functional expression (fig. 190). On
196).
the other hand surprising form outlines occur when the pelvis
• How to tackle free figural inventions based on visual
and rib cage are twisted (side position of the pelvis, prone
imagination (fig. 194).
position of the rib cage, figs 189,191,193). There are steep
In a simple Standing pose with the body weight distributed inclines in the pelvis, and flat shapes in the area of the upper
equally on both feet - in basic front and back views (figs 152, body, while the movement implications can be seen in the
156) - the difficulty lies in conveying the plasic cores in their middle area of the torso. The distortions in the abdominal wall
forward-backward movement convincingly, because the curves of can be conveyed expressively only if you are absolutely clear as
the spinal column cannot directly indicate the position of the to the spatial position of the plastic cores visualized as individual
pelvis, loins and rib cage in this position. The only recourse is to elements. Then the behavior of the soft, fleshy forms of the
encompass the whole mass comprised by the pelvis and rib cage stomach or buttocks becomes an inevitable logical consequence.
(fig. 156). Including a multiplicity of internal forms (fig. 152) In the female nude model this also applies to the behavior of the
cannot save the Situation - the result is fragmentation. The breasts: when the model lies on her back they sink towards one
choice of three-quarter views is therefore recommended, making another under their own weight; if the arms are clasped behind
it easier to locate characteristic solid and three-dimehsional the head the breasts must follow the arms (fig. 193); and if the
attributes (figs 153-159,166). body is turned towards the stomach and the upper body
Raising the arms vertically even in a static Standing pose supported they will hang down (fig. 191).
causes clear structural Separation of the pelvis and rib cage (fig.
153). The behavior of the masses and the meeting of their forms
can be deduced and organized by indicating where cross-
sections would run (figs 156,159,166). Actions such as twisting
the body in a Standing pose (figs 169,172) can be mastered only
152 THE PROBLEMS THE VIEWING
ANGLE CAN CAUSE IN
CONVEYING SOLIDITY AND
THREE-DIMENSIONALITY
In a basic view of the whole figure it is .
difficult for the learner to recognize the
rhythmic course of the central axis of the
body and consequently of the various
body masses. In this view it is hard to
show attributes of form, e.g. the way the
upper and lower body can move in
relation to one another, and even
introducing ä large number of internal
forms is of no great assistance.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

153 MAKING DRAWING EASIER BY

MEANS OF THE MODEL'S
ACTIONS AND A MORE
FAVORABLE VIEWING ANGLE
The search for expression in the behavior
of the body in a Standing pose is helped
by the choice of a slightly offset frontal
view and the emphasis of the breasts and
pelvic mass resulting from the raising of
the upper body. The way the masses are
clearly contained and grouped can be
credited to the artist’s skill.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester
 I

154 STRUCTURALLY ORGANIZED

DRAWING IN A NEAR FULL-
FRONTAL VIEW
The artist here is using his concepts of
the details of the structural blocks,
especially around the rib cage, pelvis and
knees. No opportunity is neglected to fill
in all aspects of the figure visible from the
front, and to a small extent from the side.
Forms are coarsened to powerful effect.
Student of set painting, fourth semester

110 Chapter 9
Studies of the whole figure
 . ...
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155 ATTEMPT TO RESOLVE THE

PROBLEMS OF A NEAR-BACK
VIEW
The most important decision made here
is the endeavor to establish the angles of
the planes of the body following the
course of the spinal column.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Semester

156 CONVEYING A FULL BACK

VIEW IN A STANDING POSE
The difficult graphic task of conveying the
relatively inarticulated back view is
tackled by concentrating on the way the
spinal column recedes near the loins and
the neck, and on the contrast between
the convexity of the rib cage and the
intersections through the area of the loins.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Semester

Chapter 9 -| -| -|
Studies of the whole figure
 157 FORMAL FEATURES ARE EASIER TO GRASP IN
ANGLED VIEWS
Diagonal views display a wider ränge of formal features and
make them less ambiguous, which is an advantage to the
person drawing.
From a Bammes course at the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich

158 SUCCESSFULLY CONVEYING THE ESSENTIAL TRAITS

OF THE FIGURE
This half back view is the work of the same Student w'ho drew
fig. 152; with the unequivocal definition achieved by the
viewing angle, crucial features of the interrelationships between
the main shapes of the body are discovered, the movement in
the form of the spinal column is recognized and the
psychological aspect of the overall pose is also captured.
From a Bammes course at the Schule für Gestaltung, Zürich

159 GIVING WEIGHT AND SOLIDITY TO THE POSE

Once unequivocal viewing angles (figs 157,158) and the
expression of the overall pose have been mastered, further
differentiations of individual volumes and how they meet
become possible.
Student of sculpture, fourth semester
4

••
 I

-| -| 4 Chapter 9
Studies of tbe wbole figure
160 PART OF AN EXAMINATION ASSIGNMENT
SPECIFICALLY SET FOR STUDENTS OF RESTORATION
It is important that restorers should be trained to fill in ‘missing
bits’ of works of art by copying the drawing of a master (here
Schnorr von Cardsfeld) and using their anatomical skills to
prepare muscle and skeleton analyses of it.
Student of restoration, end of fourth Semester

m •

161 EXAMINATION ASSIGNMENT SPECIFICALLY SET FOR

STUDENTS OF PAINTING/GRAPHIC ART
The value of the assignment lies in demonstrating that the
student’s skills and knowledge of anatomy can be used in a free,
open, economical approach.
Student of paintin^graphic art, end of fourth semester

162 WORK PARTLY BASED ON VISUALIZATION IN AN

EXAMINATION ASSIGNMENT
The model’s pose was held only briefly, and had to be
assimilated as a basis for analyzing how the skeleton form and
the main muscle groups combine to make up the architecture
of the body. All that had been learned previously was tested
here.
/Vv/vMf
Student of stage design, end of fourth semester

f UA* *** *

t<, TiX

Chapter 9 -| -| g
Studies of the whole figure
163 A VARIANT APPROACH TO EXPRESSING
MASSIVENESS OF VOLUME
Using an airbrush an attempt has been made to express the
large curve of the load-bearing hip and large, opulent body
masses in various sequences where the forms were masked or
revealed.
Student of set painting, fourth semester

164 TRYING TO FOLLOW THE FLOW OF MOVEMENT,

USING A THREE-DIMENSIONAL AND A TWO-
DIMENSIONAL APPROACH
To follow through a movement of the whole form, it is
sometimes enough to capture the course of the movement
using a medium which does not tempt the Student to pile on
detail.
From the Salzburg intensive course, 1988

165 HOW FUNCTIONAL STRESSES WORK IN A

CONTRAPPOSTO POSE
The interchange between bearing the weight and not doing so,
Stretching and compression, is the main subject of this study,
with the planes that are to view being carefully introduced.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth semester
166 A NETWORK OF LINES USED TO
CREATE A SOLID, THREE-
DIMENSIONAL
REPRESENTATION
Vertical ‘height lines’ drawn close to one
another and lines intersecting them
where cross-sections would run create a
kind of net expressing the attempt to
convey plastic forms.
Student of sculpture, fourth semester m■

&

Chapter 9 -| -| j
Studies of the whole figure
 %

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Chapter 9
Studies of the whole figure
 167 PAINTERLY USE OF METHODS
EMPHASIZING SURFACE
TEXTURE
In total contrast to the structural drawing
in fig. 166, the Student here elaborates
the impression of the softness and curves
of the surface of the body using a ränge
of dynamic tonal gradations.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Semester

168 EXAMINING PLASTIC EFFECTS

IN A CONTRAPPOSTO POSE
In contrast to figs 166 and 167, the
Student here concentrates on indicating
the main surface planes and developing
the body in depth by using hatching of
varying density, especially in the bin area
where the spatial depth is contrasted with
the curve of the back and buttocks; the
compressed masses on the side of the
weight-bearing leg are brought closer
together.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Semester
 169 CONTRASTING VIEWS OF THE
BODY WHEN THE TORSO IS
TWISTED IN A STANDING
POSITION
The frontal view of the rib cage combined
with the three-quarter view of the pelvis
causes a spiral twist in the line of the
stomach. Finally the arms are drawn at a
90 degree angle to the position of the
legs.
Student of sculpture, fourth semester
i

170 WORK PARTLY BASED ON

VISUALIZATION ANALYZING
EXPRESSION OF MOVEMENT
Both figures are components of a three-
part examination assignment; students
were asked to prepare analyses of the
skeleton, muscles and live appearance, in
this case of a ball-throwing pose which
the model held only briefly. The objective
was to express movement with total
conviction.
W. 5 Student of painting/graphic art, end of
fourth semester
 171 CATCHING THE EXPRESSION OF
MOVEMENT USING A
SKETCHING TECHNIQUE
However quickly a study of movement
may have been executed, in this case
conveying the essential processes
involved in twisting and bending the
torso and supporting processes along
with spatial factors, it must be accurate.
Student of sculpture, fourth semester

172 LIMITED OBJECTIVES AND

SIMPUFYING THE APPROACH
This study concentrates mainly on the
directions of the visible body planes using
corresponding areas of hatching and
blank areas. Limiting one’s objectives and
simplifying the approach are not mutually
exclusive.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

Chapter 9
Studies of the whole figure
 %

«
4

1 73 THOROUGH CONSIDERATION
OF FUNCTIONAL PROCESSES
Before the graphic study of the dancer’s
pose (held only briefly) could begin,
students had to give a verbal description
of all the functional and modeling
processes that might be expected; only
then were they able to see their
functional predictions confirmed by the
model.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

174 A STUDY ASSIGNMENT WITH

TWO FIGURES BASED ON
VISUALIZATION
The drawing of these figures is based on
the principles involved in understanding
the architecture and plastic behavior of
the body. Students were free to choose
their own means of presentation.
* - C5 Hs IX Student of sculpture, fourth semester
 l

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-| 24 Chapter9
Studies of the wholefigure
175 APPLYING THE THREE- 176 LAYOUT FOR A SEATED POSE
DIMENSIONAL REFERENCE INVOLVING MOVEMENT USING
SYSTEM TO A SIMPLE SEATED STRUCTURAL SHAPES SHOWN
POSE AS INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS
Both functional and three-dimensional To give valid expression to the way the
factors are established by the skillfully upper body recedes from and the legs
inserted line indicating the course of the come toward the viewer, it is often
central axis of the body. The spatial essential to project elementary shapes
relationships between the two sides of (cube, sphere, half-sphere, cylinder) in
the body separated by the central axis are their correct position and spatial location
established by the cross-axial lines. Student of sculpture, fourth semester
Student of sculpture, fourth semester

Chapter 9
Studies of the whole figure
 I
V,

177 SPACE AND INTERVENING

SPACE WITH TWO FIGURES
The intervening spaces formed by the
arms and legs and the space enclosed by
the two figures need careful examination:
the surfaces on which the figures stand
and the distances separating them must
indicate how near or far the two figures
are to or from each other.
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich

126 Chaptw 9
Studies of the whole figure
 178 VISUAL UNITY OF TWO FIGURES
If two figures are to become a visual unity,
the most effective ‘bridges’ must be l"#*. I • « m • ■ '* Ijfln

created between them by means of well

chosen ovedaps and intersections.
Otherwise the intended unity is shattered
and we are left with two isolated ‘objects
existing only for themselves. j
From a Bammes course at the Schule
für Gestaltung, Zürich
 t

4
4

179 LAYOUT FOR A COMPLEX 180 DEVELOPING VOLUME, SOLIDITY

SITTING POSE WITH MULTIPLE AND FUNCTION
FUNCTIONS The primary decisions regarding graphic
The position where the body is leaning lay-out demonstrated in fig. 179 also
back supported on one arm with the preceded this study, enabling the internal
pelvis lying on its side requires first and spaces within the figure and the
foremost a definite idea of the directional relationship of the limbs to each other
lines and the angles formed by them, and and to the torso to be ascertained, so
secondly visualization of the basic body enlivening the construction of volumes,
components. Only then can further solidity and functions (leaning forward
development be undertaken. and Support).
Student of sculpture, fourth Semester
 + i!

Chapter 9
Studies ofthe wholefigure
 181 SEATED POSE INVOLVING 182 COMBINATION OF VISUAL
MOVEMENT BUILT UP MEMORY AND CONCEPTUAL
CONSTRUCTIONALLY ABILITY -
All the criteria covered in requisite The model’s seated poses and forms hacl
preliminary drawings of the type shown previously been exhaustively discussed,
in figs 179 and 180 create a dependable with no drawing allowed; then in the
framework into which detail can be fitted absence of the model students were free
without the study degenerating into an to draw using recent optical experience,
accumulation of details. visual memory and their conceptual
Student of set painting, fourth semester ability. The graphic use of outline and
open areas produces an attractive and
expressive effect.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

130 ^aPter ^
Studies ofthe whole figure
 i-

p* *r
 183 ‘CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE 184 TEST INVOLVING LARGELY FREE
BODY AND SPACE INVENTIONS
Extending the study to linking the body The method of graphic presentation was
and the surrounding space - although it left to the students’ discretion, and the
is outside the field of anatomy for artists exercise was based on the same pose as
- demonstrates the potential for cross- fig. 183; but as well as depicting the given
fertilization with artistic life drawing. The view, students were required to produce
figure recedes from the foreground into drawings of differing views from
the farther layers of space, with the imagination.
network of lines becoming more and Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
more dense. The occasional contour lines semester
were not inserted until the very end,
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

132 ^apter 9
Studies of the whole figure
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134 chaPter 9
Stuäies of the whole figure
185 DEPICTING THE BODY WITH
ONLY THREE MAIN TONAL
VALUES
To prevent the exercise with two figures
from degenerating into an accumulation
of detail and the intended picture space
from being broken up, only three tonal
values could be used: light (= paper
ground), medium and dark.
Amateur artist from the Special School
of Painting and Graphic Art

186 PLASTIC AND FUNCTIONAL

STUDY
The transitional pose between sitting and
lying requires Observation of many
factors: the supporting power of the arm,
the way the body is suspended beside the
supporting arm (how the shoulder girdle
behaves), the tipped-up lying position of
the pelvis and the compression folds on
the stomach wall.
Student of set painting, fourth semester

V\

Chapter 9
Studies of the wholefigure
 187 ANALYTICAL PENETRATION OF
A RECLINING POSE
Although anatomical data are always
clarified before work from life Starts, now
and then - as here in an examination
assignment - difficult poses need to be
clarified by analysing the muscles.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Semester

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136 Chciptet'9
Studies of the whole figure
 188 CONTRIBUTION OF THE LIVING
IMPRESSION
For all our academic evaluation of
anatomical factors, the study must not
*
lose the living impulse of something seen
and experienced, otherwise it withers
into a dry technical drawing.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

V .* , . v w ••V

A^v

Chapter 9 -| 37
Studies of the whole figure
189 ACHIEVING PLASTICITY BY
INVESTIGATING CROSS-
SECTIONS AND USING A
WASH TO STRENGTHEN THE
DRAWING
Investigating the changing dimensions of
body mass is particularly relevant to
sections of the body seen in extreme
foreshortening. Washes applied with a
brush can both bring out the facets of
breaks between planes, highlighting the
modeling, and to some extent merge the
#

intrusive cross-sectiomindications.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
Semester
 190 PECULIARITIES OF FORM IN A
SIMPLE RECLINING POSE
When the weight is carried equally by the
pelvis and rib cage in a prone position,
the Student must pay attention to the way
the abdominal wall caves in between the
two bony Centers and the breasts are
flattened by their own weight.
Student of paintin^graphic art, fourth
Semester

191 STUDY OF HOW FORMS

BEHAVE IN A RESTING
POSITION INVOLVING
MOVEMENT
The pelvis jutting high above the modePs
flank and the supported rib cage turned #
W y^

toward the floor are the cause of unusual

functional-plastic and sculptural changes, UM >
iA£j***

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for example the ‘screwing up’ of the J‘rWk

V»*-
abdominal wall, the sagging of the soft «jr * %.*A

. x*.
m

under-belly and resulting projection of r fw Äl'

the crest of the hip bone, and the

hanging shape of the breasts.
Student of sculpture, fourth Semester

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j-:
 192 MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS IN 193 DISTORTIONS AND TENSIONS
SITTING AND THEIR IN A LYING POSE INVOLVING
CONSEQUENCES MOVEMENT
The main points of emphasis in this study The pelvis on its side Stands up whilö the
are the columnar character of the rib cage is flat on its back; the arms
supporting arm and the resulting one- clasped behind the head cause a sunken,
sided drop of the shoulder girdle, the twisted tension in the abdominal wall, a
unequal loading of the seated weight and flattening of the breasts and a directional
consequent compression and twisting of pull on the neck (as a result of the narrow
the abdominal wall.%
attachment to the extended large pectoral
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth muscle).
semester Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

194 GIVING SHAPE TO FREELY

INVENTED MOVEMENTS
It is an important recuperative phase after
intense study from life to experiment
imaginatively with the forms the body
takes up in invented gestures. Even if
quite a few anatomical factors are
incorrect, the student’s powers of
visualization are working.
Student of stage design, fourth semester

140 Chapter 9
Studies of the whole figure
r~
 195 FREE EXECUTION OF A GREATLY
FORESHORTENED LYING POSE
The graphically free expression of
something seen and experienced is even
more unreserved than in fig. 188. The
powerful foreshortening is chosen in
such a way that the stomach can still
function as a necessary intermediary form
between the shoulders and thighs, so
enabling us to perceive the figure
#

correctly. The areas of hatching enclosing

the figure create a concise environment
putting it into context.
Student of paintin^graphic art, end of
fourth semester
I»

-| 42 Chapter 9
Studies of the whole figure
 196 CONSISTENT CONSIDERATION
OF THE VIEWING ANGLE IN
CONSTRUCTING FORMS
The Overall three-dimensional Situation
shows the figure in a slanting position
running from the front elbow to the feet,
with the model looking slightly upward.
The Student has followed through the
modeling of the forms with complete
sequential correctness using visualization
of the basic facts that cylindrical and
rectangular forms and cones are
projecting toward or receding from the
viewer, and of the ways in which they do
so.
Student of painting/graphic art, fourth
semester

♦
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vv
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Chapter 9 -| 43
Stuäies of the whole figure
 4

ART/DRAWING

This profusely illustrated book by a master of the subject offers a complete

course in transforming the study of anatomy into art, with emphasis on the
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Accompanying a text on techniques that even novices can master are nearly
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Invaluable to beginning and advanced students of life drawing, the text also
includes practical exercises that will help develop visual imagination.

Unabridged Dover (2004) republication of the English edition first published by

Transedition Books, Abingdon, England, 1994. 55 figures in color; 141 in black-
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