Lecture 8. Application of Derivatives: Extreme values of functions, Monotonicity.

Extreme Values of Functions. Let ƒ be a function with domain D. Then ƒ has an absolute
maximum (absolute minimum) value on D at a point c if f ( x)  f (c) ( f ( x)  f (c) ) for all x in
D. Maximum and minimum values are called extreme values of the function f . Absolute maxima
or minima are also referred as global maxima or minima.

Theorem 1 (Extreme Value Theorem) If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f
attains both an absolute maximum value M and an absolute minimum value m in [a, b]. That is,
there are numbers x1 and x 2 in [a, b] with f ( x1 )  m, f ( x 2 )  M , and m  f ( x)  M for every
other x in [a, b].
Let’s consider the function y  x 2 . Its domain is (, ). This example shows that an absolute
maximum value may not exist if the interval fails to be both closed and finite.
A function ƒ has a local maximum (local minimum) value at a point c within its domain D if
f ( x)  f (c) ( f ( x)  f (c) ) for all x  D lying in some open interval containing c.
A list of all local maxima will automatically include the absolute maximum if there is one.
Similarly, a list of all local minima will include the absolute minimum if there is one.

Theorem 2 (The First Derivative Theorem for Local Extreme Values) If f has a local
maximum or minimum value at an interior point c of its domain, and if f  is defined at c, then
f (c)  0.
Proof. To prove that f (c) is zero at a local extremum, we show first that f (c) cannot be positive
and second that f (c) cannot be negative. The only number that is neither positive nor negative
is zero, so that is what f (c) must be.
To begin, suppose that f has a local maximum value at x  c so that f ( x)  f (c)  0 for all
values of x near enough to c. Since c is an interior point of f ’s domain, f (c) is defined by the
f ( x )  f (c )
two-sided limit lim . This means that the right-hand and left-hand limits both exist at
x c xc
x  c and equal f (c) . When we examine these limits separately, we find that
f ( x )  f (c )
f (c)  lim  0. (1)
x c xc
f ( x )  f (c )
Similarly, f (c)  lim_  0. (2)
x c xc
Together, Equations (1) and (2) imply f (c)  0. This proves the theorem for local maximum
values. To prove it for local minimum values, we simply use f ( x)  f (c), which reverses the
inequalities in Equations (1) and (2). 
Theorem 2 says that a function’s first derivative is always zero at an interior point where the
function has a local extreme value and the derivative is defined.
If we recall that all the domains we consider are intervals or unions of separate intervals, the only
places where a function f can possibly have an extreme value (local or global) are
1. interior points where f   0.
2. interior points where f  is undefined.
3. endpoints of the domain of f .
An interior point of the domain of a function ƒ where f  is zero or undefined is a critical point
of ƒ.
Thus the only domain points where a function can assume extreme values are critical points and
endpoints.
How to Find the Absolute Extrema of a Continuous Function f on a Finite Closed Interval
1. Evaluate f at all critical points and endpoints.
2. Take the largest and smallest of these values.
Example 1. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of f ( x)  x 2 on [2,1].
Solution: The function is differentiable over the entire domain, so the only critical point is where
f ( x)  2 x  0, namely x  0. We need to check the function’s values at x  0 and at the
endpoints x  2 and x  1 : f (0)  0, f (2)  4, f (1)  1.
The function has an absolute maximum value of 4 at x  2 and an absolute minimum value of 0
at x  0.

Theorem 3 (Rolle’s Theorem) Suppose that y  f (x) is continuous over the closed interval [a, b]
and differentiable at every point of its interior (a, b). If f (a)  f (b), then there is at least one
number c in (a, b) at which f (c)  0.
Proof. Being continuous, f assumes absolute maximum and minimum values on [a, b] by
Theorem 1. These can occur only
1. at interior points where f  is zero,
2. at interior points where f  does not exist,
3. at endpoints of the function’s domain, in this case a and b.
By the hypothesis, f has a derivative at every interior point. That rules out possibility (2), leaving
us with interior points where f   0 and with the two endpoints a and b.
If either the maximum or the minimum occurs at a point c between a and b, then f (c)  0 by
Theorem 2, and we have found a point for Rolle’s Theorem.
If both the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum occur at the endpoints, then because
f (a)  f (b) it must be the case that f is a constant with f ( x)  f (a)  f (b) for every x  [a, b].
Therefore f ( x)  0 and the point c can be taken anywhere in the interior (a, b). 

Theorem 4 (The Mean Value Theorem) Suppose y  f (x) is continuous over a closed interval
[a, b] and differentiable on the interval’s interior (a, b). Then there is at least one point c in (a, b)
f (b)  f ( a )
at which  f (c). (1)
ba
f (b)  f (a )
Proof. Consider the following functions: g ( x)  f (a )  ( x  a) (2)
ba
f (b)  f (a )
and h( x )  f ( x )  g ( x )  f ( x )  f ( a )  ( x  a ). (3)
ba
The function h satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem on [a, b]. It is continuous on [a, b]
and differentiable on (a, b) because both f and g are. Also, h(a)  h(b)  0 . Therefore h(c)  0
at some point c  (a, b). This is the point we want for Equation (1) in the theorem.
To verify Equation (1), we differentiate both sides of Equation (3) with respect to x and then set
f (b)  f (a ) f (b)  f (a ) f (b)  f ( a )
x  c : h ( x)  f ( x)   0  h (c)  f (c)   f (c)  ,
ba ba ba
which is what we set out to prove. 
Mathematical Consequences.
Corollary 1 If f ( x)  0 at each point x of an open interval (a, b), then f ( x)  C for all
x  (a, b), where C is a constant.
Proof. We want to show that f has a constant value on the interval (a, b). We do so by showing
that if x1 and x 2 are any two points in (a, b) with x1  x 2 , then f ( x1 )  f ( x 2 ). Now f satisfies
the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on [ x1 , x 2 ] : It is differentiable at every point of [ x1 , x 2 ]
f ( x 2 )  f ( x1 )
and hence continuous at every point as well. Therefore,  f (c) at some point c
x 2  x1
between x1 and x 2 . Since f   0 throughout (a, b), this equation implies successively that
f ( x 2 )  f ( x1 )
 0, f ( x 2 )  f ( x1 )  0, and f ( x1 )  f ( x 2 ). 
x 2  x1
Corollary 2 If f ( x)  g ( x) at each point x in an open interval (a, b), then there exists a constant
C such that f ( x)  g ( x)  C for all x  (a, b). That is, f  g is a constant function on (a, b).
Proof. At each point x  (a, b) the derivative of the difference function h  f  g is
h( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)  0. Thus, h( x)  C on (a, b) by Corollary 1. That is, f ( x)  g ( x)  C on
(a, b), so f ( x)  g ( x)  C. 

Monotonic Functions and the First Derivative Test: In sketching the graph of a differentiable
function, it is useful to know where it increases (rises from left to right) and where it decreases
(falls from left to right) over an interval. This paragraph gives a test to determine where it increases
and where it decreases. We also show how to test the critical points of a function to identify
whether local extreme values are present.
A function that is increasing or decreasing on an interval is said to be monotonic on the interval.
Corollary 3. Suppose that ƒ is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b).
If f ( x)  0 at each point x  (a, b), then ƒ is increasing on [a, b] .
If f ( x)  0 at each point x  (a, b), then ƒ is decreasing on [a, b] .
Proof. Let x1 and x 2 be any two points in [a, b] with x1  x 2 . The Mean Value Theorem
(Lagrange’s theorem) applied to ƒ on [ x1 , x 2 ] says that f ( x 2 )  f ( x1 )  f (c)( x 2  x1 ) for some c
between x1 and x 2 . The sign of the right-hand side of this equation is the same as the sign of
f (c) because x 2  x1 is positive. Therefore, f ( x 2 )  f ( x1 ) if f  is positive on (a, b) and
f ( x2 )  f ( x1 ) if f  is negative on (a, b). 
Corollary 3 tells us that f ( x)  x is increasing on the interval [0, b] for any b  0 because
f ( x)  1 /(2 x ) is positive on (0, b). The derivative does not exist at x = 0, but Corollary 3 still
applies. The corollary is valid for infinite as well as finite intervals, so f ( x)  x is increasing on
[0, ).
To find the intervals where a function ƒ is increasing or decreasing, we first find all of the critical
points of ƒ.
Example 2. Find the critical points of f ( x)  x 3  12 x  5 and identify the open intervals on which
ƒ is increasing and on which ƒ is decreasing.
Solution: The function ƒ is everywhere continuous and differentiable. The first derivative
f ( x)  3 x 2  12  3( x  2)( x  2) is zero at x  2 and x = 2. These critical points subdivide the
domain of ƒ to create non-overlapping open intervals (,2), (2, 2), and (2, ) on which ƒ′ is
either positive or negative. We determine the sign of ƒ′ by evaluating ƒ′ at a convenient point in
each subinterval. The behavior of ƒ is determined by then applying Lemma 1 to each subinterval.
Thus, f is increasing on (,2) and (2, ) , and f is decreasing on (2, 2).
First Derivative Test for Local Extrema: Suppose that c is a critical point of a continuous
function ƒ, and that ƒ is differentiable at every point in some interval containing c except possibly
at c itself. Moving across this interval from left to right,
1. if f  changes from negative to positive at c, then ƒ has a local minimum at c;
2. if f  changes from positive to negative at c, then ƒ has a local maximum at c;
3. if f  does not change sign at c (that is, f  is positive on both sides of c or negative on both
sides), then ƒ has no local extremum at c.
The test for local extrema at endpoints is similar, but there is only one side to consider in
determining whether ƒ is increasing or decreasing, based on the sign of f  .
Proof of the First Derivative Test. Part (1). Since the sign of f  changes from negative to positive
at c, there are numbers a and b such that a  c  b, f   0 on (a, c), and f   0 on (c, b). If
x  (a, c), then f (c)  f ( x) because f   0 implies that ƒ is decreasing on [a, c]. If x  (c, b),
then f (c)  f ( x) because f   0 implies that ƒ is increasing on [c, b]. Therefore, f ( x)  f (c)
for every x  (a, b). By definition, ƒ has a local minimum at c. Parts (2) and (3) are proved
similarly. 
Example 3. Find the critical points of f ( x)  x 1 / 3 ( x  4)  x 4 / 3  4 x 1 / 3 . Identify the open intervals
on which ƒ is increasing and decreasing. Find the function’s local and absolute extreme values.
4( x  1)
Solution. The first derivative f ( x )  is zero at x  1 and undefined at x  0. There are
3x 2 / 3
no endpoints in the domain, so the critical points x = 0 and x = 1 are the only places where ƒ might
have an extreme value. Corollary 3 implies that ƒ decreases on (, 0) , decreases on (0, 1), and
increases on (1, ). The First Derivative Test for Local Extrema tells us that ƒ does not have an
extreme value at x = 0 ( f  does not change sign) and that ƒ has a local minimum at x = 1 ( f 
changes from negative to positive). The value of the local minimum is f (1)  3. This is also an
absolute minimum since ƒ is decreasing on (, 1) and increasing on (1, ).

Glossary
to attain – достигать

Exercises for Seminar 8

1. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of each function on the given interval.
a) f ( x)  (2 / 3) x  5,  2  x  3 ; b) f ( x)  x 2  1,  1  x  2 .
2. Determine all critical points for each function.
a) y  x 2  6 x  7 ; b) y  x 2  32 x .
3. Find the critical points, domain endpoints, and extreme values (absolute and local) for each
function:
4  2 x , x  1
a) y  x 2 / 3 ( x  2) ; b) y   .
 x  1, x  1
f (b)  f (a )
4. Find the value or values of c that satisfy the equation  f (c) in the conclusion of
ba
the Mean Value Theorem for the following functions and intervals:
a) f ( x)  x 2  2 x  1, [0,1] ; b) f ( x)  x  1 / x, [1 / 2, 2] .
5. Which of the following functions satisfy the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on the
given interval, and which do not? Give reasons for your answers.
2 (sin x) / x,    x  0
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , [−1, 8]; b) f ( x)   .
 0, x0
6. (Analyzing Functions from Derivatives). Answer the following questions about the functions
whose derivatives are given: (1) What are the critical points of f ? (2) On what open intervals is
f increasing or decreasing? (3) At what points, if any, does f assume local maximum and
minimum values.
4
a) f ( x)  x( x  1) ; b) f ( x)  ( x  1) 2 ( x  2) ; c) f ( x)  1  2 , x  0 ;
x
d) f ( x)  (sin x  1)(2 cos x  1), 0  x  2 .
7. (Identifying Extrema). Find the open intervals on which the function is increasing and
decreasing. Identify the function’s local and absolute extreme values, if any, saying where they
occur.
a) g (t )  t 2  3t  3 ; b) g ( x)  x 8  x 2 ; c) f ( x)  x 1 / 3 ( x  8) ; d) f ( x)  x ln x .

Exercises for Homework 8

1. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of each function on the given interval.
a) f ( x)   x  4,  4  x  1 ; b) f ( x)  4  x 2 ,  2  x  1 .
2. Determine all critical points for each function.
a) f ( x)  6 x 2  x 3 ; b) y  2 x  x 2 .
3. Find the critical points, domain endpoints, and extreme values (absolute and local) for each
function:
3  x, x0
a) y  x 2 / 3 ( x 2  4) ; b) y   .
3  2 x  x , x  0
2

f (b)  f (a )
4. Find the value or values of c that satisfy the equation  f (c) in the conclusion of
ba
the Mean Value Theorem for the following functions and intervals:
a) f ( x)  x 2 / 3 , [0,1] ; b) f ( x)  sin 1 x, [1,1] .
5. Which of the following functions satisfy the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on the
given interval, and which do not? Give reasons for your answers.
4  x 2  x,  2  x  1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , [0, 1]; b) f ( x)   2
5 .
2 x  3 x  3,  1  x  0
6. (Analyzing Functions from Derivatives). Answer the following questions about the functions
whose derivatives are given: (1) What are the critical points of f ? (2) On what open intervals is
f increasing or decreasing? (3) At what points, if any, does f assume local maximum and
minimum values.
6
a) f ( x)  ( x  1)( x  2) ; b) f ( x)  ( x  1) 2 ( x  2) 2 ; c) f ( x)  3  , x  0.
x
7. (Identifying Extrema). Find the open intervals on which the function is increasing and
decreasing. Identify the function’s local and absolute extreme values, if any, saying where they
occur.
a) g (t )  3t 2  9t  5 ; b) g ( x)  x 2 5  x ;
c) f ( x)  x 2 / 3 ( x  5) ; d) f ( x)  x 2 ln x .