See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/379670518

Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Chapter · April 2024

CITATIONS READS

0 858

1 author:

Asaad M. Jassim Al-Hindawi

Sulaimani Polytechnic University
40 PUBLICATIONS 195 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Asaad M. Jassim Al-Hindawi on 09 April 2024.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

            




     





  

   

      


   







 

  


 

 

 


 
   


 

    
 

 
 
   




 
 
 
 
 

 
 
   

 
 





 






   







  

  

 

 


   
   

 


 

  

  
  
  

  

!"#$
 
 


 

% 
" 
&
' 

 


' ( 
($
 
 

$
)*

+)
 ,-.+/
$ 

!  
#
 


 



  

 
0
 
!
1
,2
 
0
-.-)
% 
" 
&
' 

 


' ( 
($
 
 
 ƐĂĂĚD͘:͘ůͲ,ŝŶĚĂǁŝ

Basics of
MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATIONS

A book series of electromagnetic waves engineering





Preface

The text provides the basics of microwave communications. The current interest in these
areas is due to the growth and development of wireless communications and information
technologies, particularly in 5G and beyond. Communication, antenna, radar, and
microwave engineers must deal with the generation, transport, and reception of
electromagnetic waves that operate mostly at high frequencies, especially at microwave
frequencies. The text is introduced in a simple way and easy to understand and is organized
around the following main themes with the help of demonstative examples and solved
problems:

x Basic elements of microwave communication.

x Transmission line theory
x Waveguides and planar microstrip lines.
x Impedance matching and microwave network analysis.
x Microwave devices and components used in microwave circuits.
x Microwave link analysis and design.
x Microwave radio systems

The book is suitable for undergraduate students in the fourth year, and there are sufficient
materials in the book for a series of two semesters. This book is also appropriate for first
year JUDGXDWHV¶ students who would like to specialized in the above topics. The book can
also be used by engineers and practicing scientists who want a quick review that covers
most of the basic concepts and includes many practical examples in addition to solved
problems.

This book is based on the lecture notes for the four-year undergraduate students on
"Microwave Engineering" that I have taught at the University of Sulaimani and later at the
Sulaimani Polytechnic University for more than fifteen years. The two-semester course
attracts students from a variety of fields, such as electronic engineering, wireless
communications, and microwave integrated circuits. The book requires a basic course in
electromagnetic wave propagation and antennas that may be studied and usually offered to
second or third-year undergraduate students.

The book consists of eight following chapters:

The first chapter introduces the properties of microwaves, the advantages and
disadvantages of using microwave frequencies in addition to their applications. The
chapter two presents the needed theory for analyzing the main parameters of the
transmission lines that used in connecting the microwave devices and components to each
RWKHU¶VAlso, many problems related to them are solved. While chapter three studies the
theory and applications of the single-conductor lines (waveguides) and multi-conductor
lines (planar microstrip lines). The chapter four presents the basics of impedance

ŝ



matching and tuning for the microwave devices and components. In the fifth chapter, the
microwave networks are analyzed for both passive and active devices and components. In
chapter six, the important microwave devices and components and their applications in
microwave circuits are studied. Chapter seven introduces the main parameters for the
microwave link design and the required conditions to take into considerations for
calculating the link budget to achieve save and proper communication. Finally, chapter
eight deals with the basics of the most important microwave radio systems like satellite,
mobile and radar systems.

Finally, I would like to thank the many generations of my students who made up the
contents of this book and the other colleagues who encouraged me to edit this text and gave
me more suggestions for improvement.

Best regards

Asaad M. J. Al-Hindawi; BSc, H.D, MSc, PhD

Professor of Communication Engineering
Communication Engineering Department
Technical College of Engineering
Sulaimani Polytechnic University
Sulaymaniyah, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
August 2021

ŝŝ



List of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to Microwaves «««««««««««««««««« 1

1.1 Properties of Microwaves ««««««««««««««««««2
1.2 Microwave Propagation «««««««««««««««««««2
1.3 Microwave Radio Relay «««««««««««««««««««3
1.4 Microwave Antennas ««««««««««««««««««««6
1.5 Microwave Sources ««««««««««««««««««««« 6
1.6 Frequency Bands ««««««««««««««««««««««7
1.7 Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit (MMIC) ««««««««8
1.8 Microwave Applications ««««««««««««««««««« 9
1.9 Advantages of Microwaves «««««««««««««««««11
1.10 Disadvantages of Microwaves «««««««««««««««« 11
References ««««««««««««««««««««««««« 12

Chapter 2: Transmission Line Theory «««««««««««««««««« 13

2.1 Definition of Transmission Line «««««««««««««««« 12
2.2 Main Parameters of Transmission Line «««««««««««««15
2.3 Lossy Transmission Line ««««««««««««««««««« 16
2.4 Lossless Transmission Line «««««««««««««««««« 20
2.4.1 Voltage and Current Distributions ««««««««««««« 20
2.4.2 Line Impedance ««««««««««««««««««««21
2.4.3 Reflection Coefficient «««««««««««««««««« 21
2.4.4 Standing Wave Ratio «««««««««««««««««« 22
2.4.5 Wavelength and Phase Velocity «««««««««««««« 25
2.5 Input Impedance of Transmission Line «««««««««««««25
2.6 Transmission Line Calculator (Smith Chart) ««««««««««« 29
2.7 Smith Chart with Admittance ««««««««««««««««« 35
2.8 Admittance Based on Using Z-Chart «««««««««««««« 38
References «««««««««««««««««««««««««« 39
Solved Problems ««««««««««««««««««««««« 40

Chapter 3: Single and Multi-conductor Transmission Lines ««««««««« 50

3.1 Classification of Transmission Lines «««««««««««««« 51
3.2 Parallel Plate Waveguide «««««««««««««««««««53
3.2.1 Analysis ««««««««««««««««««««««« 54
3.2.2 TE Modes «««««««««««««««««««««« 57
3.2.3 Waveguide Cut-off Frequency «««««««««««««« 60
3.2.4 TM Modes «««««««««««««««««««««« 62
3.2.5 TEM Modes ««««««««««««««««««««« 63
3.3 Rectangular Waveguide ««««««««««««««««««« 66

ŝŝŝ



3.3.1 Introduction «««««««««««««««««««««« 66

3.3.2 Excited Modes «««««««««««««««««««« 67
3.4 Velocities of Guided Waves ««««««««««««««««« 75
3.5 Coaxial Line ««««««««««««««««««««««« 82
3.6 Strip Line «««««««««««««««««««««««« 83
3.7 Microstrip Line «««««««««««««««««««««« 84
3.8 Slot Line «««««««««««««««««««««««««85
3.9 Coplanar Line ««««««««««««««««««««««« 85
References «««««««««««««««««««««««««« 87
Solved Problems ««««««««««««««««««««««« 88

Chapter 4: Impedance Matching in Microwave Circuits «««««««««« 96

4.1 Definition of Impedance Matching «««««««««««««« 97
4.2 Matching Network of Series Single Lumped Reactive Element ««« 100
4.3 Matching Network of L-Section: Two Lumped Elements ««««« 102
4.3.1 Configuration 1: When RL>Z0 or rL > 1 «««««««««««««««« 104
4.3.2 Configuration 2: When RL<Z0 or rL< 1 «««««««««««««««« 111
0DWFKLQJ1HWZRUNZLWKȜ7UDQVPLVVLRQ/LQH ««««««««« 117
4.5 Single Stub Matching of Transmission Line ««««««««««« 119
4.5.1 Parallel Stub Matching ««««««««««««««««« 120
4.5.2 Series Stub Matching ««««««««««««««««« 124
4.6 Double Stub Matching of Transmission Line «««««««««« 127
4.7 Waveguide Impedance Matching ««««««««««««««« 137
References ««««««««««««««««««««««««« 142
Solved Problems ««««««««««««««««««««««« 143

Chapter 5: Microwave Network Analysis «««««««««««««««« 145

5.1 Definition of Microwave Network ««««««««««««««« 146
5.2 General Properties of Two-Port Network «««««««««««« 147
5.3 Impedance Parameters (Z-Parameters) ««««««««««««« 148
5.4 Admittance Parameters (Y-Parameters) «««««««««««« 150
5.5 Scattering Parameters (S-Parameters) ««««««««««««« 152
5.5.1 Definition of S-Parameter ««««««««««««««« 152
5.5.2 Properties of S-Parameter for Two-port Network ««««««156
5.5.3 Two-port Network and Load Impedance «««««««««« 159
5.5.4 General Form of Scattering Matrix for an Arbitrary N-port Network
««««««««««««««««««««««««««.««62
5.6 Signal Flow Graph (SFG) «««««««««««««««««« 163
5.6.1 Important Definitions ««««««««««««««««« 164
5.6.2 Basic Rules ««««««««««««««««««««« 165
5.7 Signal Flow Graph of Common Circuits «««««««««««« 170
5.7.1 Representation of a Voltage Source «««««««««««« 170
5.7.2 Representation of a Passive Single-port Device ««««««« 172
5.7.3 Representation of a 2 Port Network «««««««««««« 173

ŝǀ



5.8 Power Flow Through a Network «««««««««««««« 175

5.9 Network Power Gains ««««««««««««««««««« 178
5.10 Transmission Parameters (ABCD Matrix) ««««««««««« 180
5.11 Relationship between Z, Y, S and ABCD-Parameters ««««««83
References ««««««««««««««««««««««««« 185
Solved Problems ««««««««««««««««««««««« 186

Chapter 6: Microwave Devices and Components ««««««««««««« 196

6.1 Classification of Microwave Devices ««««««««««««« 197
6.1.1 Active and Passive Components ««««««««««««« 197
6.1.2 Microwave Devices «««««««««««««««««« 197
6.1.3 Microwave Components «««««««««««««««« 197
6.2 Microwave Vacuum Tubes ««««««««««««««««« 198
6.2.1 Klystron Tube «««««««««««««««««««« 198
6.2.2 Magnetron Tube ««««««««««««««««««« 202
6.2.3 Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) «««««««««««««« 203
6.3 Microwave Solid State Diodes «««««««««««««««« 205
6.3.1 Tunnel Diode «««««««««««««««««««« 206
6.2.2 Gunn Diode ««««««««««««««««««««« 208
6.3.3 IMPATT Diode «««««««««««««««««««« 211
6.3.4 Varactor Diode «««««««««««««««««««« 213
6.3.5 Schottky Barrier Diode ««««««««««««««««« 214
6.3.6 PIN Diode «««««««««««««««««««««« 216
6.4 Applications of Microwave Detector Circuits «««««««««« 217
6.4.1 Basic Detector Circuit ««««««««««««««««« 217
6.4.2 Types of Detector Diodes ««««««««««««««« 219
6.5 Microwave Transistor ««««««««««««««««««« 219
6.6 Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit MMIC ««««««««« 221
6.7 Microwave Passive Components ««««««««««««««« 223
6.7.1 Microwave Attenuator ««««««««««««««««« 223
6.7.2 Microwave Circulator and Isolator «««««««««««« 224
6.7.3 Directional Coupler and Power Divider «««««««««« 227
6.7.4 Microwave Resonator and Filter ««««««««««««« 239
6.8 Frequency Meter ««««««««««««««««««««« 241
6.9 Slotted line «««««««««««««««««««««««« 242
References «««««««««««««««««««««««««243
Solved Problems ««««««««««««««««««««««« 244

Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design ««««««««««««« 247

7.1 Link Design Process «««««««««««««««««««« 248
7.2 Frequency Selection «««««««««««««««««««« 249
7.3 Path Profile Study ««««««««««««««««««««« 250
7.3.1 Fresnel Zone Loss ««««««««««««««««««« 251
7.3.2 Calculation of Radius of First Fresnel Zone ««««««««« 253

ǀ



7.4 Signal Fading Prediction «««««««««««««««««« 254

7.4.1 Propagation Mechanisms «««««««««««««««« 254
7.4.2 Multipath Fading ««««««««««««««««««« 255
7.4.3 Rain Fading ««««««««««««««««««««« 256
7.5 Link Availability ««««««««««««««««««««« 258
7.6 Receiver Sensitivity «««««««««««««««««««« 258
7.6.1 Bit Error Ratio (BER) ««««««««««««««««« 259
7.6.2 Modulation Technique and System Bandwidth ««««««« 260
7.6.3 Channel Noise «««««««««««««««««««« 261
7.6.4 Receiver Noise (NRx) ««««««««««««««««« 266
7.6.5 Equation of Receiver Sensitivity ««««««««««««« 267
7.7 Link Budget ««««««««««««««««««««««« 267
7.7.1 Calculations of Link Budget ««««««««««««««« 268
7.7.2 Link Feasibility and Reliability ««««««««««««« 269
7.7.3 Calculation of Carrier to Noise Ratio (CNR) «««««««« 272
References ««««««««««««««««««««««««« 275
Solved Problems ««««««««««««««««««««««« 276

Chapter 8: Microwave Radio Systems ««««««««««««««««« 282

8.1 Satellite Radio System ««««««««««««««««««« 283
8.1.1 Communication Satellite «««««««««««««««« 283
8.1.2 Satellite Orbits «««««««««««««««««««« 284
8.1.3 System Structure ««««««««««««««««««« 285
8.1.4 Frequency Allocation for Satellite Systems ««««««««« 286
8.2 Cellular Radio System ««««««««««««««««««« 288
8.2.1 System Concept ««««««««««««««««««« 288
8.2.2 Frequency Reuse «««««««««««««««««« 290
8.2.3 Cell Planning «««««««««««««««««««« 291
8.2.4 Multiplexing Techniques ««««««««««««««« 291
8.2.6 BTS Antennas ««««««««««««««««««« 293
8.2.7 Handoff «««««««««««««««««««««« 294
8.2.8 Architecture of Cellular Network «««««««««««« 294
8.2.9 Common Cellular Networks «««««««««««««« 295
8.2.10 Operating Frequency for Cellular Network «««««««« 298
8.3 Radar System «««««««««««««««««««««« 298
8.3.1 Radar Concept ««««««««««««««««««« 298
8.3.2 Basic Design of Radar System ««««««««««««« 300
8.3.4 Terminology of Radar System ««««««««««««« 301
8.3.4 Radar Equation ««««««««««««««««««« 304
8.3.5 Factors of Radar Performance ««««««««««««« 305
8.3.6 Doppler Effect in Radar System «««««««««««« 309
8.3.7 Frequency Bands of Radar «««««««««««««« 310
8.3.8 Types of Radar «««««««««««««««««««312
8.3.9 Radar Applications «««««««««««««««««« 316
References ««««««««««««««««««««««««« 318
Solved Problems «««««««««««««««««««««« 319

ǀŝ

Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design




CHAPTER SEVEN


Microwave Link Analysis and Design

This chapter presents the main parameters that plays an important role in the microwave link
design. Typical radio link is proposed and analyzed according to the major parameters that affect
the link performance. These parameters are operating frequency, antenna position and height at Tx
and Rx ends, signal fading, receiver sensitivity and link budget calculations.

Ϯϰϳ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

7.1 Link Design Process

A microwave link is a communication system that uses a beam of radio waves in
the microwave frequency range to transmit information between two locations or stations. There
are several factors that may impact the performance of a radio system or microwave link [1].
Available and permitted output power, available bandwidth, receiver sensitivity, antenna gains,
radio technology, and environmental conditions are some of the major factors that may impact
system performance. The process of a radio link design is basically a methodical, systematic and
sometimes lengthy process. The whole process is actually iterative and may go through many
redesign phases before the required quality and availability are achieved as shown in Fig. (7.1).

This process includes the followings;

1. Frequency selection
2. Path profile study
3. Signal fading prediction
4. Link availability
5. Receiver sensitivity
6. Link budget

Figure (7.1): Process of microwave link design.

Ϯϰϴ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

When evaluating a wireless link, the three most important questions to be answered are:
1. How much radio frequency (RF) power is available? It will be answered in the link budget
discussion (section (7.5)).
2. How much bandwidth is available? It will be answered in the receiver sensitivity discussion.
3. What is the required reliability as defined by Bit Error Ratio, or BER? It will be also answered
in the receiver sensitivity discussion (section (7.6)).

In general, RF power and bandwidth effectively place an upper bound on the capacity of a
FRPPXQLFDWLRQVOLQN7KHXSSHUOLPLWLQWHUPVRIGDWDUDWHLVJLYHQE\6KDQQRQ¶V&KDQQHO&DSDFLW\
Theorem [2]:
ܵ
‫ ܥ‬ൌ ‫݃݋݈ܤ‬ଶ ൬ͳ ൅ ൰ሺ͹Ǥͳሻ
ܰ
where:
C = channel capacity (bits/s).
B = channel bandwidth (Hz).
S = signal power (watts).
N = noise power (watts).
ௌ
The quantity ே
is defined as the signal to noise ratio or commonly called SNR.

Note that this equation means that for an ideal system, the error in the received bits, that
will be expressed later (bit error ratio BER) at the receiver, will approach zero if the data
WUDQVPLVVLRQUDWHLVEHORZWKHFKDQQHOFDSDFLW\,QWKH³UHDOZRUOG´WKHGHJUHHWRZKLFKDSUDFWLFDO
system can approach this limit is dependent on modulation technique and receiver noise.

7.2 Frequency Selection

Small capacity systems generally employ the frequencies less than 3 GHz while medium and
large capacity systems utilize frequencies ranging from 3 to 15 GHz. Frequencies greater than 15
GHz are essentially used for short-haul transmission. The objective of carrier frequency selection
is to assign frequencies for forward and backward links (in two opposite directions) to a network
using as few frequencies as possible and in a manner such that the quality and availability of the

Ϯϰϵ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

radio link path is minimally affected by interference. The following aspects are the basic
considerations involved in the assignment of radio frequencies;
1. Selection of frequency band should be correct and suitable for the specific link (path length,
site location, terrain topography and atmospheric effects)
2. Prevention of mutual interference such as interference among radio frequency channels in
the actual path, interference to and from other radio paths, interference to and from satellite
communication systems.
3. For frequency channels arrangements, the available frequency band is subdivided into two
halves, a lower (go) and an upper (return) duplex half. The duplex spacing is always
sufficiently large so that the radio equipment can operate interference free under duplex
operation. The width of each channel depends on the capacity of the radio link and the type
of modulation used.
4. The most important goal of frequency selection is to allocate available channels to the
different links in the network without exceeding the quality and availability objectives of
the individual links because of radio interference
5. Frequency selection of a few paths can be carried out manually but, for larger networks, it
is highly recommended to employ a software transmission design tool.

7.3 Path Profile Study

A path profile is a graphical representation of the path travelled by the radio waves between
the two ends of a microwave link. Previously a microwave link is defined as a communication
system that uses a beam of radio waves in the microwave frequency range to transmit information
between two locations or stations. These stations may be movable or; fixed like point±to-point
according to the condition of line of sight (LOS) propagation.

Line of Sight (LOS) is defined as a visible straight line free of obstructions between the
transmitting and receiving antennas as illustrated in Fig. (7.2). We can say here, the study of path
profile determines the suitable location and heights of the antenna at each end of the link, and it
ensures that the link is free of obstructions, such as trees, buildings and hills.

ϮϱϬ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Figure (7.2): Line of sight LOS propagation for microwave link.

The position of obstacles between transmitter and receiver significantly influence the
TXDOLW\RIWKHPLFURZDYHOLQN7KHPLFURZDYHVLJQDOGRHVQ¶WRQO\UDGLDWHDORQJWKHOLQHRIVLJKW
(LOS), but also in the area around it, i.e. in the so-called 1st Fresnel zone [3]. Within this zone 90
% of the energy is transmitted between the transmitter and receiver antenna. This space has the
shape of an ellipsoid. If it is disturbed by an obstruction, the link has worse transmission properties
and a higher quality antenna is required. For this reason the position of the antenna can be just as
important as its height above ground. 60 % of the 1st Fresnel zone is considered as the most
important and should be free of obstructions.

7.3.1 Fresnel Zone Loss

For unobstructed link, radio waves will travel in a straight line from the transmitter to the
receiver. But if there are obstructions near the path, the radio waves reflecting off those objects
may arrive out of phase with the signals that travel directly and reduce the power of the received
signal.

On the other hand, the reflection can enhance the power of the received signal if the reflection
and the direct signals arrive in phase. Fresnel provided a means to calculate where the zones are±
where a given obstacle will cause mostly in phase or mostly out of phase reflections between the
transmitter and the receiver. Obstacles in the first Fresnel zone will create signals with a path-
length phase shift of 0 to 180 degrees, in the second zone they will be 180 to 360 degrees out of

Ϯϱϭ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

as described in Fig. (7.4). The allowable obstacle clearance and free is not less than 60%
of the whole Fresnel zone that gives 0 dB loss and then avoid this zone [5].

Figure (7.4): Knife edge approximation for calculation of Fresnel zone loss.

7.3.2 Calculation of Radius of First Fresnel Zone

The radius of the first Fresnel Zone at a given point between the transmitter and the receiver
can be calculated as:

݀ଵ ݀ଶ
‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͳ͹Ǥ͵ͳ ൈ ඨ ሺ͹Ǥʹሻ
݂݀

where r is the radius of the zone in meters, d1 and d2 are distances from the obstacle to the link end
points in meters, d = ݀ଵ ൅ ݀ଶ ‫ ׷‬represents the total link distance in meters (or in kilometers), and
f is the frequency in MHz (or in GHz) as illustrated in Fig. (7.5). Note that this gives you the
radius of the zone, not the height above ground. Maximum radius rmax occurs when ݀ଵ ൌ ݀ଶ or

݀
‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ ൌ ͺǤ͸͸ ൈ ඨ ሺ͹Ǥ͵ሻ
݂

Figure (7.5): Calculation of first Fresnel zone.

Ϯϱϯ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Now, we can calculate the minimum required height of the antenna ݄௔௡௧ above the ground
surface at the location of ‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ by finding ‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ form Eqn. (7.2) such that:
݄௔௡௧ ൒ ‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ (To avoid 1st Fresnel zone)
Again, we can find the height of obstacle ݄௢௕௦௧ above the ground surface at the location of
‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ as:
݄௢௕௦௧ ൑ ݄௔௡௧ െ ‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ (7.4a)
For allowable Fresnel zone clearance of K percent of the whole zone, the height of obstacle above
the ground surface will be:
݄௢௕௦௧ ൑ ݄௔௡௧ െ ‫ݎܭ‬௠௔௫Ǥ (7.4b)
To achieve a good microwave communication link (to avoid 1st Fresnel zone), the condition
described in Eqn. (7.4b) should be verified and the value of K should not be less than 0.6 percent
of the whole zone to give 0 dB loss. Thus, the maximum allowable height of obstacle for a specific
antenna height is given by:
ሺ݄௢௕௦௧ ሻ௠௔௫ ൌ ݄௔௡௧ െ ͲǤ͸‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ (7.5)
While the minimum antenna height for the specific obstacle height is given by:
ሺ݄௔௡௧ ሻ௠௜௡ ൌ ݄௢௕௦௧ ൅ ͲǤ͸‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ (7.6)
Let see Fig. (7.5) which shows there is a building obstacle of height ݄௢௕௦௧ ൌ ͹݉ and ‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ ൌ
͵Ǥͻ݉ for a certain frequency, thus the minimum antenna height cab be calculated based on Eqn.
(7.6) as:
ሺ݄௔௡௧ ሻ௠௜௡ ൌ ͹ ൅ ͲǤ͸ሺ͵Ǥͻሻ ൌ ͻǤ͵Ͷ݉
Therefore the actual antenna is fixed on a building of height 10 m as seen in Fig. (7.6).

Figure (7.6): Calculation of antenna height for specific obstacle.

Ϯϱϰ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

7.4 Signal Fading Prediction

7.4.1 Propagation Mechanisms
There are three terrestrial propagation mechanisms that impact a travelling wave [6];
reflection, occurs when a wave impinges upon a smooth surface such that the dimensions of the
VXUIDFHDUHODUJHUHODWLYHWRȜ7KHVHFRQGPHFKDQLVPLVdiffraction (Shadowing), occurs when the
SDWKLVEORFNHGE\DQREMHFWRIVKDUSLUUHJXODULWLHV HGJHV DQGODUJHGLPHQVLRQVUHODWLYHWRȜDQG
WKXVVHFRQGDU\³ZDYHOHWV´SURSDJDWHLQWRWKHVKDGRZHGUHJLRQ:KLOHWKHWKLUGRQHLVscattering,
occurs when a wave LPSLQJHVXSRQDQREMHFWZLWKGLPHQVLRQVRQWKHRUGHURIȜRUOHVVFDXVLQJ
WKH UHIOHFWHG HQHUJ\ WR VSUHDG RXW RU ³VFDWWHU´ LQ PDQ\ GLUHFWLRQV 6PDOO REMHFWV VXFK DV VWUHHW
lights, signs, leaves cause scattering. Due to propagation mechanisms mentioned above, the
travelling wave may suffer a reduction and rapid fluctuations in the signal power over the link and
this is called a signal fading causing an attenuation in the received signal. The major fading occurs
due to multipath and rain attenuation.Due to this signal fading, a margin of additional amount of
power should be taken into account in the link design, thus this margin is called Fade margin.

Determining sufficient fade margin is the most important step in microwave link design. If the
margin is too small, the link will be unstable ± as a result, sufficient availability of the link or
quality of the provided services cannot be guaranteed. On the other hand, unnecessarily large
margin makes the link more expensive (higher performance, larger and more expensive antennas)
and increases the cost of creating the microwave link.

To determine the fade margin, it is necessary to calculate both rain and multipath attenuation.
The larger of the two types of attenuation determines the value of fade margin. In areas with high
precipitation, rain attenuation can be expected to be more prominent. By contrast, links located in
drier climates and little inclination, will suffer more from multipath attenuation

7.4.2 Multipath Fading

Multipath fading is the dominant fading mechanism for frequencies lower than 10GHz [7]. A
reflected wave causes a multipath, i.e., when a reflected wave reaches the receiver in addition to
the direct wave that travels in a straight line (LOS) from the transmitter as indicated in Fig. (7.7).

Ϯϱϱ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Figure (7.7): Multipath fading due to multipath propagation.

If the two signals reach in phase, then the signal amplifies and this is called up-fade. While, if
the two waves reach the receiver out of phase, they weaken the overall signal. A location where a
signal is canceled out by multipath is called null or down-fade. As a thumb rule, multipath fading,
for radio links having bandwidths less than 40MHz and path lengths less than 30Km is described
as flat fading instead of frequency selective fading [8].

Flat fading
A fade where all frequencies in the channel are equally affected. There is barely noticeable
variation of the amplitude of the signal across the channel bandwidth. If necessary flat fade margin
of a link can be improved by using larger antennas, a higher-power microwave transmitter, and
lower loss feed line, and splitting a longer path into two shorter hops. On water paths at frequencies
above 3 GHz, it is advantageous to choose vertical polarization.

Frequency-selective fading
There are amplitude and group delay distortions across the channel bandwidth. It affects
medium and high-capacity radio links (>32 Mbps). The sensitivity of digital radio equipment to
frequency-selective fading can be described by the signature curve of the equipment. This curve
can be used to calculate the Dispersive Fade Margin (DFM).

Technical literatures often say that for very long links (more than 10 km), the fade margin due
to multipath will, indeed, be approximately 20 dB. This fade margin should be taken into account
for the link design consideration.

Ϯϱϲ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

7.4.3 Rain Fading

For frequency ranges upward of 10 GHz rain attenuation also plays a role. Precipitation is not identical
in all areas which is why ITU released a recommendation Rec. ITU-R PN.837-1 for splitting into 15 regions
according to precipitation intensity. In the areas with higher precipitation greater rain attenuation must be
expected and a greater signal fade margin must be established.
The following properties are directly related to rain attenuation [10]:
1. It increases exponentially with rain intensity
2. It becomes significantly larger as the distance travelled increases (>10 Km)
3. Horizontal polarization causes greater rain attenuation than vertical polarization
4. Rain outage increases dramatically with frequency and path length.

Figure (7.8) shows a specific rain attenuation (dB/km) for horizontal H, vertical V polarization
and rain zones at 10 GHz [10], and indicates that rain attenuation is greater for horizontal
polarization. In regions with higher precipitation the difference in attenuation is more marked. This
is why it is almost necessary to use vertical polarization and sufficient fade margin when designing
links in high precipitation environment (regions K through Q). Note that the middle and the north
of Iraq is within K zone while the south-west is within E zone.

Figure (7.8): Rain attenuation for different zones at 10 GHz.

Therefore, a margin is included to compensate for the effects of rain attenuation at a given
level of availability. Increased fade margin (margins as high as 45 to 60 dB) is of some help to
avoid the rain attenuation especially in the countries of heavy rainfall.

Ϯϱϳ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Reducing the rain effects

Multipath fading is at its minimum during periods of heavy rainfall with well aligned dishes,
so entire path fade margin is available to combat the rain attenuation (wet-radom loss effects are
minimum with shrouded antennas). Radios with Automatic Transmitter Power Control have been
used in some highly vulnerable links. Vertical polarization is far less susceptible to rainfall
attenuation (40 to 60%) than are horizontal polarization frequencies.

7.5 Link Availability

The main purpose of the availability calculations is to set up reasonable availability objectives
for the microwave path. The ITU-T recommendations G.801, G.821 and G.826 define error
performance and availability objectives. The objectives of digital links are divided into separate
grades: high, medium and local grade. The outage of a radio link (unavailability) is defined as;

௧ೞ೐ೞ
‫݁݃ܽݐݑ݋‬ሺΨሻ ൌ ൈ ͳͲͲ (7.7)
்

where;

T: Total time period (in seconds) under the link test.

tses = period of severely errored seconds (in second)

Now the link availability is expressed as a percentage as;

A (%) = 100 ± Outage (7.8)

Table (7.1) shows the Rayleigh Fading Model, which highlights the relationship between the
amount of available link margin and link availability as a percentage of time.

Table (7.1): Relationship of a link availability and Rayleigh fade margin .

Availability (%) Fade Margin (dB)

90 8
99 18
99.9 28
99.99 38
99.999 48

Ϯϱϴ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

7.6 Receiver Sensitivity

The important step in performing the link budget is determining the required signal strength
at the receiver input. This is referred to as receiver sensitivity (SRx). It is defined as the minimum
received signal can be detected and processed by a receiver. The receiver sensitivity is a function
of the desired bit error ratio (BER), the used modulation technique, the system bandwidth and the
allowable noise power (noise floor) which is generated at the receiver.

7.6.1 Bit Error Ratio (BER)

For the purposes of link budget analysis, the most important aspect of a given modulation
technique is the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) necessary for a receiver to achieve a specified level
of reliability in terms of BER. The bit error ratio (BER) is the number of bit errors divided by
the total number of transmitted bits during a studied time interval. Bit error ratio is a unitless
performance measure, often expressed as a percentage [9]. BER can be considered as an
approximate estimation of the bit error probability. This estimation is accurate for a long time
interval and a high number of bit errors.

The BER is a measure of signal quality and is the most important of figure of merits in a link
design and is used to compare communication systems even when they have different bit rates,
modulations, and even media.

In a noisy channel, the BER is often expressed as a function of the normalized carrier-to-noise
ratio measure denoted Eb/N0, (energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio). The quantity
Eb represents the bit energy while N0 represents the noise density and equal to the total noise power
N generated in the frequency band of the signal divided by the bandwidth of the signal. N0 is
PHDVXUHGDV:DWWV+]DQGLW¶VDQRLVHSRZHULQRQHKHUW]
ே
ܰ଴ ൌ (7.9)
஻

where N is the noise power (Watts), and B is the signal bandwidth (Hz).

For example, in the case of PSK modulation and AWGN channel, the BER as function of the Eb/N0
(as plotted in Fig. (7.8)), is given by [1]:
ଵ
‫ ܴܧܤ‬ൌ ‡”ˆ ሺඥ‫ܧ‬௕ Ȁܰ଴ ) (7.10)
ଶ

Ϯϱϵ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Table (7.2): Relation between the bandwidth B and the bit rate ܴ௕ for different modulation Techniques.

Modulation Technique Symbols (M) Bits/symbol (log2 M) Bandwidth (Hz)

FSK 2 1 ݂ு െ ݂௅ ൅ ʹܴ௦௬௠௕௢௟
ASK, OOK, BPSK, 2 1 2ܴ௕
DBPSK, OFSK
QPSK, DQPSK 4 2 ܴ௕
8PSK, 8QAM 8 3 ଶோ್
ଷ

16PSK, 16QAM 16 4 ோ್
ଶ

7.6.3 Channel Noise

Noise is any unwanted signal and usually generated by the random motions of charges or
charge carriers in devices and materials. We therefore can compute the most basic type of noise,
which is denoted by the thermal noise power generated at the receiver due to the following
sources;
1. Thermal noise from random motion of electrons.
2. Antenna noise: antenna losses + sky noise (background microwave radiation).
3. Amplifier noise temperature: energy absorption manifests itself as heat, thus generating
thermal noise.

Thermal noise power (N)

The thermal noise power N can be calculated as [11];

N=kTB (7.11)
where;
k: Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K (Watt/K/Hz).
T: Absolute temperature in Kelvin and it is called a noise temperature and is customarily
taken as the room temperature T0 (290 K) and the noise source is resistor.
B: receiver effective bandwidth in Hz.

Thermal noise in an ideal resistor is approximately white, meaning that the power spectral
density is nearly constant throughout the frequency spectrum. When limited to a finite bandwidth,
thermal noise has a nearly Gaussian amplitude distribution [11].

Ϯϲϭ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Note that: at T=TO = 290ºK (the standard temperature will be used for the definition of Noise
Figure F), the noise power spectral density is denoted by; N/B = k T0 (Watt/Hz) and this value at
T=T0 = 290ºK is;
k T0 = 4.00x10-21 W/Hz = -204.0 dBW/Hz = -174.0 dBm/Hz = -114.0 dBm/MHz.

Noise figure (F)

Noise figure is a measure of the degradation in signal to noise ratio and it can be used in
association with radio receiver sensitivity. Noise figure is a number by which
the noise performance of an amplifier or a radio receiver can be specified. The lower the value of
the noise figure, the better the performance. The figure of thermal noise calculated from Eqn.
(7.11) represents a theoretical noise floor for an ideal receiver at room temperature T0 (290 K). A
real receiver noise floor in the microwave circuit will always be higher, due to the excess noise
generated in a radio receiver or any amplifier. This excess noise causes an increment added to the
total noise power in the receiver itself, compared with that of the ideal receiver as shown in Fig.
(7.9).

Figure (7.9): Noise figure calculation for ideal and real receivers.

ϮϲϮ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

7KXVOHW¶VGHILQHWKH1RLVH)LJXUH ) DVDPHDVXUHRIWKHDPRXQWRIWKLVQRLVHDGGHGE\
the receiver itself causing a degradation of signal to noise ratio SNR at the receiver output. The
noise figure F is defined as [12][13];
ܴܵܰ௜௡ ܵ௜௡ ݇ܶ଴ ‫ ܤ‬൅ ݇ܶ௘ ‫ܤ‬ ܶ௘
‫ܨ‬ൌ ൌ ൈ ൌ ͳ ൅ ሺ͹Ǥͳʹሻ
ܴܵܰ௢௨௧ ݇ܶ଴ ‫ܤ‬ ܵ௜௡ ܶ଴
Where,
ௌ೔೙
 ୧୬ ൌ : Signal ܵ௜௡ to noise ܰ௜௡ ratio at the receiver input coming from a resistor
ே೔೙

noise source.
ௌ
 ୭୳୲ ൌ ே೚ೠ೟ : Signal ܵ௢௨௧ to noise ܰ௢௨௧ ratio at the receiver output.
೚ೠ೟

௘ : Equivalent input noise temperature of the receiver due to noise power generated by the
receiver itself.
଴ : Absolute noise temperature at the receiver input when it is connected to a matched load
resistor at 290 K.

If the resistor noise source is replaced by another noise source like an antenna having a noise
temperature ܶ௔௡௧ less than ܶ଴ in Fig. (7.9), therefore, the total noise temperature of the system
equals the summation of antenna noise temperature and receiver noise temperature as;
ܶ௦௬௦ ൌ ܶ௔௡௧ ൅ ܶ௘ , such that;
ܶ௘ ൌ ሺ‫ ܨ‬െ ͳሻܶ଴ (7.13)

It is important to bear in mind two things related to the definition of the noise figure: it is
defined for a matched input source, and for a noise source consisting of a resistor at a temperature
of: 290 k. Noise figure and equivalent noise temperatures are interchangeable characterizations of
the noise properties of a component. Note that the value of noise figure F൒ ͳ(0 dB) always. Again,
we mention here and assure that the equivalent noise temperature ܶ௘ of an element having a gain
G is defined by Eqn. (7.13).

Now, if the type of a network or element in any stage of the system is resistive or passive lossy
element and has a power loss L, then its gain can be often expressed as; G=1/L and always less
than 1 (൏0 dB), since L is always greater than 1 (൐0 dB). Therefore, G is used here. The equivalent

Ϯϲϯ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

noise temperature ܶ௘ of a lossy element referred to the input of temperature T, can be defined as
[13];
ଵ
ܶ௘ ൌ ሺ‫ ܮ‬െ ͳሻܶ ൌ ሺீ െ ͳሻܶ (7.14)

While the noise figure F of a lossy element is defined as;

் ଵ ்
‫ ܨ‬ൌ ͳ ൅ ሺ‫ ܮ‬െ ͳሻ ் ൌ ͳ ൅ ሺீ െ ͳሻ ் (7.15)
బ బ

Noise figure calculation for a cascaded system

We consider two components cascade, having gains G1, G2, noise figures Fl, F2, and noise
temperatures Te1 and Te2, as shown in Fig. (7.10). We would like to find overall noise temperature
and noise figure of the cascade, as if it were a single component. Overall gain is G1G2. Using noise
temperatures, the noise power at the output of the first stage equal the summation of noise power
due to the input noise power ሺܰ௜ = ݇ܶ଴ ‫ܤ‬ሻ and the noise power generated in the first element itself
and can be expressed as;
ܰ଴ଵ ൌ ‫ܩ‬ଵ ݇ܶ଴ ‫ ܤ‬൅ ‫ܩ‬ଵ ݇ܶ௘ଵ ‫ܤ‬ (7.16)
Now, the noise power at the output of the second stage is;
ଵ
ܰ଴ଶ ൌ ܰ଴ ൌ ‫ܩ‬ଶ ܰ଴ଵ ൅ ‫ܩ‬ଶ ݇ܶ௘ଶ ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ‫ܩ‬ଵ ‫ܩ‬ଶ ݇‫ܤ‬ሺܶ଴ ൅ ܶ௘ଵ ൅ ீ ܶ௘ଶ) (7.17)
భ

If we make that the equivalent noise temperature of the overall system is ܶ௦௬௦ ;

Figure (7.10): Noise figure and noise temperature for (a) Cascaded system and (b) Equivalent network.

Ϯϲϰ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

ଵ
ܶ௦௬௦ ൌ ܶ௘ଵ ൅ ீ ܶ௘ଶ (7.18)
భ

Therefore, the equivalent output noise of the system becomes;

ܰ଴ ൌ ‫ܩ‬ଵ ‫ܩ‬ଶ ݇‫ܤ‬ሺܶ଴ ൅ ܶ௦௬௦ ሻ (7.19)
using Eqn. (7.13), we can convert the temperatures in Eqn. (7.18) to noise figures of the cascade
system as;
ଵ
‫ܨ‬௦௬௦ ൌ ‫ܨ‬ଵ ൅ ீ ሺ‫ܨ‬ଶ െ ͳሻ (7.20)
భ

Equations (7.18) and (7.20) show that the noise characteristics in the cascaded system are
dominated by the properties of the first stage, as the effect of the second stage is reduced by the
gain of the first stage. Thus, in order to obtain the best overall system noise performance, the first
stage must have a low noise figure and a medium gain. Efforts should be devoted primarily to the
first stage, unlike the later stages, as the subsequent stages have a diminishing effect on the overall
noise performance.
Equations (7.18) and (7.20) can be generalized for an arbitrary number of stages as;

்೐మ ்೐య ்೐ర

ܶ௦௬௦ ൌ ܶ௘ଵ ൅ ீభ
൅
ீభ ீమ
൅
ீభ ீమ ீయ
൅‫ڮ‬ (7.21)

ிమ ିଵ ி ିଵ ி ିଵ
‫ܨ‬௦௬௦ ൌ ‫ܨ‬ଵ ൅ ீభ
൅ ீయ ீ ൅ ீ రீ ൅‫ڮ‬ (7.22)
భ మ భ మ ீయ

Demonstrative Example 7.1

/HW¶V VXSSRVH D UHFHLYHU RI ILYH HOHPHQWV LV FRQQHFWHG WR DQ DQWHQQD RI HTXLYDOHQW QRLVH
temperature Tant=30 K as shown in Fig. (7.11). The gain G and equivalent noise temperature Te at
temperature T of each element are given in Table (7.3).

Figure (7.11): Receiver of 4 elements given in the demonstrative example 7.1.

Ϯϲϱ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Table (7.3): Gain and equivalent noise temperature of elements for the supposed receiver.

Line loss Preamp. Line loss IF amp.

(1) (2) (3) (4)
Gain 0.955 15.119 0.989 20
Gain dB -0.2 11.8 -0.05 13
TK 320 290 320 290
‫ ܍܂‬K 15.081 35 3.705 125
F 1.05 1.12 1.01 1.43

We calculated the noise figure F of each element using Eqn. (7.12) for amplifiers and Eqn.
  IRU ORVV\ HOHPHQWV DQG OLVWHG LQ 7DEOH   1RZ OHW¶ FRPSXWH WKH HTXLYDOHQW QRLVH
temperature of the receiver by using Eqn. (7.21) as;
்೐మ ்೐య ்೐ర
ሺܶ௘ ሻோ௫ ൌ ܶ௘ଵ ൅ ீభ
൅
ீభ ீమ
൅
ீభ ீమ ீయ

͵ͷ ͵Ǥ͹Ͳͷ ͳʹͷ
ሺܶ௘ ሻோ௫ ൌ ͳͷǤͲͺͳ ൅ ൅ ൅
ͲǤͻͷͷ ሺͲǤͻͷͷሻሺͳͷǤͳͳͻሻ ሺͲǤͻͷͷሻሺͳͷǤͳͳͻሻሺͲǤͻͺͻሻ
ሺܶ௘ ሻோ௫ ൌ ͳͷǤͲͺͳ ൅ ͵͸Ǥ͸ͷ ൅ ͲǤͳͷͶ ൅ ͷǤʹ͹ ൌ ͷ͹Ǥͳͷͷ K

The equivalent noise temperature of the system is;

Tsys = Tant + (Te)Rx = 30 + 57.155 = 87.155 K

7.6.4 Receiver Noise (NRx)

A typical number of the noise figure F for a low-cost receiver would be about 20 (or 13 dB).
This number must be added to the theoretical thermal noise in Eqn. (7.11) to determine the real
receiver noise floor.
The total noise floor of the receiver NRx is defined (in decibels) as;

NRx = N + F (7.23)
where,
N: Thermal noise generated at the receiver in dBm.
F: Noise figure of the receiver in dB and always ൒ ͲdB.
Ϯϲϲ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

7.6.5 Equation of Receiver Sensitivity

The important step in calculating the link budget is determining the required power signal at
the receiver input compared with the receiver sensitivity (SRx). The receiver sensitivity can be
defied as;
ܵோ௫ ൌ ܰோ௫ ൅ ܴܵܰ (7.24)
where,
ܰோ௫ represents the total noise floor (in dBm), while SNR is the required signal to noise ratio at the
receiver output (in dB), such that:
ா ோ್
ܴܵܰ ൌ ே್ ൈ (7.25)
బ ஻
ா್
represents the energy bit to noise spectral density ratio, ܴ௕ is the data rate (bits/sec.) and B is
ேబ

the system bandwidth (in Hz). Thus, for example, the 8PSK modulation of bit rate (ܴ௕ = 60 Kbits/s)
dictates the bandwidth of typically about B = 40 kHz (see Table (7.2)), and the generated thermal
noise power is;
N = 1.38 x 10-23 Watt/K/Hz x 290 K x 40,000 Hz = 1.2 x 10-13 mW
N (in dB) = -129 dBm
Hence the total noise floor according to Eqn. (7.23), NRx = -129 dBm + 13 dB = -116 dBm. From
ா
Fig. (7.8), the value of BER equal 10-6 BER gives 14 dB of ே್ (or 25 in linear scale), therefore the
బ

value of SNR according to Eqn. (7.25) becomes;

ா ோ ଺଴଴଴଴
ܴܵܰ ൌ ே್ ൈ ஻ ൌ ʹͷ ൈ ସ଴଴଴଴ ൌ ͵͹Ǥͷ or SNR=15.7 dB.
బ

Now we can find the receiver sensitivity according to Eqn. (7.24) as;
ܵோ௫ ൌ ܰோ௫ ൅ ܴܵܰ ൌ െͳͳ͸݀‫ ݉ܤ‬൅ ͳͷǤ͹݀‫ ܤ‬ൌ െͳͲͲǤ͵݀‫݉ܤ‬

7.6 Link Budget

The link budget can be defined as, a calculation involving the gain and loss factors associated
with the antennas, transmitters, transmission lines and propagation environment, to determine the
maximum distance at which a transmitter and receiver can successfully operate. We can say that,
the link budget is a way of quantifying the link performance. It includes analysis of all losses and
gains in a transmission system (from the transmitter through the medium to the receiver).

Ϯϲϳ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Figure (7.12): Elements of a radio link.

7.7.1 Calculations of Link Budget

The basic elements of a RF link described in Fig. (7.12) are;
1. Transmitting side; Transmitting power, cable loss, antenna gain.
2. Propagating side; free space medium.
3. Receiving side; Antenna gain, cable loss, receiver sensitivity.

According to above, the link equation which is called Friis equation, can be defined in term
of the received signal power PRx as [14];
PRx = PTx ± LTx + GTx ± LRx + GRx ± FSL (7.26)
where,
PTx : output power of the transmitter (dBm).
LTx, LRx : Losses of cables, connectors, branching unit at the transmitting side and receiving side
respectively (in dB).
GTx and GRx : gain of transmitting or receiving antenna (dBi)
FSL = free space loss (dB) or;
Ͷߨ݂݀
‫ ܵܮܨ‬ൌ ʹͲ Ž‘‰ ሺ ሻሺ͹Ǥʹ͹ሻ
͵ ൈ ͳͲ଼
where d is the distance between the transmitting and receiving sides and f is the operating
frequency.
Sometime Eqn. (7.26) is expressed as,

Ϯϲϴ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

7RFODULI\WKHFRQFHSWRIOLQNEXGJHWOHW¶VHVWLPDWHWKHIHDVLELOLW\RIDNPOLQNZLWKRQH
access point and one client radio, when the cables in both systems are short, with a loss of 2dB at
each side at the 2.4 GHz frequency of operation taking into consideration the fade margin is about
20 dB.
1. Forward link (Access point to client link)
The access point is connected to an antenna with 10 dBi gain, with a transmitting power of 20
dBm and a receive sensitivity of -98 dBm as shown in Fig. (7.14). Link budget is calculated for
forward link (Access Point (AP) to Client link) as follows;
+20 dBm (TX Power AP)
- 2 dB (Tx Cable Losses AP)
+ 10 dBi (Tx Antenna Gain AP)
-114 dB (free space loss for 5 km)
+ 14 dBi (Rx Antenna Gain Client)
- 2 dB (Rx Cable Losses Client)
- 20 dB (Fade margin)
__________________________________
+44 dB Total Gain
-138 dB Total Losses
_____________________________________
-94 dBm (expected received signal power PRx)
-98 dBm (receiver sensitivity of Client SRx)
_______________________________________
+ 4 dB = Link Margin (LM) = PRx - SRx , therefore the forward link is feasible.

Figure (7.14): Power signal levels for forward link (Access point to client link).

ϮϳϬ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

2. Backward link (Client to access point link)

The client is connected to an antenna with 14 dBi gain, with a transmitting power of 15 dBm
and a receive sensitivity of -89 dBm as illustrated in Fig. (7.15). Link budget is calculated for
forward link (Access Point (AP) to Client link) as follows;

+15 dBm (TX Power Client)

- 2 dB (Tx Cable Losses Client)
+ 14 dBi (Tx Antenna Gain Client)
-114 dB (free space loss for 5 km)
+ 10 dBi (Rx Antenna Gain AP)
- 2 dB (Rx Cable Losses AP)
- 20 dB (fade margin)
____________________________________
+39 dB Total Gain
-138 dB Total Losses
_____________________________________
-99 dBm (expected received signal level PRx)
-89 dBm (receiver sensitivity of Client SRx)
________________________________
-10 dB = Link Margin (LM) = PRx- SRx ,

Figure (7.15): Power signal levels for backward link (Client to access point link).

Ϯϳϭ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Therefore, the backward link is not feasible, because the expected received power is less than receiver
sensitivity, and hence it is needed to repeat the budget calculation by increasing the transmitted power PTx
by an increment greater than 10 dB.

7.7.3 Calculation of Carrier to Noise Ratio (CNR)

In telecommunications, the carrier-to-noise ratio, often written CNR or C/N, is the signal-
to-noise ratio SNR of a modulated signal. The term is used to distinguish the CNR of the radio
frequency passband signal from the SNR of an analog baseband message signal
after demodulation, for example an audio frequency analog message signal. Therefore, the term
carrier-to-noise-ratio CNR, instead of signal-to-noise-ratio SNR, is preferred to express the signal
quality when the signal has been digitally modulated. High C/N ratios provide good quality of
reception, for example low bit error ratio BER of a digital message signal, or high SNR of an
analog message signal.
The carrier-to-noise ratio is defined as the ratio of the received modulated carrier
signal power C to the received noise power N after the receiver filters as [15];
஼
‫ ܴܰܥ‬ൌ (7.33)
ே

Substituting Eqns. (7.11) and (7.30) into (7.33) yields;

஼ ௉ೃೣ
‫ ܴܰܥ‬ൌ ൌ (7.34)
ே ௞்ೞ೤ೞ ஻
Thus, CNR is defined in decibel as;

‫ܴܰܥ‬ሺ݀‫ܤ‬ሻ ൌ ܲோ௫ െ ͳͲ݈‫݃݋‬ଵ଴ ሺ݇ܶ௦௬௦ ‫)ܤ‬ (7.35)

Where,

PRx: Received power level in dBw

Tsys: System noise temperatures of the receiver which consists of noise temperature of the
receiving antenna Tant, and the noise temperature of the receiver such that;

ܶ௦௬௦ ൌ ܶ௔௡௧ ൅ ܶோ௫ (7.36)

Now, we can formulate the signal to noise ratio (in decibel) by;

ϮϳϮ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

C/N = CNR = EIRP ± L + GRx ± 10 log (k) ± 10 log (Tsys) ± 10 log (B) (7.37)

Where; L represents the transmission losses that include free space loss and the cable losses at the
receiver and other losses.

Figure of Merit G/T

The difference, G ± 10 log (T), is called figure of merit (G/T) at the receiver, thus Eqn.
(7.26) becomes;
C/N = EIRP - L+ G/T ± 10 log (k) ± 10 log (B) (7.38)

Therefore, G/T represents a figure of merit in the characterization of antenna performance,

where G is the antenna gain in decibels at the receive frequency, and T is the equivalent noise
temperature of the receiving system in kelvins. The receiving system noise temperature is given in
Eqn. (7.36) and represents the summation of the antenna noise temperature and the RF chain noise
temperature from the antenna terminals to the receiver output.
Now if we add (10 log kB) to both sides of Eqn. (7.38), yields;

C/T = EIRP - L + G/T (7.39)

The interpretation of equation (7. 39) is that a given C/T required by a certain type of carrier
and quality of service, can be obtained for different combinations of EIRP and G/T. EIRP
represents the resource usage and finally is reflected in the operating costs because higher satellite
EIRP means higher operating costs. On the other hand the G/T represents the capital expenditure,
because higher G/T means larger antenna and/or better LNA, reflected in the cost of the equipment.

Therefore, Eqn. (7.28) becomes:

C/N = C/T ± 10 log (k B) (7.40)

Carrier-to-noise power spectral density ratio (C/No)

Because the receiver bandwidth (B) is often dependent on the modulation format, therefore,
we can isolate the link power parameters by normalizing out the bandwidth dependence. The new
relation is known as Carrier-to-Noise Power spectral Density ratio (C/No) and Eqn. (7.38)
becomes;

Ϯϳϯ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

஼ ௖ሺௐ௔௧௧ሻ
ேబ
ሺ݅݊‫ݖܪ‬ሻ ൌ ே ൌ EIRP - L + G/T ± 10 log (k) (7.41)
೚ ሺௐ௔௧௧Ȁு௭ሻ

Where No=N/B represents the noise power spectral density (watt per hertz).

Note that in some cases the Earth station G/T could be improved by using a better LNA. For
example, an Earth station with a receive gain of 53 dBi, antenna noise of 25°K at C-band, feeder
noise temperature of 5°K and LNA noise temperature of 80°K would have:

G/T = GRx.ant - 10 log (Tant + Tfeed + TLNA)

G/T = 53 -10 log (25 + 5 + 80) = 32.6 dB/°K

This antenna would be classified as a standard B antenna. Removing the LNA and replacing it
with LNA of 30°K, the G/T is:

G/T = 53 ± 10 log (25 + 5 + 30) = 35.2 dB/°K

This reclassifies the antenna as a standard A. For elevation angles below 25°, the antenna noise
would increase and the overall G/T would be too low for standard A.

Ϯϳϰ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

References
[1] Pablo Angueira , Juan Antonio Romo, Microwave Line of Sight Link Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2012,
ISBN:9781118072738.

[2] Cover, Thomas M.; Thomas, Joy A., Chapter 7: Channel Capacity". Elements of Information Theory (2nded.).
Wiley-Interscience. pp. 206±207, 2006, ISBN 978-0-471-24195-9.

[3] Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet, RF and Microwave Applications and Systems, CRC Press. pp. 1.9±1.11. , 2007,
ISBN 978-1420006711.

[4] "Fresnel Zone Clearance" Softwright.com. Retrieved 2008-02-21.

[5] Coleman, Westcott, David, Certified Wireless Network Administrator Official Study Guide. 111 River St.
Hoboken, NJ 07030: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 126. , 2012, ISBN 978-1-118-26295-5.

[6] Bullington, Kenneth, "Radio Propagation for Vehicular Communications", IEEE Transactions on Vehicular
Technology, November 1977.

[7] Roelofs, Stan, Fade Margin Requirements for Microwave System, Microwave Reference Guide, 1986, Motorola.

[8] "Digital Radio Path Fade Margin Calculations", p.32, MDR-2000 Series Product Description, Rockwell
International.

[9] John Proakis, Massoud Salehi, Digital Communications, McGraw-Hill Education, Nov 6, 2007.

[10] Important Notes about Link Design: https://www.racom.eu/eng/products/m/ray/calcul.html.

[11] John R. Barry; Edward A. Lee; David G. Messerschmitt, Digital Communications, Sprinter. p. 69. , 2004,
ISBN 9780792375487,

[12] Van der Ziel, Aldert, Noise Sources, Characterization, Measurement, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1970.

[13] Pozar, D. M., Microwave Engineering. , p.237, New York: Wiley, 2005.

[14] Friis, H.T. (May 1946). "A Note on a Simple Transmission Formula". IRE Proc.: 254±256.

[15] Islam, A. K. M. Najmul; Lohan, E. S.; Renfors, M. (Mar 2008). "Moment based CNR estimators for BOC/BPSK
modulated signal for Galileo/GPS". 2008 5th Workshop on Positioning, Navigation and Communication. pp. 129±
136. doi:10.1109/WPNC.2008.4510366. ISBN 978-1-4244-1798-8.

Ϯϳϱ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Solved Problems

Problem 7.1

Calculate the Fresnel zone clearance K that has been taken into consideration in the figure below,
where the antenna height is 7 m and the height of truck is 5 m and the radius of Fresnel zone at
maximum location is 2.8 m. Is this microwave link verified to be a good one?

Solution
௛ೌ೙೟ ି௛೚್ೞ೟ ଻ିହ
From eqn. (7.4), ‫ ܭ‬ൌ ௥೘ೌೣǤ
ൌ ൌ ͲǤ͹ͳͶ
ଶǤ଼

Therefore, K greater than 0.6 and hence the microwave link is considered to be good one.

Problem 7.2

The radius of Fresnel zone at maximum location ‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ equal to 5.7 m for the microwave link shown
in figure below and the distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas is 3 km. what is
the appropriate operating frequency of this link.

Solution

ௗ
From Eqn. (7.2) ‫ݎ‬௠௔௫Ǥ ൌ ͺǤ͸͸ ൈ ට௙

ଷ௞௠
5.7 mൌ ͺǤ͸͸ ൈ ට ௙
՜ ݂ ൎ ͹ œǤ

Ϯϳϲ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Problem 7.3

What level of input signal, Sin, is required for an output Sout/Nout = 10 dB in a receiver with a noise
figure F= 6 dB, and B=0.1 MHz?

Solution
The noise power generated at the input of the receiver is
Nin(dBm) = KT0 (dBm/MHz) + 10 Log B(MHz) = -114 -10 = -124 dBm
Therefore, the noise level floor in addition to receiver noise figure is;
Ntotal (dBm) = F(dB) + Nin = 6 -124 dBm = -118 dBm.
For a desired Sout/Nout of 10 dB, Sin must be at least: Sin = -118 dBm +10 dB = -108 dBm

Problem 7.4
Calculate the receiver G/T (dB/K) of a satellite having antenna gain 41.33 and noise temperature
25 K, an increase in antenna noise due to rain =0 K, and LNA noise temperature = 50 K.

Solution:
System noise temperature = antenna noise temperature + increase in antenna noise due to rain +
LNA noise temperature
= 25 + 0 + 50 = 75
Receiver G/T (dB/K) = Receiver Antenna gain -10 log (system noise temperature)
= 41.33-10 log (75)
=22.579 (dB/K)

Problem 7.5
A microwave link works at frequency of 12 GHz frequency and has the following parameters:
free space loss = 206 dB, antenna pointing loss = 1 dB, atmospheric absorption = 2 dB, receiver
G/T = 19.5 dB/K, receiver feeder loss = 1 dB and EIRP = 48 dB W. Calculate C/N0 where
%ROW]PDQQ¶VFRQVWDQt k = 1.38x10-23 J/K = -228.6 dB.

Ϯϳϳ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Solution
Using Eqn. (7.41), then;
C/N0 = -206 - 1 - 2 + 19.5 - 1 + 48 + 228.6 = 86.1 dB.Hz (dB for noise of 1 Hz.)

Problem 7.6
Calculate down link C/No (dB.Hz) for the satellite operating EIRP = -6.23 dBW, downlink path
loss =195.74 dB, down link rain attenuation = 0 dB, receiving antenna pointing loss = 0.70 dB,
and receiver G/T =22.58 dB/K, where %ROW]PDQQ¶VFRQVWDQWN [-23 J/K = -228.6 dB.

Solution:
Down link C/No (dB Hz) = Satellite operating EIRP - Downlink path loss - Down link rain
attenuation - Receiving antenna pointing loss + Receiver G/T + 228.6.
= -6.23 - 195.74 - 0 - 0.70 + 22.58 - (-228.6)
= 48.51 dB.Hz

Problem 7.7
Find the link margin for the satellite over all downlink (C/No) = 48.32 dB, input data rate = 9.6
kb/s, when the Eb/No required for BER of 1/ 107 = 6.5 dB.

Solution:
ா ோ್ ா್ ஻ ஼Ȁேబ
According to Eqn. (7.25), ܴܵܰ ൌ ே್ ൈ ஻
, then; ேబ
ൌ ‫ܥ‬Ȁܰ ൈ ோ ൌ ோ್
, or;
బ ್

In decibels;

Available Eb/NO (dB)= Over all downlink (C/No) (dB) - 10log ܴ௕

= 48.32 -10 log (9.6ൈ 103) = 8.63 dB

Now,
Available link margin = Available Eb/No (dB) ± Required Eb/No (dB)
= 8.63 - 6.5 = 2 dB.

Ϯϳϴ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Problem 7.8
Calculate the power rating of ground transmitter operating at following conditions;
Transmitter EIRP: 37.97 dBW, uplink rain attenuation: 0.0 dB, up link path loss: 199.62 dB,
satellite G/T: 5.00 dB/K, where %ROW]PDQQ¶VFRQVWDQWN [-23 J/K = -228.6 dB.

Solution:
஼ ௖ሺௐ௔௧௧ሻ
According to Eqn. (7. 41), ሺ݅݊‫ݖܪ‬ሻ ൌ ൌ EIRP - L + G/T ± 10 log (k)
ேబ ே೚ ሺௐ௔௧௧Ȁு௭ሻ

C/No = 37.97 - 199.92 - 5.00 + 228.6 = 61.65 dB



Problem 7.9
Calculate the sensitivity of a receiver processing an incoherent OFSK signal of bit rate 40 kbits/s
for a BER = 10-6 if the receiver noise figure F = 15 dB. The characteristic of required Eb/No is
shown in figure below.

Solution
/HW¶VWRFDOFXODWHWKHVLJQDOEDQGZLGWK%IRU2)6.XVLQJ7DEOH  VXFKWKDW
B=2Rb= 2ൈ ͶͲ kbits/s = 80 kHz.
Now we compute the receiver thermal noise power;
N = kTB = 1.38 ൈ 10-23 J/K ൈ 290K ൈ 80,000 s-1
N = 2.4 ൈ 10-13mW
Ϯϳϵ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

N = -126dBm
From Eqn. (7.23), the receiver noise floor;
NRx = N + F
NRx = -126 dBm + 15 dB
NRx = -111 dB
For the incoherent OFSK signal, the required E b/No equal 14.2 dB for a BER= 10-6, then;
E b/No = 14.2 dB, or 26.3. According to Eqn. (7.25);
ா್ ோ್ ସ଴଴଴଴
ܴܵܰ ൌ ൈ ൌ ʹ͸Ǥ͵ ൈ ൌ ͳ͵Ǥͳͷ ൌ -11 dB,
ேబ ஻ ଼଴଴଴଴
Now the receiver sensitivity from Eqn. (7.24);
ܵோ௫ ൌ ܰோ௫ ൅ ܴܵܰ ൌ െͳͳͳ݀‫ ݉ܤ‬൅ ͳͳ݀‫ܤ‬
ܵோ௫ ൌ -100 dBm.

Problem 7.10
What is the feasibility of a radio link operating at frequency of 900 MHz and having the followings;
Transmitted power: -24 dBm, GTx = GRx = 1 (or 0 dB), Distance between Tx and Rx = 5 meters,
Fade margin = 20 dB, and the receiver sensitivity ܵோ௫ ൌ -100 dBm and neglecting cable losses..

Solution
)LUVWO\OHW¶VFRPSXWHWKHIUHHVSDFHORVVIURP(TQ  
ସగௗ௙
‫ ܵܮܨ‬ൌ ʹͲ Ž‘‰ ሺ ሻ
ଷൈଵ଴ఴ
ସగൈହൈଽൈଵ଴ͺ
‫ ܵܮܨ‬ൌ ʹͲ Ž‘‰ ቀ ቁ ൌ Ͷ͸݀‫ܤ‬
ଷൈଵ଴ఴ

According to Eqn. (7.20), the expected received power is,

PRx = PTx ± LTx + GTx ± LRx + GRx ± FSL ± FM
PRx = -24 dBm - 0 dB + 0 dB ± 0 dB + 0 dB ± 46 dB ± 20 dB
PRx = -90 dBm
Since the expected received power PRx (-90 dBm) greater than receiver sensitivity (-100 dBm),
hence the link is feasible and there is a link margin of 10 dB.

ϮϴϬ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi


Basics of Microwave Communications Chapter 7: Microwave Link Analysis and Design

Problem 7.11
A wireless receiver front-end consists of an antenna and a receiver ܴ௫ . The receiver consists of a
low noise amplifier, RF filter and mixer as illustrated in figure below.

1. Compute the overall noise figure of the receiver.

2. If the input noise power from a feeding antenna is N= k Tant B, where Tant:150 K, find the
output noise power in dBm, assume the system is at temperature T0 , with a characteristic
impedance of 50 ohms and an IF bandwidth of 10 MHz.
3. If we require a minimum signal-to-noise of 20 dB at the output of the receiver, what is the
minimum signal power that can be applied at the receiver input?
Solution
1. From the figure,
‫ܩ‬௅ே஺ ൌ ͳͲ݀‫ ܤ‬ൌ ͳͲ, ‫ܨ‬௅ே஺ ൌ ʹ݀‫ ܤ‬ൌ ͳǤͷͺ ,
ଵ ൫௅೑ ିଵ൯்
‫ܮ‬௙ ൌ ͳ݀‫ ܤ‬ൌ ͳǤʹ͸, ‫ܩ‬௙ ൌ ൌ ͲǤ͹ͻ, ‫ܨ‬௙ ൌ ͳ ൅ ൌ ‫ܮ‬௙ ൌ ͳǤʹǡ (T=T0)
௅೑ ்బ
ଵ
‫ܩ‬௠ ൌ ௅೘
ൌ ͲǤͷ, ‫ܨ‬௠ ൌ ʹǤͷͳ
Using Eqn. (7.22), the overall noise figure of the receiver;
ி೑ ିଵ ி೘ ିଵ ሺଵǤଶିଵሻ ሺଶǤହଵିଵሻ
‫ܨ‬ோೣ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௅ே஺ ൅ ൅ ൌ ͳǤͷͺ ൅ ൅ ൌ ͳǤͺ ൌ ʹǤͷͷ݀‫ܤ‬
ீಽಿಲ ீಽಿಲ ீ೑ ଵ଴ ሺଵ଴ሻሺ଴Ǥ଻ଽሻ

2. The equivalent noise temperature of the receiver is;

ܶ௘ ൌ ൫‫ ݔܴܨ‬െ ͳ൯ܶ଴ ൌ ሺͳǤͺ െ ͳሻሺʹͻͲሻ ൌ ʹ͵ʹ‫ܭ‬
The overall gain of the receiver is G = (10) (0.79) (0.5) = 3.95. Then we can find the output noise
power as;
ܰ଴ ൌ ݇ሺܶ௔௡௧ +ܶ௘ ሻ‫ ܩܤ‬ൌ(1.38ൈ ͳͲିଶଷ ሻሺͳͷͲ ൅ ʹ͵ʹሻሺͳͲ ൈ ͳͲ଺ ሻሺ͵Ǥͻͷሻ ൌ ʹǤͲͺ ൈ ͳͲିଵଷ ܹ ൌ െͻ͸Ǥͺ݀‫݉ܤ‬.

ௌ
3. For an output SNRൌ ே೚ ൌ 20 dB = 100, the input signal power must be;
೚

ܵ௢ ܵ௢ ܰ௢ ʹǤͲͺ ൈ ͳͲିଵଷ
ܵ௜ ൌ ൌ ൈ ൌ ͳͲͲ ൈ ൌ ͷǤʹ͹ ൈ ͳͲିଵଶ ܹ ൌ െͺʹǤͺ݀‫݉ܤ‬Ǥ
‫ܰ ܩ‬௢ ‫ܩ‬ ͵Ǥͻͷ
Ϯϴϭ
Prof. Dr. Asaad Al-Hindawi



View publication stats