EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

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 Evaporation
conversion of water from a liquid into a gas

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 General Definitions
• Evaporation: Process by which water in the liquid or
solid phase at or near the earth’s surface becomes
atmospheric water vapor.

1. Evaporation of liquid water from rivers and lakes, soil,

vegetation surfaces (Physical Process)
2. Transpiration from within the leaves of plants and trees
(Biological Process)
3. Sublimation from ice and snow surfaces (Physical Process)

• Evapotranspiration is the collective term for all

evaporation and transpiration processes in a region
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SUBLIMATION

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 Sources of Evaporation Water
1. Ocean
2. Continental waters

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Importance of Evapotranspiration
• Since a vast portion of precipitated water is lost
through evapotranspiration, an understanding of this
process is important in planning, development and
management of water resources projects
P- ET = Water available for human use
• Evapotranspiration prediction is prerequisite for:
– design of surface and shallow groundwater reservoirs
– Efficient irrigation system (should only provide deficit of
precipitation)
– Understanding relationship b/w Ecosystem and
Evapotranspiration in response to climate change
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 Physics of Evaporation
• Driving force: Solar Radiation
provides energy to the
molecules of liquid water near
the surface
• Solar energy increase in the
vibratory kinetic energy of the
water molecules
• When amplitude of vibration
overcomes the forces of
molecular attraction, water
molecule escape from the
liquid mass and enters the air
immediately above the surface
• In the absence of solar
radiation, energy is provided
by surrounding water or air.
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Latent Heat of Vaporization L(cal/kg)
• Amount of energy required for evaporation of 1 kg of
water
– Required energy decrease as temperature of evaporating
water increases
– Energy utilized in the process of evaporation is later
released in the process of condensation

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 Evaporation a diffusive process-
• Water vapor moves from portion of air mass with high
vapor pressure to portion of air with low vapor pressure
• Result is a transport of water vapor from portions of air
just above the evaporating surface, to upper atmosphere
of dryer air
• Evaporation Rate α Vapor Pressure Gradient (e2 – e1/∆z)

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 Saturated Vapor Pressure (es)
• Maximum number of molecules held by the air
• Saturation vapor pressure is function of air
temperature
• Warmer air has high vapor pressure than cold air

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 Relative Humidity (r)
• Ratio of actual air vapor pressure to saturated vapor
pressure

• Relative humidity is expressed in percentage

• r > 80% indicates humid conditions under which
evaporation rate is expected to be low
• r < 60% indicates dry conditions under which
evaporation rate is expected to be high
• Relative humidity is measured with a psychrometer

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 Psychrometer

• Wet bulb depression = ta- tw

• Relative Humidity function of Wet bulb depression

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During a day the mean water surface temperature is
15oC and the mean air temperature is 20oC. If relative
humidity of air is 65%, Calculate es and ea.
Solution:
es at Tw
ea = r. es(Ta)
es = 12.8 mmHg
ea = 0.65 x 17.5
= 11.375 mmHg

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 Factors Affecting Evaporation

• Solar radiation
• Wind
• Relative Humidity
• Temperature

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Solar Radiation

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Wind

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Relative Humidity

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Temperature

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 Dalton’s Law

E = evaporation rate (mm/day)

es = saturated vapor pressure at the water surface
temperature
ea = vapor pressure at a fixed distance above the
evaporating surface
u = horizontal wind speed
f(u) = function of wind speed and other factors

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 Mass Transfer Method
Harbeck Mass Transfer Equation: Empirical
Equation
• Mass transfer equation based on a study conducted
on 20 reservoirs , each with area up to 120 km2

E = evaporation rate (mm/day)

A = lake surface area (km2)
k = mass transfer coefficient, 0.054
es = saturated vapor pressure at the water surface temperature (mmHg)
ea = vapor pressure at a point 2m above the evaporating surface (mmHg)
W = wind speed at a point 2m above the evaporating surface (km/hour)
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 Mass Transfer Method
Requirements to apply Harbeck Mass Transfer
Equation
1. Anemometer – 2m above the lake surface to
measure the wind speed
2. Psychrometer - 2m above the lake surface to
measure the relative humidity
3. Themometers – to measure air and surface water
temperature

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A lake has a surface area of 45.6 Km2. During a day the mean
water surface temperature is 15oC, the mean air temperature is
20oC and the mean wind speed at 2.0 m above the surface of
lake is 9.8 Km/hour. If relative humidity of air is 65%, Calculate:
1. evaporation rate.
2. Total volume of water lost.
Solution:
es = 12.8 mmHg
ea = 11.375 mmHg
E = 0.623 mm/day
V = 28408 m3/day

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Lake Evaporation by Meyer’s Method

E = evaporation rate (mm/day)

C = 0.36 for lakes, 0.5 for wet soils
W = Wind speed at point 7.6 m above lake surface (Km/hour)
es = saturated vapor pressure at the water surface temperature (mmHg)
ea = vapor pressure at a point 7.6m above the evaporating surface
(mmHg)
𝟐
𝟐 𝟏
𝟏
W(z 1) = Wind speed at elevation 1
W(z 2) = Wind speed at elevation 2
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A lake has a surface area of 45.6 Km2. During a day the mean water surface
temperature is 15oC, the mean air temperature is 20oC and the mean wind
speed at 2.0 m above the surface of lake is 9.8Km/hour. If relative humidity of
air is 65%, Calculate:
1. evaporation rate
2. Total volume of water lost
Solution:
W(7.6) = 28.62 km/hour
E = 1.42 mm/day
V = 65002 m3/day

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 Measurement of Evaporation
Evaporation Pan
– Galvanized iron cylinder container
– 120cm in diameter and 25cm in depth
– Mounted on a wooden frame about 10cm above the
ground to allow for air circulation
– Pan is filled with water to fixed depth of 20cm
– Water surface is measured daily by a hook gage
– Evaporation is computed as difference in the observed
water level

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Evaporation Pan

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Water Balance for Pan Evaporation

P = total precipitation in one day (mm/day)

Q = Water added to a fixed level (mm/day)
Ep = Pan Evaporation rate (mm/day)
= measured change in water level in one day

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 Water Balance for Pan Evaporation
Evaporation rate measured by Pan is usually higher than
that of a nearby lake or reservoir, thus

E = Lake Evaporation rate (mm/day)

K = Pan coefficient varies between 0.6 and 0.8 with average 0.7
Ep = Pan Evaporation rate (mm/day)

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• An observer measured an increase of 21.3mm in the
level of pan w.r.t. level recorded the day before. If
during the same day, she added 20.2mm of water to
restore the lost water, rain gage registered 5.0mm of
rainfall, estimate pan and lake evaporation rate.
• Solution:
• Ep = 3.9mm/day
• Ea = 2.73 mm/day

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An observer measured a decrease of 2.9mm in the level of pan wrt
level recorded the day before. No water was added to the pan and
there was no rainfall, estimate pan and lake evaporation rate.
Ep = 2.9 mm/day
Ea = 2.03 mm/day

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Improvement in Lake Evaporation

Ts – Maximum lake surface temperature (Celsius)

Tp – Maximum pan surface temperature (Celsius)
Ta – Maximum air temperature 4m above the lake surface
(Celsius)
es(Ts) = saturated vapor pressure at lake surface temp (mmHg)
Es(Tp) = saturated vapor pressure at pan surface temp (mmHg)
Ea(Ta) = vapor pressure at air temp (mmHg)
K’ = 1.5

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Calculate the lake evaporation based on following data:
Lake’s Surface Temperature: Ts = 20 oC,
Pan’s Surface Temperature: Tp = 25 oC,
Air Temp at 4m above pan: Ta = 23 oC,
Relative Humidity: r = 75%,
K’ = 1.5,
Observed decrease in water level of Pan = 4.8 mm/day
Precipitation = Nil
Water added Manually = Nil
Solution:
es (20 oC) = 17.5 mmHg
es (23 oC) = 21.1 mmHg
es (25 oC) = 23.8 mmHg

E = 1.51 mm/day
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 Water Balance Technique

• Requires an inventory of all streams entering and

leaving the lake
• Measurement of precipitation in a nearby gage and
estimate of net groundwater contribution is also
necessary
• Accuracy is a function of various variables involved
• For annual calculations, an error of 10% - 20% is
normal
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A flood control reservoir has A = 18Km2. average inflow
rate = 45m3/sec, controlled outflow rate is 12.5m3/sec.
during the same day, lake stage increased by 15cm.
Estimate the evaporation rate.
Solution:
6mm/day

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 Energy Budget Techniques
Energy Budget Equation
Qn - Qe + Qh + Qv = ∆Q / ∆t
Where,
Qn = Net Radiation (Shortwave and longwave) (cal/m2 .day)
Qe = Energy used in evaporation (cal/m2 .day)
Qh = Energy loss as sensible heat (cal/m2 .day)
(Due to difference in temperature of water and atmosphere)
Qv = Energy of water entering into or out of the lake (cal/m2 .day)
∆Q = Change in lake energy
∆t = Period of analysis
• Accuracy – Less than 10% of error
• Special instrument (Radiometer) and detailed measurement of all
streams, lakes and groundwater surrounding the lake is required

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Energy Budget Techniques

Net Radiometer
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 Qin

Qh

Qe
𝒗 𝒗

∆Q

Qn - Qe + Qh + Qv = ∆Q / ∆t
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 Energy of water entering into or out of the lake (cal/day)

N = no. of components

γ = Psychromatric
−
constant (partial pressure of water in air to the air temperature) =
1

E = evaporation rate (mm/day)

ρ = density of water (1000 Kg/𝑚 )
L = latent heat of evaporation = 2.39x105(2.50 – 2.36 x 10-3 Ts) (Cal /kg)
𝑚𝑚
𝐶 = 1000 , 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑚
B = Bowen ratio
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Using radiometers, it has been observed that net radiations entering in a lake
(incoming minus reflected, short and long wave) was about during
one day. The surface water temperature in that day was 13 °C, the air temperature
above the lake was 9°C, the relative humidity 85% and atmospheric pressure of 740
mmHg. There was no appreciable change in water temperature of the lake and no
precipitation was recorded. However there is a river water flowing into the lake with
an average flow rate of 0.5 m3/sec. the river water temperature is 11 °C. the lake has
an average surface area of 3.8 Km2.
• Estimate the evaporation rate in mm/day
• B = 0.502
• Qv = 125052 cal /m2.day
• L = 590167 cal/kg
• E = 5.789 mm/day

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 Transpiration
• Osmosis in roots
• Capillary rise in stem
and leaves
• Water escapes through
stomatal orifices of
leaves surface, available
for evaporation
• Also a major
contributor of moisture
from soil to atmosphere

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 Transpiration
• Transpiration is a distinct function of
– Season
– Type of vegetation (plant species)
– Density of vegetation
– Root system depth
– Precipitation
• In humid areas, stomata open during day and close
during the night
• In dry areas, stomata open during night and close
during the day

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 Transpiration
• Transpiration rate is minimal during winter and
maximum during summer
• Transpiration for a specific plant, specie, at a given
stage of development can be estimated
• Transpiration prediction of small agricultural fields
• Alternatively, hydrologists combined evaporation and
transpiration in a single function Evapotranspiration
(ET)

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EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

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 General Definitions
Evapotranspiration (ET):
“Combined function that includes evaporation from
soil, water surfaces and transpiration from
vegetation.”
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET/ETp):
“Evepotranspiration from a reference crop (e.g.
Alphalpha 30-50cm in height or green grass 8-15cm)
with unrestricted availability of water.”
• For crop growing with full effective cover and no
limitation of moisture availability.
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 General Definitions
Maximum Evapotranspiration (ETm):
“Maximum evapotranspiration referring to the crop
other than reference crop” such as wheat, cotton etc.
ETm = ETp x Kco
ETm = Max. ET for a given crop
ETp = Potential evapotranspiration of a reference crop
Kco = Seasonal crop coefficient
Actual Evapotranspiration (ETa):
• Influenced by crop growth stage and soil moisture stress
Eta = ETm x Ks

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 General Definitions
Consumptive Use (CU):
“Water required to meet demand of
evapotranspiration and metabolic activities of the
crop together.”
• Only smaller percentage of water is retained by plants and
roots (1-2%)
• Maximum water is lost through evapotranspiration so
practically CU = ETm
Water Requirement (WR):
“Quantity of water required to meet demand of CU
excluding precipitation.”
WR = CU -precipitation

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 Evapotranspiration Assessment
Techniques
1. Evapotranspiration from water balance technique
Direct measurement by Lysimeter
2. Temperature models of evapotranspiration
 The Blaney and Criddle Method
 The Thornthwaite method
3. The Penman Method

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Lysimeter
Evapotranspiration
Lysimeter
 Temperature Models of
Evapotranspiration

• Air temperature is directly related to

meteorological factors
• Easily measurable
• Most of empirical methods are developed on
temperature and evapotranspiration relation

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 Blaney and Criddle Method

• PET (Potential Evapotranspiration (mm/day)

• Kc= Seasonal crop coefficient (mm/(day.oC))
• a,b = correction coefficients related to wind speed, r and
insolation
• p = mean daily daytime hours for a given month / total
daytime hours in the year
• Ta = mean air daily temperature (oC)

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• Estimate evapotranspiration using Blaney and Criddle method for
potatoes during the month of May for a location 40oN with the mean
daily air temperature of 22oC. Assume high insolation time, medium
relative humidity and mean wind speed of 20 Km/hour.

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 The Thornthwaite Method
ET of a month based on
– mean monthly air temperature of that month (Tam)
– Annual air temperature efficiency index (J)

PETm = monthly PET (mm/month)

Km = Latitude correction constant
K1 = 16.0 mm/month
K2 = 6.75 x 10 -7 oC-3
K3 = -7.71 x 10 -5 oC-2
K4 = 1.792 x 10 -2 oC -1
K5 = 0.49239
Tam = mean monthly air temp oC (Excluding negative values) 59
At equator, length of day and night is equal, so correction factor = 1
With increasing latitude, inequality increases as can be seen in month
of June and December
During March and September, values are approximately equal to 1

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 The Thornthwaite Method

J = annual heat index (oC)

K6 = 0.0874oC-0.514

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Mean monthly air temperatures of area located at a latitude of 35oN are
given. If the growing season of crop is from May 15 to September 15,
determine the monthly and annual ET for crop using Thornthwaite’s method.

1. Find J Month 𝒂𝒎 PET

January -15.4
2. Calculate c February -11.6
3. Find PETm for a month March 1.5
6.2
4. Find PET for whole April
May 17.1
season 26.3
June
July 29.0
August 30.7
September 14.8
October 6.3
November 2.4
December -7.4
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 Month 𝒂𝒎 𝒎

January -15.4 -
February -11.6 -
March 1.5 2.48
April 6.2 19.45
May 17.1 85.93
June 26.3 161.66
July 29.0 182.89
August 30.7 187.19
September 14.8 62.18
October 6.3 17.32
November 2.4 4.12
December -7.4 -

PET = = (85.93/2 + 161.66 + 182.89 + 187.19 + 62.18/2) = 605.79 mm

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 Combination Method of ET
The Penman Equation
Combined mass transfer and energy balance approach
Free water surface evaporation ≈ Evapotranspiration
• Mass transfer term for rough vegetated surfaces is
greater than smooth free water surfaces
• Energy component of evaporation is higher than ET
as Albedo of water is lower than vegetation (0.05 for
water, 0.25 for vegetation)

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 The Penman Equation

PET = Potential Evapotranspiration (mm/day)

= function of air temperature
En = net radiation in evaporation rate (mm/day)
Ea = mass transfer evaporation rate (mm/day)

= 1000 mm/m
En = evaporation rate from net radiation (mm/day)
Qn = net radiation (Cal/(m2.day))
ρ = density of water = 1000 kg/m3
L = latent heat of evaporation = 2.39x105(2.50 – 2.36 x 10-3 T) (Cal /kg)65
 The Penman Equation

Ea = mass transfer evaporation rate (mm/day)

r = relative humidity
c2 = 0.1733 mm/(day.mmHg)
c3 = 0.0512 mm.hour/(day.Km.mmHg)
W = Windspeed at 2m above surface (Km/hour)
es = saturated vapor pressure at surface air temperature (mmHg)

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Calculate potential evapotranspiration using Penman method on
a day having mean temperature of 20oC, r = 70%, net radiation of
5.6 x 106 cal/(m2.day) and wind speed at 2.0 m is 8.3 km/hour.

1. Calculate Latent heat of vaporization

5.86 x 105 cal/Kg
2. Calculate En
9.6 mm/day
3. Calculate Ea
3.2 mm/day
4. Find PET
7.6 mm/day

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