FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OWERRI

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING DESIGN AND
PRACTICE
COURSE CODE: ELE 101
LECTURER: ENGR DR C.K. AGUBOR MNSE

1.0 FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
The two important quantities in electrical and electronic circuits are voltage and
current.
1.2 VOLTAGE
Voltage is the energy between two points required to move a unit of positive
charge from the more negative point (lower potential) to the more positive point
(higher potential). Equivalently, it is the energy released when a unit charge moves
“downhill” from the higher potential to the lower. Voltage is also called potential
difference or electromotive force (EMF). The unit of measure is the volt, with
voltages usually expressed in volts (V), kilovolts (1 kV = 103 V), millivolts (1 mV
= 10−3 V) or microvolts (1 μV = 10−6V). A joule (J) of work is done in moving a
coulomb (C) of charge through a potential difference of 1 V. (The coulomb is the
unit of electric charge, and it equals the charge of approximately 6×10 1018
electrons.) Current (symbol I).
1.3 CURRENT
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge past a point. The unit of measure is the
ampere, or amp, with currents usually expressed in amperes (A), milliamperes (1
mA = 10−3 A), microamperes (1 μA = 10−6A), nanoamperes (1 nA = 10−9 A), or
occasionally picoamperes (1 pA =10−12 A). A current of 1 amp equals a flow of 1
coulomb of charge per second. By convention, current in a circuit is considered to
flow from a more positive point to a more negative point, even though the actual
electron flow is in the opposite direction. Important: from these definitions you can
see that currents flow through things, and voltages are applied (or appear) across
things. So you’ve got to say it right: always refer to the voltage between two points
or across two points in a circuit. Always refer to current through a device or
connection in a circuit. However, we do frequently speak of the voltage at a point
in a circuit. This is always understood to mean the voltage between that point and
“ground,” a common point in the circuit that everyone seems to know about. The
single most useful electronic instrument is the oscilloscope, which allows you to
look at voltages (or occasionally currents) in a circuit as a function of time. In real
circuits we connect things together with wires (metallic conductors), each of which
has the same voltage on it everywhere (with respect to ground). Here are some
simple rules about voltage and current:
a). The sum of the currents into a point (or node) in a circuit equals the sum of the
currents out (conservation of charge). As shown in figure 1.3 the sum of the
currents is
I T =I 1 + I 2+ I 3 1.1
This is sometimes called Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL). It follows that, for a
series circuit (a bunch of two-terminal things all connected end-to-end), the current
is the same everywhere.

V I I
Figure 1.1 voltage across a device Figure1.2 Current through a device
I1

I3

I2

IT

Figure 1.3 KCL

When multiple components are connected in parallel, the voltage drop is the same
across all components (Figure 1.4 a). When multiple components are connected in
series, the total voltage is the sum of the voltages across each component (Figure
1.4 b). These two statements can be generalized as Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL),
which states that the sum of voltages around any closed loop (e.g. starting at one
node, and ending at the same node) is zero,
V1
I¿ I out I¿ V1 V2 I out
V2

V3
(a) (b)
Figure 1.4 Voltages in (a) parallel and (b) series circuit
I ¿=I out 1.2
V T =V 1=V 2=V 3 1.3
V T =V 1 +V 2 1.4

2.1 RESISTORS
Resistors are used in virtually all electronic circuits and many electrical ones.
Resistors, as their name indicates resist the flow of electricity, and this function is
key to the operation most circuits. Resistance is one of the key factors used in
electrical and electronic circuits. Resistance is the property of materials to resist the
flow of electricity, and it is governed by Ohm's Law.
There are many types of resistors. They also have many types applications.
Resistors are used in the following:
(a) Amplifiers as loads for active devices and as feedback elements.
(b) With capacitors they establish time constants and act as filters.
(c) For setting operating currents and signal levels.
(d) In power circuits to reduce voltages by dissipating power, to measure
currents, and to discharge capacitors after power is removed.
(e) They are used in precision circuits to establish currents, to provide accurate
voltage ratios, and to set precise gain values.
(f) In high-voltage circuits to measure voltages and to equalize leakage currents
among diodes or capacitors connected in series.
(g) In radiofrequency (RF) circuits they set the bandwidth of resonant circuits,
and they are even used as coil forms for inductors.
Resistors can be in series and parallel From the definition of R, some simple results
follow:
1. The resistance of two resistors in series
RT =R1 + R2 1.5
By putting resistors in series result to a larger resistor.
2. The resistance of two resistors in parallel
1
R 1 R2
RT = OR 1 1
R 1 + R2 +
R1 R 2
1.6
By putting resistors in parallel you always get a smaller resistor. Resistance is
measured in ohms (Ω), but in practice we frequently omit the Ω symbol when
referring to resistors that are more than 1000 Ω (1 kΩ). Thus, a 4.7 kΩ resistor is
often referred to as a 4.7k resistor.
2.2 COLOUR CODE
Resistors are usually colour coded with their values and other characteristics. They
also come in different tolerances (eg ±0.1% to ±10%)
A resistor is characterised by a number of parameters:
a. Its nominal value;
b. Its tolerance or accuracy (e.g. ±5%);
c. Its power rating (i.e. maximum power that it can dissipate);
d. Its temperature coefficient (how much the resistance vary with temperature)
e. Its stability (i.e. how much it changes over time);
These characteristics are often shown on the resistor itself as a colour code. The
colour code is as shown in Figure 1.5. It has four bands, and the band colours are:
RED, GREEN, ORANGE, a gap, BROWN The first two colour bands are the first
two digits of the resistance, i.e. RED = 2, GREEN = 5. The third band in this case
is the multiplier. ORANGE = 103 or 1k. The gap is always there to separate value
bands from tolerance band. BROWN =±5%.
Resistors with high precision have an extra band to indicate a third significant
digit.
Therefore, the first three bands indicate the significant digits, the fourth band is the
multiplication factor, and the fifth band represents the tolerance.
Figure 1.5 Resistor colour code
2.3 TYPES OF RESISTORS
Resistors are one of the most widely used components in electronic circuits - there
are many different types of resistor available having different properties and used
in different ways in different circuits. The four important types of resistor are
 Linear Resistors.
 Fixed Resistors.
 Variable Resistors.
 Non-Linear Resistor.
Although many resistors will work in a variety of applications the type of resistor
can be important in some cases. Accordingly, it is necessary to know about the
different resistor types, and in which applications each type of resistor can be used .
2.4 BASIC DISTINCTION OF RESISTOR TYPES
The first major categories into which the different types of resistor can be fitted is
into whether they are fixed or variable. These different resistor types are used for
different applications:
 Fixed resistors: Fixed resistors are by far the most widely used type of
resistor. They are used in electronics circuits to set the right conditions in
a circuit. Their values are determined during the design phase of the
circuit, and they should never need to be changed to "adjust" the circuit.
There are many different types of resistor which can be used in different
circumstances and these different types of resistor are described in further
detail below.
 Variable resistors: These resistors consist of a fixed resistor element and
a slider which taps onto the main resistor element. This gives three
connections to the component: two connected to the fixed element, and
the third is the slider. In this way the component acts as a variable
potential divider if all three connections are used. It is possible to connect
to the slider and one end to provide a resistor with variable resistance.

Figure 1.6 Carbon film preset potentiometer Variable resistors

This is widely used for all forms of control:- everything from volume controls on
radios and sliders in audio mixers to a host of areas where a a variable resistance is
required. The symbol for a variable resistor is as shown:

Figure 1.7: A variable resistor

Potentiometer and variable resistor: Strictly a potentiometer is a component where
there is a fixed resistor which has a slider to provide a potential division from the
voltage at the top. A variable resistor is effectively the same, but with the slider
linked to one end of the resistor so that it provides a true variable resistance.

Fixed resistor types

There are a number of different types of fixed resistor:
 Carbon composition: The carbon composition resistor is a type of
resistor that was once very common - it was the main type of resistor, but
are now seldom used because newer forms of resistor provide better
performance, they are smaller and also cheaper.

Carbon composition resistors are formed by mixing carbon granules with

a binder which was then made into a small rod. This type of resistor was
large by today's standards and suffered from a large negative temperature
coefficient.

The resistors also suffered from large and erratic irreversible changes in
resistance as a result of heat or age. In addition to this the granular nature
of the carbon and binder lead to high levels of noise being generated
when current flowed.

 Carbon film: This type of resistor was introduced during the early days
of transistor technology when power levels tended to be lower.

These resistors are highly inductive and of little use for many RF
applications. They exhibited a temperature coefficient of between -100
and -900 parts per million per degree Celcius.
 Metal oxide film resistor: This type of resistor is now the most widely
used form of resistor. Rather than using a carbon film, this resistor type
uses a metal oxide film deposited on a ceramic rod. As with the carbon
film, the the resistance can be adjusted by cutting a helical grove in the
film. Again the film is protected using a conformal epoxy coating. This
type of resistor has a temperature coefficient of around + or - 15 parts per
million per °Celcius, giving it a far superior performance to that of any
carbon based resistor. Additionally this type of resistor can be supplied to
a much closer tolerance, 5% or even 2% being standard, with 1% versions
available. They also exhibit a much lower noise level than carbon types of
resistor, however it has mainly been superseded but he metal film resistor.

 Metal film resistor: The metal film resistor is very similar to the metal
oxide film resistor. Visually it is very similar and the performance is also
comparable. Instead of using a metal oxide film, this type of resistor uses
a metal film as the name indicates. Metals such as nickel alloy may be
used.

Leaded metal film resistorThe metal film resistor is the type that is most
widely used when a leaded resistor is needed.

 Wire wound resistor: This resistor type is generally reserved for high
power applications. These resistors are made by winding wire with a
higher than normal resistance (resistance wire) on a former.
The more expensive varieties are wound on a ceramic former and they
may be covered by a vitreous or silicone enamel. This resistor type is
suited to high powers and exhibits a high level of reliability at high
powers along with a comparatively low level of temperature coefficient,
although this will depend on a number of factors including the former,
wire used, etc. As wire wound resistors are often intended for high power
applications, some varieties are designed so that they can be mounted
onto a heatsink to ensure that the power is dissipated into metalwork so it
can be carried away.

In view of their wound nature, they are not suitable for operation above
 low frequencies, although by winding parts of the resistance wire in
different directions the inductance can be reduced somewhat.

 Surface mount resistors: Surface mount technology, SMT is now the

major format used for electronic components. They are easier to use in
automated manufacturing, and they are able to provide very high levels of
performance. SMT resistors utilise similar technologies to other forms,
but in a surface mount format.

Other types of resistor

Whilst the majority of resistors are standard fixed resistors or variable resistors,
there are other resistor types that are used in some specialized applications.
 Light dependent resistor / photoresistor: Light dependent resistors or
photoresistors change their resistance with the level of light. They are
used in a number of sensor applications and provide a very cost effective
solution in many instances.

Figure 1.7 A photoresistor

A typical light dependent resistor have a lag in the time taken to respond
to light changes, but they are cheap and easy to use.

 Thermistor: As the name indicates, thermistors are heat sensitive

resistors. The resistance of the thermistor varying with temperature. Some
have a negative temperature coefficient, NTC thermistors, whist others
have a positive temperature coefficient, PTC thermistors.
  Varistor: Varistors are available in a number of forms. Essentially these
electronic components vary their resistance with the applied voltage and
as a result they find uses for spike and surge protection. Often they may
be seen described as Movistors, which is a contraction of the
words Metal Oxide Varistor.

Figure 1.7: Varistors

Varistors are the devices that are widely used in surge or transient
protected mains extension leads and used to protect computers. It should
be remembered that each time the varistor receives a spike its properties
change slightly.
Although resistors may be thought of as simple electronics components to use,
there are a number of parameters that need to be considered when choosing the
correct resistor type. Parameters apart from just the resistance are important.
Voltage withstand, power dissipation and the actual type of resistor itself all have
an impact on the performance. With a variety of resistor types available, it is
necessary to choose the correct type for any particular application. In this way the
best performance can be assured.
2.5 CONDUCTANCE
Conductance (G) is the inverse of resistance and is given by:
1
G= 1.7
R

The current through a device of conductance G with a voltage V is then given by

I = GV (Ohm’s law) 1.8
A small resistance is a large conductance, with correspondingly large current
under the influence of an applied voltage. Viewed in this light, the formula for
parallel resistors is obvious: when several resistors or conducting paths are
connected across the same voltage, the total current is the sum of the individual
currents. Therefore the net conductance is simply the sum of the individual
conductances,
GT =G1+ G2+G 3+ … 1.9
G = G1 +G2 +G3 +···, which is the same as the formula for parallel resistors
derived earlier. Engineers are fond of defining reciprocal units, and they have
designated as the unit of conductance the siemens (S= 1/Ω), also known as the mho
(that’s ohm spelled backward, given the symbol ). Although the concept of
conductance is helpful in developing intuition, it is not used widely.
Power in resistors. The power dissipated by a resistor (or any other device) is
2
V
P = IV = I 2 R=
R
1.10
Resistance and Power When a voltage is applied across a conductor, a current will
begin to flow. The ratio between voltage and current is known as resistance. For
most metallic conductors, the relationship between voltage and current is linear.
Stated mathematically, this property is known as Ohm’s law,
V
R= I 1.11

The unit of power is the Joule per second (J/s), which is also known as a Watt (W).
Voltage and Current Sources There are two kinds of energy sources in electronic
circuits: voltage sources and current sources. When connected to an electronic
circuit, an ideal voltage source maintains a given voltage between its two terminals
by providing any amount of current necessary to do so. Similarly, an ideal current
source maintains a given current to a circuit by providing any amount of voltage
across its terminals necessary to do so. Voltage and current sources can be
independent or dependent. Their respective circuit symbols are shown in Figure
1.8. Independent sources are usually shown as a circle while dependent sources are
usually shown as a diamond-shape. Independent sources can have a DC output or a
functional output; some examples are a sine wave, square wave, impulse, and
linear ramp. Dependent sources can be used to implement a voltage or current
which is a function of some other voltage or current in the circuit. Dependent
sources are often used to model active circuits that are used for signal
amplification.

+
Vs Is Vs + Is
_
_

Figure 1.5 Circuit symbols for independent and dependent voltage and current sources

3.1 CAPACITORS
A capacitor is a device that stores energy in the form of voltage. The most common
form of capacitors is made of two parallel plates separated by a dielectric material.
Charges of opposite polarity can be deposited on the plates, resulting in a voltage
V across the capacitor plates. Capacitance is a measure of the amount of electrical
charge required to build up one unit of voltage across the plates. Stated
mathematically,
Q
C=
Vc
3.1

where Q is the number of opposing charge pairs on the capacitor. The unit of
capacitance is the Farad (F) and capacitors are commonly found ranging from a
few picofarads (pF) to hundreds of microfarads (μF). In the hydrodynamic analogy
to electronic circuits, a capacitor is equivalent to a bottle, as shown in Figure 2.4.
The voltage across the capacitor is represented by the height of fluid in the bottle.
As fluid is added to the bottle, the fluid level rises just as charges flowing onto the
capacitor plate build up the voltage. A small capacitor is a thin bottle, where
adding a small volume of fluid quickly raise the fluid level. Correspondingly, a
large capacitor is a wide bottle, where a larger volume of fluid is required to raise
the fluid level by the same distance. A circuit that has both capacitor and resistor is
known as an RC circuit, an example is as shown:
3.2 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL AND SERIES:
The capacitance of several capacitors in parallel is the sum of their individual
capacitances. This is easy to see: put voltage V across the parallel combination;
then
C total V =Qtotal=Q1 +Q2+ Q3+ … .

OR
C total V =C1 V +C2 V +C 3 V +… . = (C 1+C 2 +C3 + … .¿ V

C total=C 1+C 2 +C3 3.2

For capacitors in series, the formula is like that for resistors in parallel
1
C total=
1 1 1
+ + +… .
3.3
c 1 C 2 C3

or for two capacitors only

C1C2
C tOtal= 3.4
C1 +C 2

R
Vout

Figure: 4.1

The two main types of capacitors are fixed capacitor with constant capacitance and
variable capacitors whose capacitance can be varied. Figure 1.8 shows the symbol
of a variable capacitor.
 Figure 1.8. Symbol of variable capacitor
The most common use for capacitors are:
i) Energy storage
ii) Power conditioning
iii) Electronic noise filtering
iv) Remote sensing
v) Coupling/decoupling
vi) Pulse power
vii) Tuning
In most modern electronic devices Ceramic capacitors are mostly used. These
capacitors use a ceramic material as the insulating dielectric between the anode and
cathode plates.
4.1 INDUCTOR
An inductor is a device that stores energy in the form of current. The most
common form of inductors is a wire wound into a coil. The magnetic field
generated by the wire creates a counter-acting electric field which impedes changes
to the current. The unit of inductance is a Henry (H) and common inductors range
from nanohenries (nH) to microhenries (μH). A circuit with a resistor and inductor
is known as an RL circuit as shown in Figure 4.2

Vout
R
L

Figure 4.2 A simple RL circuit

4.2 TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device consisting of two closely coupled coils (called primary
and secondary). An ac voltage applied to the primary appears across the secondary,
with a voltage multiplication proportional to the turns ratio of the transformer, and
with a current multiplication inversely proportional to the turns ratio. Power is
conserved. Figure 4.2 shows the circuit symbol for a transformer

I1 I2

N1 N2

V1 V2

Figure 4.2 A transformer

Figure 1.53. Transformer. Transformers are quite efficient (output power is very
nearly equal to input power); thus, a step-up transformer gives higher voltage at
lower current. A transformer of turns ratio n, increases the impedance by n2. There
is very little primary current if the secondary is unloaded. The number of ampere
turns on the secondary winding N 2 resulting from the load current is balanced by
equal number of ampere turns in the primary winding N 1 .
I 1 N 1=I 2 N 2 4.1
In terms of the primary and secondary voltages:
V 2 N2 I1
= = 4.2
V 1 N1 I2

If the primary winding has resistance R1 and a load resistance of R L, then

R1= ( )
N1 2
N2
x RL 4.3
That is from equation 4.3 the resistance between the primary winding terminals is

( ) times the value of the load resistance.

2
N1
N2

Example
A resistance of 15ohms is connected to the secondary of a transformer with a step
down voltage ratio of 5:1. Compute the effective resistance which the primary
current will flow through.
Solution
N1
Ratio N =5, therefore from equation 4.3
2

2
R1=5 x 15=375 o h ms

Power transformers meant for powerlines serve two important functions in

electronic instruments: they change the ac line voltage to a useful (usually lower)
value that can be used by the circuit, and they “isolate” the electronic device from
actual connection to the powerline, because the windings of a transformer are
electrically insulated from each other. They come in an enormous variety of
secondary voltages and currents: outputs as low as 1 volt or so up to several
thousand volts, current ratings from a few milliamps to hundreds of amps. Typical
transformers for use in electronic instruments might have secondary voltages from
10 to 50 volts, with current ratings of 0.1 to 5 amps. A related class of transformers
is used in electronic power conversion, in which plenty of power is flowing, but
typically as pulse or square waveforms, and at much higher frequencies (50 kHz to
1 MHz is typical). Transformers for signals at audio frequencies and radio
frequencies are also available.
At radio frequencies you sometimes use tuned transformers if only a narrow range
of frequencies is present. There is also an interesting class of transmission-line
transformers. In general, transformers for use at high frequencies must use special
core materials or construction to minimize core losses, whereas low frequency
transformers (e.g., ac powerline transformers) are burdened instead by large and
heavy cores. The two kinds of transformers are in general not interchangeable.

5.1 GROUND
An often used and sometimes confusing term in electronic circuits is the word
ground. The ground is a circuit node to which all voltages in a circuit are
referenced. In a constant voltage supply circuit, one terminal from each voltage
supply is typically connected to ground, or is grounded. For example, the negative
terminal of a positive power supply is usually connected to ground so that any
current drawn out of the positive terminal can be put back into the negative
terminal via ground. Some circuit symbols used for ground are shown in Figure 5.1

Figure 5.1: Circuit symbols used for ground

In some circuits, there are virtual grounds, which are nodes at the same voltage as
ground, but are not connected to a power supply. When current flows into the
virtual ground, the voltage at the virtual ground may change relative to the real
ground, and the consequences of this situation must be analyzed carefully.
5.2 ELECTRONIC SIGNALS
Electronic signals are represented either by voltage or current. The time dependent
characteristics of voltage or current signals can take a number of forms including
DC, sinusoidal (also known as AC), square wave, linear ramps, and pulsewidth
modulated signals. Sinusoidal signals are perhaps the most important signal forms
since once the circuit response to sinusoidal signals are known, the result can be
generalized to predict how the circuit will respond to a much greater variety of
signals using some mathematical tools. A sinusoidal signal is specified by its
amplitude (A), angular frequency (ω), and phase (φ) as,
V t = A sin = (ω + φ ) 5.1
When working with sinusoidal signals, the mathematical manipulations often
involves computing the effects of the circuit on the amplitude and phase of the
signal, which can involve cumbersome trigonometric identities. Operations
involving sinusoidal functions can be greatly simplified using the mathematical
functions.

5.3 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS REPRESENTATION

Most electronic circuits can be represented as a system with an input and an output
as shown in Figure 5.2. The input signal is typically a voltage that is generated by a
sensor or by another circuit. The output signal is also often a voltage and is used to
power an actuator or transmit signals to another circuit. Sensor Circuit Actuator
Input Signal Output Signal

Sensor circuit actuator

Figure 5.2: Block diagram of an Electronic circuit represented as a linear system

In many instances, it is possible to model the circuit as a linear system, which can
be described by the transfer function H, such that out in
V out
H= 5.2
V¿

For DC signals, the linearity of the system implies that H is independent of Vin.
For dynamic signals, the transfer function cannot in general be described simply.
However, if the input is a sinusoidal signal then the output must also be a
sinusoidal signal with the same frequency but possibly a different amplitude and
phase. In other words, a linear system can only modify the amplitude and phase of
a sinusoidal input. .
6.1 SOURCE AND LOAD
The ideas of electrical source and load are extremely useful constructs in circuit
analysis since all electronic circuits can be modeled as a source circuit, a load
circuit, or some combination of the two. Source circuits are circuits that supply
energy while load circuits are circuits that dissipate energy. Load circuits can be
simply modeled by a single equivalent impedance, while source circuits can be
modeled as a voltage or current source plus an equivalent impedance. This section
describes the properties of practical voltage and current sources; how to represent
the output of arbitrary circuits as source circuits; and how the source and load
model of electronic circuits can be used to model circuit behavior.
6.2 PRACTICAL VOLTAGE AND CURRENT SOURCES
An ideal voltage source will maintain a given voltage across a circuit by providing
any amount of current necessary to do so; and an ideal current source will supply a
given amount of current to a circuit by providing any amount of voltage output
necessary to do so. Of course, ideal voltage sources and ideal current sources are
both impossible in practice. When a very small resistive load is connected across
an ideal voltage source, a practically infinite amount of current is required.
Correspondingly, when a large resistive load is connected across an ideal current
source, an exceedingly large voltage is required.

Rload
V out =V s 6.1
Rload + Rsource

A practical voltage source can approach an ideal voltage source by lowering its
source resistance. Therefore, ideal voltage sources are said to have zero source
resistance.
A practical voltage source is modeled as an ideal voltage source in series with a
small source resistance, as shown in Figure 6.1.

R source

R source
+
 Vs R Load Is R Load

Practical voltage source Practical current source

Figure 6.1 Practical voltage and current sources
A practical current source is modeled as an ideal current source in parallel with a
large source resistance. The output current is reduced due to the source resistance
by the current divider such that,
Rsource
I out =I s 6.2
R Load + R source

7.0 CRITICAL TERMINOLOGY

As with any engineering discipline, electrical engineering is full of its own special
words such as Buffer, bias and couple.
7.1 BUFFER
Buffer is one of those words that seem to have a different meaning in every
discipline of science and engineering. Buffer has two meanings in electroic
engineering depending if the context is analog or digital electronics. In analog
electronics, to buffer means to preserve the content of a low power signal and
convert it to a higher power signal via an amplifier. Such an amplifier is known as
Buffer Amplifier. This is a frequent operation in analog electronics since low
power signals can be more easily interfered than high power signals, but often only
low power signals are available from electronic sensors. If signals are represented
by voltage in a circuit, the power of the signal is proportional to the amount of
current drawn by the circuit. Since current draw is dependent on the impedance or
resistance of the circuit, a high impedance circuit has less power, while a low
impedance circuit has more power. The function of a buffer amplifier in this case is
to convert a high impedance circuit to a low impedance circuit.
In digital electronics, buffer refers to a mechanism in the communications link
between two devices. When there are time-lags between the transmitting device
and the receiving device, some temporary storage is necessary to store the extra
data that can accumulate. This temporary storage mechanism is known as a buffer.
For example, there is a buffer between the keyboard and the computer so that the
CPU can finish one task before accepting more input to initiate another task.
Digital video cameras have a much larger buffer to accumulate raw data from the
camera before the data can be compressed and stored in a permanent location.
7.2 BIAS
Bias refers to the DC voltage and current values in a circuit in absence of any time-
varying signals. In circuits that contain nonlinear components such as transistors
and diodes, it is usually necessary to provide a power supply with static values of
voltage and current. These static operating parameters are known as the bias
voltage and bias current of each device. When analyzing circuit response to
signals, the circuit components are typically linearized about their DC bias voltage
and current and the input signals are considered as linear perturbations or
disturbances. Frequently, the AC behavior of a circuit component is dependent on
its bias voltage and bias current.
7.3 COUPLE
The word couple means to connect or to link a signal between two circuits. There
are generally two types of coupling: DC and AC. DC coupling refers a direct wire
connection between two circuits; while AC coupling refers to two circuits
connected via a capacitor. Between AC coupled circuits, signals at frequencies
below some cut-off frequency will be progressively attenuated at lower
frequencies. The cut-off frequency is determined by the coupling capacitance along
with the output impedance of the transmitting circuit and the input impedance of
the receiving circuit. Oscilloscope inputs also have both AC and DC coupling
options, which allow the user the select between viewing the total signal or just the
time-varying component. In addition to describing intentional circuit connections,
AC coupling also refers to the path of interference signals through stray
capacitances in the physical circuit. There are also a number of other coupling
mechanisms such as magnetic, optical, and radio-frequency coupling.

8.1 INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

A semiconductor can be fabricated in thin layers with a junction between N-type
and P-type semiconductors. Both N-type and P-type materials are electrically
neutral, but have different mechanisms of conduction. In N-type material,
negatively charged electrons are mobile and are the majority current carriers. In P-
type material, positively charged holes are mobile are the majority current carriers.
Holes are actually temporary positive charges created by the lack of an electron.
Near the junction interface, electrons from the N-type region diffuse into the Ptype
region while holes from the P-type region diffuse into the N-type region. The
diffused electrons and holes remain in a thin boundary layer around the junction
known as the depletion layer shown in Figure 8.1. The excess of positive and
negative charges create a strong electric field at the junction which acts as a
potential barrier that prevent electrons from entering the P-type region and holes
from entering the N-type region. When a negative electric field is applied from
anode to cathode, the depletion region enlarges and it becomes even more difficult
to conduct current across the junction. This is the reverse-conducting state. When a
positive electric field is applied from anode to cathode, the depletion region
narrows and allows current to conduct from the anode to the cathode. This is the
forward-conducting state.

P – type region Deletion N-type region

layer

Positive charges Negative charges

(a)

P – type region Wider Deletion N-type region

layer

Positive charges Negative charges

(b)

P – type region Narrow N-type region

Depletion

layer

Positive charges Negative charges

 (c)
Figure 8.1 A semiconductor showing (a) P-type and N-type regions (b) Reverse
bias and (c) Forward bias
8.2 DIODE
A Diode is an electronic component that allows current to flow in only one
direction. There are two terminals on a diode, which are known as the anode and
cathode. Current is only allowed to flow from anode to cathode. The symbol and
drawing for the diode are shown in Figures 8.2 (a) and (b) respectively. The dark
line (band) of the diode drawing indicates the cathode mark on the diode symbol.
The direction of current flow is indicated by the direction of the triangle. An easy
trick for remembering the direction of current flow is to remember that of the
current flowing alphabetically, from the anode to the cathode. Anode Cathode
Anode Cathode Anode Cathode
(a) (b)
Figure 8.2: (a) Circuit symbol for a diode (b) line indicating cathode
8.3 TYPES OF DIODES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
i. Light emitting diode (LED)
ii. Laser diode
iii. Avalanche diode
iv. Zener diode
v. Schottky diode
vi. Photodiode
vii. P-N junction diode
viii. Varactor diode
LED Circuit One of the most useful types of diodes is the light-emitting diode
(LED). When current flows in the forward direction, an LED emits light
proportional to the amount of forward current. Recent advances in semiconductor
materials have drastically increased the power, efficiency, and range of colors of
LED’s. It will not be long before many traditional lighting devices, such as
fluorescent lights, are replaced by bright LED’s. LED’s cannot be powered directly
from a voltage source. When an LED is powered using a voltage source, a current-
limiting resistor should be used, as shown Figure 8.3. For example, suppose that
the turn-on voltage of the LED is 2.1V and the voltage source is the output of a
3.3V microprocessor. The resistor is chosen to operate the LED at the specified
maximum operating current of 10mA, according to the following simple analysis.
Given the 2.1V turn-on voltage drop, 3.3 - 2.1 = 1.2 V will be dropped across the
resistor. The desired operating current is 10mA, and therefore the necessary
resistance is 1.2 V / 10 mA = 120 Ω.

LED
+

Figure 8.3. A simple LED circuit