energies

Review

A Review of Edge Computing Technology and Its Applications in

Power Systems
Shiyang Liang 1, Shuangshuang Jin 2,* and Yousu Chen 3
deployment of smart devices and enhanced grid connectivity, resulting in a surge in data generation and
expanded deployment to the edge of systems. Classic cloud computing infrastructures are increasingly
Citation: Liang, S.; Jin, S.; Chen, Y. A challenged by the demands for large bandwidth, low latency, fast response speed, and strong security.
Review of Edge Computing Therefore, edge computing has emerged as a critical technology to address these challenges, gaining
Technology and Its Applications in widespread adoption across various sectors. This paper introduces the advent and capabilities of edge
Power Systems. Energies 2024, 17, computing, reviews its state-of-the-art architectural advancements, and explores its communication
3230. https://doi.org/10.3390/ techniques. A comprehensive analysis of edge computing technologies is also presented. Furthermore,
en17133230 this paper highlights the transformative role of edge computing in various areas, particularly emphasizing
its role in power systems. It summarizes edge computing applications in power systems that are oriented
Academic Editor: Javier Contreras
from the architectures, such as power system monitoring, smart meter management, data collection and
Received: 30 May 2024 analysis, resource management, etc. Additionally, the paper discusses the future opportunities of edge
Revised: 19 June 2024 computing in enhancing power system applications.
Accepted: 21 June 2024 Published:
1 July 2024 Keywords: cloud computing; edge computing; power system; distributed energy resources; grid edge;
smart grid

Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This
article is an open access article 1. Introduction
distributed under the terms and
Edge computing is a transformative approach in the field of distributed computing,
conditions of the Creative Commons
designed to bring data processing closer to the data source, such as sensors, Internet of Things
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
(IoT) devices, or local servers. It emerged from the increasing demand for real-time data
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
processing capabilities, as it minimizes the need for data transmission over long distances. To
1
School of Computing, Clemson fully understand the role of edge computing, it is essential to address its relationship with
University, Clemson, SC 29634, cloud computing.
USA; [email protected] Cloud computing has been one of the most popular topics in the information technology
2
School of Computing, Clemson area over the past decades. In October 2007, IBM and Google announced a collaboration in
University, North Charleston,
cloud computing [1,2], which marked a significant milestone. Since then, cloud computing has
SC 29634, USA
3
been widely discussed and used. Typically, the cloud computing paradigm is based on
Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory, Richland, WA transmission control protocol (TCP)/internet protocol (IP) and involves the high integration of
99352, USA; configurable computing resources [3]. It encompasses data storage, management software,
[email protected] data transmission network, cloud center, and related applications. Cloud computing operates
* Correspondence: as a computational paradigm that collects data from the end devices and sends it to a
[email protected] centralized cloud server for further processing and computation. It boasts advanced
characteristics such as being service-oriented, loosely coupled, and strongly fault-tolerant [1].
Abstract: Recent Cloud servers usually possess supercomputing power capable of handling various large-scale
advancements in network- computing tasks.
connected devices have led to Conventionally, cloud computing is implemented using three cloud computing services:
a rapid increase in the Software-as-a-service (SaaS) is responsible for running, managing, and maintaining

Energies 2024, 17, 3230. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17133230 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

the applications and the infrastructure on which the applications run; Platform-as-a-service
(PaaS) provides customers with cloud resources such as hardware to develop, run and manage
consumer-created applications without building and maintaining these resources;
Infrastructure-as-service(IaaS) delivers computing, storage, virtual machines, and other
fundamental resources to consumers.
With the development of network-connected intelligent devices and the growing needs
of end users, intelligence has become integrated into various aspects of the industry and
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 2 of 28

people’s daily lives [4]. The significantly increasing number of smart edge devices has led to a
larger data scale. According to Cisco’s statistics, there were 17.1 billion devices on the Internet
in 2016 [5]. The Cisco Annual Internet Report (2018–2023) White Paper published in 2020 [6]
indicated that there were 18.4 billion devices connected to the Internet, projected to rise to
29.3 billion by the end of 2023. Dell Technologies also predicts that there will be 41.6 billion
IoT devices in 2025, producing 79.4 zettabytes (ZB) of data [7]. These statistics highlight the
growing data scales and increasing complexity of data processing tasks. The limitations of
cloud-based architectures are becoming evident. Firstly, intelligent devices are often used for
real-time data processing. For example, an IoT-enabled intelligent automobile [8] generates a
significant amount of data [9], necessitating servers to receive and handle the data. The
response speed of these servers is critical. Secondly, end devices are often placed across a
wide range of geographical locations. The failure of some end devices and the long
transmission distance increase resource consumption. Thirdly, ensuring the security of end
devices’ data is another significant concern. Typically, cloud centers collect and store vast
amounts of user personal data, including private information.
Information leakage can lead to unacceptable consequences.
To address these challenges, an alternative solution that can process the massive data
instantly, efficiently, and safely is necessary. Consequently, edge computing has emerged and
gained popularity in recent years. It represents a variant of distributed computing architecture
designed to process data at the grid edge with the end devices [10]. Instead of transmitting
data from each device at the edge of the network to the cloud center, the edge computing
architecture enables the edge servers to collect, process, and store the data locally. By
allowing data to be collected, processed, and stored on local edge servers, both the response
speed and the safety of sensitive data can be improved. Furthermore, the management of the
end devices across various geographical locations can rely on these local edge servers, helping
eliminate the vision gaps between cloud servers and local edge devices.
As shown in Figure 1, the edge computing architecture comprises three tiers: central tier,
edge tier, and device tier [11]. The central tier aims to provide wide connectivity coverage
using cloud computing services, where vast computational resources and storage capabilities
are employed to process and manage large-scale data tasks. The edge tier serves as an
intermediary layer that extends cloud capabilities closer to the data source by deploying edge
servers between the cloud and end devices to handle intermediate data processing, reducing
latency and bandwidth usage while still leveraging cloud resources for more intensive tasks.
Edge computing further pushes data processing to the very edge of the network, right at or
near the data sources. The device tier consists of various end devices with limited computing
and storage resources, such as sensors and actuators, responsible for collecting raw data. The
edge server layer receives raw data from the local end devices nearby and pre-processes the
data. Subsequently, the pre-processed data is sent to the edge computing layer or cloud server
for further processing and computing. As interconnected layers, cloud computing and edge
computing collectively enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of data processing in today’s
digital infrastructures. The proximity reduces latency, conserves bandwidth [12], enhances
security, reduces energy consumption of cloud centers, and improves the responsiveness of
applications.
Edge computing communication can be categorized into two layers: (i) access networks,
which connect the device tier with the edge tier, and (ii) transport networks, which connect
the edge tier with the central tier.
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 3 of 28

Figure 1. Workflow diagram for the general edge computing architecture.

In edge computing systems, communications are frequently between access points and
end devices. The edge servers typically perform as small data centers that are co-located with
the wireless access points. For example, the edge servers can be placed in the local base
stations to eliminate the additional expenditure. Access points are also responsible for
accessing large-scale cloud data centers. Different access technologies, including cellular
wireless networks and fiber-wireless access networks, can be used to connect edge devices
and edge servers. When edge devices are positioned at the wireless access point, they can
directly access edge servers through the radio channels. In such scenarios, cooperative
communication abilities of wireless channels can optimize task offloading through relaying via
nearer mobile devices.
In recent years, the 5th generation mobile network (5G) has emerged as a cellular
network technology capable of providing higher-quality communication and improving the
quality of service. This feature enables 5G to support highly interactive applications with high
throughput and low latency [13]. Edge computing can benefit from 5G by bringing computing
resources from the cloud to the end users. Compared with the traditional cloud computing
model, edge computing in 5G is more suitable for highly computational and interactive
applications.
Edge computing has been successfully applied in various areas. Recently, the increasing
need for renewable energy integration and decarbonization has led to a rapid expansion in the
deployment of distributed energy resources (DERs) and sensors. Power systems have become
one of the areas that benefit significantly from edge computing.
Power systems are complex, hierarchical physical networks that generate, transmit, and
distribute electricity to consumers, carrying massive amounts of information. Widearea
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 4 of 28

coordinated management and control among generation, transmission, load, and distribution
is crucial to ensure reliable power system operations [14]. Cloud computing is a paradigm that
can provide end users with various services by integrating various virtualization technologies
on the cloud side. This mechanism enables the operators and end users to access abundant
computing resources and data storage capacities via the network without purchasing and
maintaining hardware. In the past few decades, cloud computing has been increasingly used in
power system analysis and control. For example, in 2014, Mercury Energy used cloud
computing to provide services to help customers manage their power consumption [15].
Measurements collected from multi-sources at substations are sent to the cloud centers for
future processing and analysis. With the development of smart grids, an increasing number of
network-connected devices are integrated into power systems, leading to an exponential
increase in data loads. Effectively managing and processing the massive data generated by
these widely distributed devices is a critical challenge, especially for traditional centralized
approaches that require real-time processing. Compared with cloud computing, edge
computing can offer a decentralized paradigm that allows the smart devices to process the
data at the edge of the network by themselves. Furthermore, the raw data collected by end
devices can be stored and pre-processed in the small data centers at the network edge instead
of sending to the centralized center. These features enable real-time monitoring and control of
these devices, support advanced metering infrastructure (AMI), and aid in predictive
maintenance. Edge computing can also benefit enterprises by increasing the reliability of the
power supply systems.
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art edge
computing technology for power system engineers who may not be very familiar with the
fundamental science of edge computing yet but are interested in understanding its
capabilities, architectures, and existing and potential applications in a variety of domain areas,
particularly power systems. The main contributions of this paper include the following:
• A review of generalized edge computing architectures and their applications;
• A review of popular edge computing technologies;
• A review of edge computing applications in power systems that are oriented from the
architectures;
• A discussion of future opportunities of edge computing in power systems.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the state-of-the-art of
edge computing architecture; Section 3 reviews the main technologies and relative works of
edge computing in general areas; Section 4 reviews the existing applications of edge
computing in power systems; Section 5 discusses the works in this paper and future
opportunities for edge computing applications in power systems; Section 6 concludes the
paper.

2. Review of Edge Computing Architectures

In this section, we will present various edge computing architectures (e.g., multi-access
edge computing (MAEC), cloudlet computing, and fog computing) and their applications in
multiple domain areas.

2.1. Multi-Access Edge Computing (MAEC)

MAEC, previously known as mobile edge computing (MEC), was defined by the European
Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI) as applying the concepts of cloud computing on
the information technology (IT) based servers at the network edge [16]. MEC can be generally
described as a cloud server capable of running at the edge of a mobile network, handling tasks
beyond the scope of traditional network infrastructure [16]. While specific designs of MEC
vary, the basic idea of MEC can be outlined with the five major characteristics defined by ETSI:
on-premises means the edge side is local and may operate separately from the rest of the
network while still accessing local resources; proximity, MEC servers are positioned close to
the data source, and may have direct access to devices; low latency, due to their proximity to
devices, MEC can significantly reduce latency; location awareness, as part of a wireless
network, local edge servers can detect the location of connected end devices by leveraging
lower-level signaling information; network context information, applications and services can
leverage real-time network information to provide context-related services [17].
In September 2017, the ETSI Industry Specification Group (ISG) officially changed its
name from MEC to MAEC. The change reflects that the edge is not only based on mobile
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 5 of 28

networks. The ISG has defined the framework and the reference architecture for MAEC. Figure
2, a simplified version of the MAEC framework from Chapter 5 of [18], illustrates the general
entities involved. These entities are categorized into system level, host level, and network level
[18]. The network level comprises relative external network entities, such as the 3rd
generation partnership project (3GPP) network, local network, and external network. The
MAEC host level involves the MAEC host and corresponding management entities. The MAEC
host can be viewed as the combination of the MAEC platform, MAEC applications, and
virtualization infrastructure. The MAEC system level is at the top of this framework, with
overall management having an encompassing view of the entire MAEC system.

Figure 2. Multi-access edge computing framework.

The ISG also provided an MAEC reference architecture, which offers more details about
the functional entities and their interrelations [19]. Figure 3 illustrates a simplified version of
the framework from Chapter 6 of [18]. The MAEC host comprises the MAEC platform and the
virtualization infrastructure, responsible for computing, data storage, and network resource
management. The MAEC platform encompasses several essential functions necessary for
running MAEC applications. The MAEC platform manager and the virtualization infrastructure
manager operate at the MAEC host level. They provide management of specific MAEC hosts
and their applications. At the MAEC system level, the MAEC orchestrator has comprehensive
oversight of the entire MAEC system.

Figure 3. Multi-access edge system reference architecture.

Numerous applications benefit from the emergence of MAEC.
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 6 of 28

2.1.1. Healthcare

MAEC plays a critical role in the healthcare domain. For example, sensors can be attached
to individuals affected by disasters. The signals and information can be transmitted to the
nearby edge server for future analysis, aiding rescuers in assessing the overall situation [20]. In
[21], the authors presented a three-level architecture for a smart health system. This system
integrates a role model, layered-cloud architecture, and an MAEC paradigm that allows
caregivers to collect the information regardless of their patient’s geographical location.

2.1.2. Smart City

Smart cities are in high demand nowadays. Sneppe et al. proposed using MAEC to
transfer data in smart cities [22]. Mobile devices have become one of the primary data
sources. An edge server near the mobile terminal can rapidly receive and store data. Sapienza
et al. [23] presented a scenario that involves MAEC for detecting abnormal or suspicious
events such as terrorist threats and natural disasters. The MAEC architecture enables
cooperation among the Base Transceiver Stations. Experimental results demonstrate that this
system can notify users in high-risk areas promptly.

2.1.3. Video Analytics

Surveillance cameras typically follow the client–server architecture. The cameras stream
the data to the servers and await processing. As the number of surveillance cameras grows
and image quality improves, the traditional architecture might not be able to handle the
significant amount of data. MAEC can address this by implementing lightweight programs on
end devices. Furthermore, the application can also be used for face recognition [24,25].

2.1.4. Connected Vehicles

Intelligent connected vehicles can communicate with each other on the road through the
network. Leveraging the MAEC environment along the road can integrate the intelligent
vehicles and enable two-way communication between them. One vehicle can share
information with surrounding vehicles. Additionally, MAEC can enable scalable, reliable, and
distributed environments synchronized with local sensors [26].

2.2. Cloudlet Computing

Satyanarayanan et al. first proposed the concept of the Cloudlet [27]. They defined the
Cloudlet as a trusted computer or cluster of computers that have rich resources. These
computers or clusters of computers connect to the Internet well and are available for use by
nearby mobile devices. In this way, we can obtain real-time responses. Cloudlets are generally
located in one-hop proximity to mobile devices. Access to the Cloudlet usually has low latency
and high bandwidth. Furthermore, virtual–machine techniques allow the Cloudlet to operate
in disconnected mode [28].
Figure 4 represents the general architecture of Cloudlet computing. This architecture
shows that mobile devices connect to nearby Cloudlet servers to transmit data [29,30]. The
Cloudlet server receives the job from the mobile devices, identifies the user’s cloud service
provider, and sends back the end user’s environment [30]. The cloud server provider also waits
for the Cloudlet to make contact. Once the connection between the end user and the Cloudlet
is established, the cloud service provider retrieves the user’s environment.
Several applications based on the Cloudlet computing architecture are listed as follows.
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 7 of 28
Figure 4. The overall hierarchical architecture of Cloudlet computing.

2.2.1. Face Recognition

Soyata et al. [31] used a mobile–Cloudlet–cloud architecture to develop a face
recognition system. They demonstrated that the power of Cloudlet servers can reduce the
overall response time of face detection compared to prior work.

2.2.2. Healthcare
Chandavale et al. [32] developed a Collaborative Intrusion Detection System based on
Cloudlet computing. They believed that the mobile–Cloudlet–cloud architecture minimizes
communication time, benefiting patients.

2.2.3. Smart Homes

A Cloudlet computing approach is used in Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) positioning and
navigation in [33]. The authors proposed a Cloudlet computing system that provides accurate
position and navigation on a one-hop wireless network. The self-driving indoor cart can make
real-time interactions with the accurate point data collected by this system.
In [34], the authors proposed a delay-aware Cloudlet placement strategy with an
enhanced k-means algorithm. This technique enabled a mobility-enhanced environment and
calculated the optimal Cloudlet position. The proposed strategy can improve the service
quality of healthcare support by minimizing the network access delay between sensors and
Cloudlets.
Hughes et al. [35] implemented a floor-based walk detection system with Cloudlet
computing support. The sensors are embedded in the carpet to collect the waveform when
people traverse the carpet. The measurements are sent to the Cloudlet nearby for future
analysis and making real-time decisions with minimum delay.

2.2.4. Information System

In [36], Otomo et al. developed an in-vehicle Cloudlet computing disaster information
system. This system aims to handle critical network situations flexibly. To achieve this goal, the
authors introduced mobile Cloudlet computing, which enables rapid sharing of disaster
information.

2.3. Fog Computing

The OpenFog Consortium Architecture Working Group [37] defined fog computing as a
“horizontal, system-level architecture that distributes computing, storage, control and
networking functions closer to the users along a cloud-to-thing continuum”. Compared with
other edge computing architectures, such as MAEC and Cloudlet computing, fog computing
focuses on the communication and cooperation among decentralized devices, such as IoT
devices. Thus, fog computing services are closer to the terminal devices and more efficient.
This primary feature can help provide quality and efficient services [38]. Fog computing usually
involves a large number of ubiquitous devices. The service of fog computing can be accessed
through connected devices at the edge. Therefore, the nodes of fog computing have high
mobility, and the servers can be placed at the edge or any specified location.
Fog computing is an expansion of classic cloud computing designed to address the
challenges of latency and bandwidth. According to Das et al. [39], Sabireen et al. [40], Yi et al.
[41], and Ai et al. [42], the primary features of fog computing are low latency—since fog
servers are close to the end devices, it also results in shorter response times; real-time
interaction—fog computing services can response in a short time frame; wide physical
distribution—compared to traditional cloud computing, fog servers can provide decentralized
services in any location; real-time analytics—this involves collecting and acting on data as it is
transferred to the fog nodes rather than sending it to a central point and waiting for
processing. Fog nodes include lightweight computing units that handle small computing tasks.
The central cloud servers only need to receive the essential data and complete complex
computing tasks. Data processing becomes more efficient with less bandwidth usage and
latency.
Figure 5 shows an overall hierarchical architecture of fog computing. The bottom layer is
closest to the end-user and is comprised of various end devices, such as IoT sensors, mobile
phones, intelligent vehicles, and others, which are geographically distributed. These devices
can sense and gather data from the physical environment and transmit it to the upper layer.
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 8 of 28

The fog layer consists of a large number of fog nodes, such as routers and switches, which are
responsible for data transmission, storage, and computation. Fog nodes can be installed in
dedicated locations or on a moving carrier [43]. The computational ability of these fog nodes
allows them to handle real-time analysis and provide service with low latency. Furthermore,
the proximity of the fog layer to the terminal devices enhances communication efficiency. It
connects with the cloud layer and delegates more complex and time-consuming tasks to the
cloud center. The top layer comprises multiple powerful servers and storage devices. The cloud
data center supports comprehensive computation and storage of a large amount of data. Tasks
executed in this layer are usually complex and non-latency-sensitive. Nowadays, various
commercial cloud services such as DigitalOcean, Apple iCloud, and Amazon EC2 are available
[44].

Figure 5. The overall hierarchical architecture of fog computing.

A large number of applications are developed by using fog computing architecture. We

surveyed and summarized them as follows.
2.3.1. Healthcare
Y. Cao et al. proposed a fog computing-assisted system called FAST to monitor falls for
stroke mitigation [45]. This system developed a new non-linear time series analysis algorithm
and split the computing tasks between the fog devices and the server in the cloud. Vilela et al.
[46] developed a fog-assisted health monitoring system. In this fog-based system, the data are
stored and analyzed locally. The results show that this approach relieves data traffic congestion
in the network and enhances the security of patients’ information. Azimi et al. proposed a fog-
assisted computing system called HiCH [47]. This system is designed for remote health
monitoring and partitions health data analytics into two parts. The central part of the cloud
provides service for heavy training procedures and outsources the trained hypotheses, which
are updated periodically to the fog nodes; [48] presents a fog computing interface (FIT) for
clinical speech data processing. This interface is a low-power embedded system that collects
and analyzes speech data before transferring speech features to a central cloud.

2.3.2. Smart City

Thakur et al. [49] studied vehicular congestion identification techniques based on fog
computing. Communication in the system becomes more effective, allowing more nodes to be
involved in communication without affecting performance. Pereira et al. [50] proposed an
architecture for the development of fog computing applications in a vehicular ad hoc network
(VANET) environment. Furthermore, they presented two fog computing applications for this
system, and their results showed that the fog applications can provide reliable real-time
information while minimizing traffic. Serdaroglu et al. proposed a fog computing-based air
quality monitoring system where air quality monitoring stations are located in the edge layer
and provide sensor data to the fog layer for data processing and calculating [51]. Aliyu et al.
[52] proposed a fog computing-assisted path planning system for smart shopping. Fog nodes
are placed in the shopping mall and collect the data from shoppers’ mobile devices. The fog
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 9 of 28

layer simulates and recommends promotions for customers. Experiment results show that
customers receive the recommendations in a shorter time and shopping speed is noticeably
increased.

2.3.3. Video and Game Analytics

Video analytics always involve intensive computation or large bandwidth demand. To
address this issue, the authors in [53] proposed a system called Latency-Aware Video Edge
Analytics (LAVEA) based on an edge computing platform. This system offloads computation
between clients and edge nodes, fosters collaboration among neighboring edge nodes, and
delivers low-latency video analytics to nearby users. Cloud gaming is an emerging technique,
but it suffers from high response latency and bandwidth costs. Lin et al. [54] proposed a fog
computing system named CloudFog that can handle the challenges brought by massively
multiplayer online gaming. CloudFog uses super nodes as “fog” to connect users and the
cloud. The cloud is responsible for intensive computations and transmits updated data to
supernodes. These super nodes are responsible for creating game videos to be streamed to
players.

2.3.4. Intelligent Traffic

With the development of artificial intelligence technologies such as context awareness,
intelligent traffic has become an important component of a smart city. Meanwhile, fog
computing can be introduced into the intelligent traffic system for better performance. The
authors in [55] presented a project called Laboratoire Recherche Informatique Maisonneuve
(LRIMa) city, which is a fog computing-based smart city with integrated self-driving cars. By
adding a fog layer between the physical layer and the network layer, traffic lights and smart
cars can realize real-time interaction in this system. Awaisi et al. [56] proposed a fog-enabled
efficient car parking architecture with three tiers: physical tier, fog tier, and cloud tier. Cameras
in the first tier take pictures of the parking area and send them to the fog nodes. The fog
nodes receive and share the information with each other. After a certain period, the fog nodes
communicate with the cloud server and send the essential data to the cloud. The experimental
results show that this system reduces latency and overall network usage significantly.
In summary, this section introduces three classic edge computing architectures and their
corresponding applications. The primary differences among these edge computing
architectures lie in the composition of the intermediate infrastructure. MAEC utilizes base
stations as edge servers. Data processing usually occurs directly on the end devices or an edge
node near the end devices. In Cloudlet computing, Cloudlets can be considered small cloud
data centers with greater mobility at the network’s edge. Fog computing employs clusters of
connected devices, including routers and switches, as edge servers. These devices in the fog
nodes are responsible for data transmission, storage, and computation. Table 1 lists the
references in this section.

Table 1. Reference Table of Edge Computing Architecture.

Architecture Application Area References
Healthcare [21]
Multi-Access Smart City [22,23]
Edge Computing Video Analytics [24,25]
Connected Vehicles [26]

Face Recognition [31]

Healthcare [32]
Cloudlet Computing Smart Homes [33–35]
Information System [36]

Healthcare [45–48]
Smart City [49–52]
Fog Computing Video and Game Analytics [53,54]
Intelligent Traffic [55,56]

3. Review of Edge Computing Technologies

The emergence of edge computing has accelerated the development of the IoT and plays
a pivotal role in an intelligent society. In addition to edge computing architecture, the
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 10 of 28

technologies used in designing edge computing applications have become popular research
topics within the intelligent community. This section mainly includes reviews of computational
offloading, resource placement, traffic offloading, caching, energy efficiency, and storage.

3.1. Computational Offloading

In edge computing, computational offloading refers to the technique that transfers heavy
computation tasks to nearby edge servers [57]. With the increasing number of resource-
demanding applications, improving hardware in mobile ends and networks will still not be able
to keep up with the trend in demand. Therefore, computational offloading has gained
attention in edge computing research. Many researchers have studied computational
offloading to resource-rich edge servers. Computational offloading is the key technology to
enable MAEC to run complex applications on edge equipment by delivering compute-intensive
tasks to separate edge servers. There have been many related research achievements mainly
discussing offloading strategies.
In 2016, Zhang et al. [58] proposed a mobile edge computing-based offloading
framework in a cloud-enabled vehicular network. In this framework, an efficient offloading
strategy is designed. Meanwhile, considering the limitation of the edge servers and latency
tolerance of the computing tasks, a contract-based computing resource scheduling scheme is
designed. The experiments show that the proposed scheme improves the performance of the
MAEC utility.
In 2020, Zhang et al. [59] also focused on task offloading in vehicular edge computing
networks. Various delay-sensitive vehicular applications have emerged due to the rapid
development of vehicular networks. MAEC is becoming a promising paradigm, benefiting
vehicular edge computing networks by offloading the vehicles’ compute-intensive tasks to
nearby edge nodes. The authors introduced fiber-wireless technology to address
loadbalancing issues and proposed a software-defined networking (SDN)-based load-balancing
task offloading scheme in Wi-Fi-enhanced vehicular edge computing networks. This scheme
uses SDN to support centralized network and vehicle data management. The experiment
results demonstrate that this scheme can achieve superior performance on delay reduction.
Real-time analytics of video content are widely recognized as a prime application for
edge computing. They often involve heavy computing tasks and a large amount of data. In
2018, Hung et al. [60] proposed VideoEdge, which is a hierarchical architecture. This
architecture includes cameras, clusters, and the cloud for video analytics targeting query
optimizations. The architecture presents a prominent demand for determining the optimal
balance between various resources and precision, thus reducing the search space. VideoEdge,
for each video inquiry, chooses the most suitable amalgamation of algorithmic elements and
distributes them across diverse clusters. VideoEdge operates under the assumption that
camera-based computing is absent, shifting the entirety of computer vision processing to
secluded clusters.
Xu et al. [61] proposed a trust-aware task offloading method (TOM) for video surveillance
in edge computing-enabled Internet of Vehicles. This method aims to minimize the response
time of the services and achieve the load balance among the edge nodes. By analyzing the
process of video tasks, the authors formulated the problems of task offloading, time cost of
services, and privacy entropy as a multi-objective optimization problem. To address the task
offloading issue, they chose SPEA2 (improved Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm) [62] to
solve the objective problem of task offloading. The experiment results show that TOM
achieves better performance on edge resource utilization and load balance among the nodes.

3.2. Resource Placement

The geographical distribution of resources is one of the most important components in
edge computing as it supports the mobility of edge computing applications. Mobile ends
collect data and transfer it to the nearest edge computing nodes. The cloud center supports
application mobility by anchoring the server’s position and transferring data to the server
through the network.
In the area of resource placement, some works focus on the placement of edge nodes. To
calculate the cost and average latency of the edge computing network, factors such as the
location and the number of edge nodes must be considered. The study [63] proposed the Cost
Aware Cloudlet Placement in Mobile Edge Computing (CAPABLE) strategy, considering both the
Cloudlet cost and average end-to-end delay. This strategy also includes a Lagrange-based
heuristic algorithm and a workload allocation scheme to minimize the mobility delay. The
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 11 of 28

results show that CAPABLE minimizes the average end-to-end delay between users and their
Cloudlets while also reducing the cost of the Cloudlets. In another study [64], researchers
presented a framework to address the edge server placement problem. The goal of this
framework is to optimize server placement strategies and reduce the costs of deploying edge
computing networks.
Nowadays, data-intensive tasks that need large storage space and rich calculation
resources have become common in edge computing. Current research usually focuses on
transmitting data from end devices to edge servers but ignores the data storage on lightweight
edge servers with limited resources. Jin et al. [65] presented an efficient graph-based iterative
algorithm for edge-side data placement problems. Compared to the traditional storage
strategy, the proposed algorithm increases the cache hit rate significantly.
Geographical mobility leads to another challenge in effectively managing hardware
resources. Virtualization is one of the fundamental edge computing technologies to address
this issue. Virtualization technology, usually in the form of virtual machines (VMs) or
containers, provides flexible and reliable management for edge computing. In [66], the authors
designed a complementary algorithm for dynamic VM placement. The proposed algorithm
decides whether there is a more suitable place for the VM allocation before the offloaded task
is processed at the VM. The algorithm is based on the predicted mobility of users and the load
of the base stations’ communication and computation resources.

3.3. Traffic Offloading

Traffic offloading refers to offloading traffic that meets specific offloading rules to mobile
edge networks. It is vital in mobile edge computing as it focuses on providing high bandwidth
and low latency.
Abdelwahab et al. [67] presented an edge cloud architecture called REPLISOM. REPLISOM
is a long-term evolution (LTE)-aware edge cloud architecture with optimized LTE memory
replication protocol. This protocol enables end devices to transmit the memory replica to its
neighbor devices by using device-to-device technology. The receiving devices compress the
received replicas. The edge servers pull the completed compressed data from the receiving
devices. This architecture alleviates LTE bottlenecks and effectively schedules memory
replication to avoid resource-allocating conflicts. Evaluation results demonstrate that this
architecture can reduce delay and cost for traffic offloading of IoT applications.
To alleviate network bottlenecks and reduce data latency, Kumar et al. [68] investigated
vehicular delay-tolerant networks (VDTNs). This architecture enables effective data
transmission to various devices using a store-and-carry-forward mechanism. Massive
computations, such as decisions about charging and discharging, are performed by mobile
devices at the edge of the network. Experimental results demonstrate an increase in
throughput and a decrease in response time and latency.
Wen et al. [69] proposed a further improvement of communication in mobile edge
computing by introducing an energy-efficient device-to-device (D2D) offloading network
scheme. The D2D technique is used for traffic offloading as well as task balancing.
Experimental results show that the proposed MEC-D2D model and MEC-D2D-Relay model
reduce energy consumption and inter interference. Additionally, both models can avoid traffic
congestion and provide a rapid response to end users.

3.4. Caching
Edge computing caching includes base station caching, distribution networks, and
transparent caching, all of which significantly impact content distribution efficiency and service
quality. Unlike traditional methods, edge computing caches can store content in edge nodes,
enabling users to access data nearby instead of transmitting it from the cloud center.
Additionally, edge computing caches reduce network delay and enhance service quality.
Li et al. [70] proposed a cache-aware task scheduling strategy in edge computing to
address issues related to improper placement and utilization of caching. They obtained an
integrated utility function considering data transmission cost, caching value, and cache
replacement penalty. Furthermore, they presented a cache locality-based task scheduling
method, treating the task scheduling problem as a weighted graph affected by the positions of
required data. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed task scheduling algorithm
performs better than other baseline algorithms in cache hit ratio, data transmission time,
response time, and energy consumption.
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 12 of 28

Zhang et al. [71] illustrated that edge caching can reduce the burden on the backhaul
network, but existing works often treat storage and computing resources separately, ignoring
the mobility characteristic of edge caching and portable end devices. They proposed a
cooperative edge caching framework for 5G networks, utilizing edge computing resources to
enhance edge caching capability. In the proposed framework, smart vehicles are employed as
collaborative caching nodes for bringing contents to end equipment and sharing content cache
tasks with base stations. The experiments show that the proposed framework alleviates
content access latency and improves the utilization of cache resources.
Xia et al. [72] investigated the collaborative caching problem in the edge computing
environment, aiming to reduce the data caching and migration cost. This collaborative edge
data caching problem (CEDC) is formulated as a constrained optimization problem. An online
algorithm called CEDC-Online (CEDC-O) based on Lyapunov optimization is proposed.

3.5. Energy Consumption

Edge computing reduces latency, enhances security, and offloads heavy computation
from the cloud to the network edge. While energy consumption in cloud centers has been
extensively studied, research on the energy efficiency of edge computing is still needed.
Communication among edge devices, servers, and cloud centers is complex, making energy
efficiency a hot topic in edge computing.
Zhang et al. [73] presented an energy-aware offloading scheme for optimizing resource
allocation. The core technology of this scheme is an iterative search algorithm combining
interior penalty functions. This algorithm takes the residual energy of smart devices’ batteries
as the weighting factor of power consumption and latency. Results demonstrate that the
proposed algorithm can find the optimal solution for energy consumption.
In [74], Li et al. studied the energy consumption of energy-aware edge server placement.
This problem is formulated as a multi-objective optimization problem. An energyaware edge
server placement algorithm involving particle swarm optimization is investigated to find the
optimal solution. Experiments indicate that this algorithm can improve the computing resource
utilization and minimize the energy consumption.
Hao et al. [75] introduced green energy sources such as wind energy into edge devices.
Nodes are divided into clusters, each containing several edge nodes to ensure a minimum
distance between nodes in the cluster. A scheduling heuristic algorithm is implemented to
schedule tasks and transfer energy based on the clustering method. Experiment results show
that the proposed method reduces total energy consumption both in and out of the system.

3.6. Efficient and Safe Storage

The limited storage resources of end devices tend to affect user experience. Therefore,
efficient and secure storage solutions are worth investigating in the field of edge computing.
Xing et al. [76] proposed a distributed multi-level storage (DMLS) model with a multiple-
factors least frequently used (mLFU) algorithm to address storage limitations. In this model,
storage levels are composed of terminal devices at the edge. The mLFU is utilized to upload
data from the current device to higher storage levels and subsequently remove this data from
the device.
In summary, this section outlines popular edge computing technologies and stateof-the-
art research. Computational offloading and traffic offloading are two topics that leverage edge
computing architecture to extend computing resources and bandwidth. The resource
placement subsection discusses how to strategically deploy edge nodes. Caching, storage, and
energy consumption pertain to hardware in edge computing. Table 2 lists the references in this
section.

Table 2. Reference Table of Edge Computing Technologies.

Technologies References
Computational Offloading [58–61]
Resource Placement [63–66]
Traffic Offloading [67–69]
Caching [70–72]
Energy Efficiency [73–75]
Efficient and Safe Storage [76]
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 13 of 28

4. Review of Edge Computing in Power Systems

Power systems are large-scale and comprehensive electrical networks that support
critical electricity services [77]. In recent years, intelligent monitoring, control, and
computational equipment have emerged, transforming traditional power systems
characterized by unidirectional communication and centralized energy production into smart
grids. These smart grids incorporate bidirectional communication and decentralized energy
sources, including renewable energy, and utilize intelligent monitoring and control
technologies to enhance grid efficiency, reliability, and sustainability. This technological shift is
pivotal in addressing the growing energy demands and decarbonization challenges. This
section reviews the applications of edge computing within smart grids to illustrate how it
offers new opportunities to solve the issues brought by these modern systems.

4.1. Introduction of Smart Grids and Grid Edge

Smart grids are advanced supply-to-demand networks that automate and decentralize
power flow [77], constituting a cyber–physical system that integrates computation,
communication, and control (3C) technologies [78]. The IEEE [79] defines smart grids as “self-
sufficient systems which allow integration of any type and any scale generation sources to the
grid that reduces the workforce targeting sustainable, reliable, safe and quality electricity to all
consumers”, while the U.S. Department of Energy [80] defines the grid edge as “The grid edge
is where buildings, industry, transportation, renewables, storage, and the electric grid come
together. More specifically, it’s the area where electricity distribution transitions between the
energy utility and the end user”.
The transition to smart grids provides numerous benefits, including more efficient
electricity transmission, quick and more accurate detection and restoration from power
disturbances, reduced cost for power utility management, lower electricity rates, and better
integration of large-scale renewable energy sources [81].
The general structure of the smart grid can be classified into three layers: the user layer,
the information system layer, and the physical system layer [78]. The user layer serves as an
interface for system operators to interact with the system. The information system layer
handles transmission, receives data from the physical system layer, and processes it. The
physical system layer consists of multiple sensors, executors, and transmission lines.
Smart grids encompass a vast array of components, including power generation,
transmission, distribution, and consumer interface components. It can be further partitioned
into different function components. The smart device interface component is responsible for
managing smart devices connected to the electronic devices. The storage component is
related to the energy storage capability, improving reliability in cases of inconsistency from
renewable energy sources and mismatches between peak consumption. The transmission
component is the backbone of the power system connecting main substations and load
centers. The monitoring and controlling components are used for surveillance, prediction, and
handling of reliability issues, instability, and congestion. Finally, the demand-side management
component aims to modify consumer demand to reduce costs by reducing the use of
expensive generators and delaying capacity addition.
While the emergence of the smart grid brings numerous benefits, it also presents
challenges. The increasing number of smart meters and other smart equipment results in
growing communication demands, potentially leading to high latency issues as end devices
communicate with the central system. Edge computing can help mitigate these challenges by
leveraging its advanced features. As redundancy of the elements increases in a smart grid, a
comprehensive Smart Grid Architecture Model (SGAM) can help determine how to design
edge computing deployed smart grid architecture. A well-designed architecture is the base of
edge computing-enabled smart grids [82].
In recent years, a more complex and comprehensive concept known as the grid edge has
emerged. The grid edge encompasses various technologies implemented near the customer
side or at the ends of power grids, involving building electrification, distributed power
generation and storage [83], data storage and transmission, demand-side management [84],
power transmission, and distribution, among others. Typical research topics include connected
utilities and infrastructure, energy storage, virtual power plants, distributed energy resources,
cybersecurity and data privacy, and more. These emerging topics indicate that the grid edge
will be studied more extensively, with both academia and business energy companies updating
their strategies to adapt to disruptive solutions such as smart meters and smart grids
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 14 of 28

becoming increasingly prevalent in the market. A study reports that 75% of enterprise data will
be produced at the grid edge by 2025 [84]. Meanwhile, experts from Red Hat predict that
within the next three years, IT budget costs will account for 30% of the total [84]. Research on
the grid edge is necessary and well worth the investment.
The primary goals of edge grid technology programs are to create new energy
architectures that address decentralization and handle the increasing volume of data.
Historically, electricity was generated by the centralized utilities and transmitted to end users.
As modern power systems evolve, traditional energy models no longer suffice. Decentralized
power centers at the grid edge offer similar benefits with fewer risks and lower costs,
motivating both academia and industry to focus on decentralization and grid edge research. By
shifting to smaller hubs near the consumer side, energy loss and risks can be reduced, and
distribution centers can be more flexible and easily maintained.
Additionally, the emergence of IoT, smart meters, and other technologies has led to a
data explosion, overwhelming centralized systems with data collection, transmission, and
analysis. Consequently, the power industry prioritizes grid-edge innovations. Significant
projects such as the BrooklynQueens Demand Management program (BQDM) [85] and
California’s Demand Response Auction Mechanism (DRAM) [86] exemplify successful grid edge
initiatives [84]. Well-designed energy models based on the grid edge can also decrease the
costs of energy transportation and storage and improve the stability of the power supply.
As enterprises and countries race to realize digital transformation in the energy sector
and net-zero emissions, AI deployed at the edge (edge AI) becomes a popular technology. Edge
AI can effectively manage distributed energy resources [87]. Noteworthy AI [88] uses AI-
enabled vehicle-mounted cameras to help monitor pole-mounted assets. Small boxes also
attach to trucks with computation resources and communications gear in them. These boxes
link to a processing unit in the cab to execute machine learning tasks [89]. Siemens Energy
uses AI deployed at the edge of power plants to realize autonomous management [90].
Many researchers are exploring the use of edge computing technology to enhance power
system applications. The following applications have been reviewed in this paper:
• Power Grid Distribution Monitoring;
• Smart Meters Management;
• Data Collection and Analysis;
• Anomaly Detection;
• Measurement Placement;
• State Estimation;
• Energy Storage;
• Resource Management;
• Security of Grid Edge Management System;
• Renewable Energy Forecasting.

4.2. Power Grid Distribution Monitoring

Power grid monitoring is one of the most important research topics in smart grids today.
With advancements in power grid technology, power sources have diversified. Devices for
renewable energy, such as solar energy and wind energy, have a varied geographical
distribution. Furthermore, the emerging smart end devices used in smart grids have made
traditional manual inspection inadequate for ensuring safety and efficiency. Smart grid
monitoring and control have become increasingly complex, necessitating real-time responses.
Many researchers have focused on this issue and proposed various applications to address
these challenges.
In 2018, Huang et al. [91] emphasized the importance of power grid monitoring in
preventing severe safety accidents. Recognizing that traditional manual detection cannot meet
the needs of modern power grids, the authors proposed an edge computing framework for
real-time monitoring. They developed this framework by moving part of the computation from
the central cloud to the edge servers. Their experiments showed that the detection delay was
reduced by up to 85% compared to cloud-based solutions.
Monitoring real-time smart meters is another popular topic. In 2020, Tom et al. [92]
focused on AMI in smart grids. Given that smart grid infrastructures are geographically
distributed, there is a demand for effective monitoring and control systems. A good routing
protocol is crucial for the metering infrastructure to communicate effectively with the fog
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 15 of 28

router. A standard routing protocol for IPv6 over Low Power Personal Area Network
(6LoWPAN) is the routing protocol for Low Power Lossy Area Network (RPL). Smart meters
within the 6LoWPAN network communicate with fog routers, which results in nodes far from
the fog routers having low packet delivery ratios and high delays. The authors proposed an
advanced RPL scheme to address this issue. Instead of communicating with the fog router
directly, aggregator-based RPL nodes were set between edge nodes and the fog router.
Performance evaluations showed that this scheme effectively increased packet delivery ratios
and reduced end-to-end delays.
Sun et al. [93] proposed an edge computing node planning model for real-time
transmission line monitoring. Monitoring transmission lines is crucial to ensure the stable
operation of the power grid. The emergence of real-time online monitoring services enhances
the safety of the transmission lines, but it also introduces a high latency requirement. Edge
computing can bring the edge nodes closer to the terminal, thereby reducing latency. In their
paper, an edge computing node placement model was established, and a genetic algorithm
based on a predator search strategy was proposed to overcome the shortcomings of the
original genetic algorithm. Simulation experiments demonstrated that this improved genetic
algorithm performed better in planning the placement of edge nodes.
The work presented in [94] focuses on the communication system models used for
voltage profile monitoring and power loss estimation in smart grids. The author implemented
and compared two different architectures: cloud-based and cloud–fog-based. Experimental
results showed that the cloud–fog-based approach significantly reduced the total simulation
time and the data size transferred to the cloud.

4.3. Smart Meters Management

Energy resources play a crucial role in the development of a country and its economy. A
stable energy source can provide significant benefits. To achieve this goal, governments have
been making efforts to build and deploy smart grid infrastructures in recent years. As an
essential device to measure and record the energy consumption of the customer side, smart
meters need to be optimized for more efficient and stable power systems. This subsection
presents the state-of-the-art edge computing-based applications in smart grids.
In smart grids, smart meters can help to detect anomalies in real-time quickly and
effectively. However, sending data within a short time slice is not normal because of the
bottleneck of the communication network and storage media. Utomo et al. [95] proposed
prediction techniques by combining deep neural network (DNN), support vector regression
(SVR), and k-nearest neighbors (KNN). To predict anomalies in the next few weeks, the
timestep is set as one day. This can help users to check their usage and decide whether to
prepare sufficient resources or not. The proposed techniques also involve Edge Meter Data
Management System (MDMS) and Cloud-MDMS in model training.
Smart meters are typical end devices that can collect and send energy data. The usage of
smart meters can establish a close relationship between smart grids and cyber-physical
systems. With the development of the smart grid, an increasing number of smart meters have
been installed. The malfunction detection of large-scale meters has become an issue.

Liu et al. [96] proposed a meter error estimation method and studied a low-voltage energy
system model. The proposed method includes a decision tree to sort data with different loss
levels. It also generates data clusters with different energy usage behavior. Then, a data matrix
can be established, and a recursive algorithm is used to calculate the equation and estimate
the meter error. By comparing the regulation threshold and the meter error, the
malfunctioning meter can be detected. Furthermore, this approach can be applied in an edge
computing environment.
Kumari et al. [97] focused on transferring smart meter data from consumers to the
operator within the given time with minimum energy consumption. The authors proposed a
smart metering system using edge computing in Long Range (LoRa). All devices in a single
house are connected to a smart meter. The edge device and the LoRa node are responsible for
processing and transferring the data collected by smart meters. The energy multivariate time
series are considered as the energy consumption of various electric devices. At first, the
system uses a deep learning-based compression model to reduce the size of the time series.
Then, it finds the optimal energy time series that can decrease energy consumption. Finally, an
algorithm is adopted to obtain the appropriate spreading factors to transfer the time series
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 16 of 28

from consumers to the operator within the given time. The experiments show that this system
can transfer the time series within the given time with higher energy efficiency.
In recent years, the computing capabilities of IoT devices have significantly grown, and
processing data in the end devices has become possible. The work in [98] presents a smart
metering system that can process data analysis on the smart meter where it is produced. This
system is based on a multi-core edge computing architecture. The experimental results show
that this architecture reduces the processing time.
As the penetration of smart meters and the diversity of participants increase, allowing
users to obtain and use the information behind the meter will be highly beneficial. To achieve
this goal, the concept of an unbundled smart meter (USM) was introduced in the European
Nobel Grid project [99]. The USM has two components: a smart metrology meter and a smart
meter extension. The smart metrology meter, a sensor module, includes interfaces that enable
users to read real-time information. The smart meter extension is a framework embedded in
the USM that supports various new functionalities. In [100], Qin et al. proposed an artificial
intelligent agent for USM based on deep learning. This agent combines deep learning models
and real-time data from USM to help customers and utilities manage their energy usage more
effectively. Meanwhile, the spatiotemporal decomposition technique involving different deep
learning models in time series is deployed in the agent for load and photovoltaic power
forecasting. The experiment results show that this spatiotemporal decomposition agent
performs well in controlling operating costs and battery degradation costs.

4.4. Data Collection and Analysis

An advanced smart metering system is essential for the success of the smart grid. This
system is one of the important components for data collecting and analyzing in smart grids.
Hence, it plays an important role in ensuring the safe, stable, and efficient operation of smart
grids. In this subsection, the emerging applications for data collection and analysis using an
advanced smart metering system will be discussed.
Connectivity verification of the distribution system is an urgent problem. To solve this
problem, Si et al. [101] introduced a cloud-based collaboration mechanism to determine
outlier users and valid connections. In this paper, the authors came up with an affinity
propagation clustering-based local outlier factor (AP-LOF) algorithm that can effectively
identify and verify the voltage outlier. Moreover, they set up a mechanism in the cloud center
to correct the identified outliers. The experiments are based on actual smart meter data. The
results show that the performance of this algorithm is better compared with traditional
methods. Additionally, the calculation efficiency is improved significantly because of the
cloud–edge collaboration scheme.
Improving the analyzing capability of the smart meter is another notable research topic.
Sirojan et al. [102] presented that traditional smart meters are only able to measure and show
the digital number of energy usage. To enable the smart meter to function in modern
advanced metering systems, the authors proposed an embedded edge computing paradigm in
the smart meter. This paradigm improves accuracy, latency, and bandwidth significantly by
bringing data analytics to the smart meters.

4.5. Anomaly Detection

Anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is a process that collects and
observes data to find behaviors that deviate from the standard pattern. Due to the wide usage
of smart meters, anomaly detection of smart meter data has attracted much attention from
academia. Abnormal energy consumption in daily life happens very often, such as electricity
leakage and theft. Therefore, anomaly detection of meter data can benefit society and the
economy significantly.
One of the detection methods is centralized detection. This method, which combines
multiple techniques such as big data processes, analyzes the smart grid data uniformly. The
infrastructure, such as smart meters, measures consumers’ energy consumption and sends the
measurements to the data center for analysis. For future processing, the centralized facilities
execute the detection algorithms to analyze the large volume of data gathered from electricity
smart meters and these algorithms have great performance in detecting anomalous power
consumption. Cui et al. [103] focused on centralized anomaly detection in school electricity
facilities. The authors investigated hybrid anomaly detection models and collected electricity
consumption data for analysis. According to the evaluation, the system can effectively detect
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 17 of 28

the anomaly electricity consumption in the school. Silva et al. [104] proposed a centralized
anomaly detection method based on Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and Negative Selection.
This method can be applied to anticipate the anomalies in electricity consumption.
Meanwhile, this method can also predict the occurrence of anomalies and monitor power
consumption in real-time.
Another commonly used detection method is decentralized detection. The traditional
centralized anomaly detection methods rely on installing many electricity meter devices in
households. The power consumption data are measured and collected by these meters and
transmitted to the centralized data center for future processing and analysis. In the recent
smart grid architecture, a large scale of smart devices are distributed across various facilities
over a large geographical area for monitoring power consumption. It is difficult for traditional
centralized detection methods to handle such a large amount of data generated by smart
meters. In this case, edge computing has become one of the solutions to reduce latency and
provide better performance in data processing. Liang et al. [105] proposed an anomaly
detection method with edge computing architecture. Instead of applying the anomaly
detection model in the data center, the authors distributed the model on the edge node
devices. Moreover, to reduce the delay, two-way communication is adopted in this method.
The experiment results show that this method greatly reduces the communication delay and
improves detection accuracy. Zheng et al. [106] presented an edge computingbased electricity
theft detection method. Electricity theft by low voltage (LV) users could cause power loss and
electric shock. It is essential to monitor and identify anomalous users of electricity theft.
However, smart meters of LV users occasionally fail to update the data to the centralized
advanced metering infrastructure. In the proposed approach, the Granger causality test is
applied in the distribution transformer unit with edge computing. Since the distribution
transformer unit collects the data without distortion, the proposed method can prevent the
distortion caused by updating failure. Furthermore, fog computing can be introduced as
another decentralized paradigm for anomaly detection. Jaiswal et al. [107] proposed a
hierarchical fog computing architecture to develop anomaly detection machine learning
models. The proposed anomaly detection consists of two parts: model training and anomaly
detection. The evaluation results confirm the efficacy of the proposed architecture.
4.6. Measurement Placement
MEC extends a cloud computing scheme and leverages servers near end-users at the
network edge to provide a cloud-like environment. An appropriate measurement placement
strategy plays a crucial role in the performance of such service-based applications. The
features of modern smart grids, such as large-scale geographical distribution, bring challenging
issues to measurement placement. In this subsection, several research topics on measurement
placement are summarized and discussed.
Zhao et al. [108] focused on low-delay resource scheduling in power systems. The paper
presents that as an increasing number of smart devices are used in smart grids, the massive
data and calculations become heavy burdens for the power system. To improve processing
efficiency, the authors proposed two heuristic algorithms combined with edge computing
architecture. For the virtual machine sequence issue, sorting the virtual machines with the
critical path algorithm is ideal for reducing the computing time. The second stage is to use an
enhanced best-fit algorithm to improve the placement strategy, avoiding an increase in
computing time. The experiments show that this two-stage algorithm ensures the optimal
placement of virtual machines and effectively shortens the computing time of the power
system.
Fault detection plays a primary role in modern smart grids. In paper [109], a framework
based on the phasor measurement unit (PMU) and edge computing is proposed for fault
detection and localization. In this framework, PMUs with embedded personal computers are
placed at a primary substation and a secondary substation at the end of a feeder. This
framework makes the fault detection and localization perform at the edge of the local
network. The communication delay and the data loss are eliminated.

4.7. State Estimation

In modern power systems, state estimation (SE) is a necessary approach to monitor
power grids. SE is a method to process the imperfect measurements and find the actual values
of the unknown variables. It is a digital scheme that can estimate the true state of the power
system. Modern power systems perform many functions, such as generating and transmitting
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 18 of 28

electricity across multiple geographic areas. Computer-based management systems have

emerged for controlling and managing such complex systems. Power systems typically are
divided into several areas. Different areas are interconnected with each other. All areas need
to keep the frequency the same under steady-state conditions [110]. However, power systems
constantly suffer from disturbances covering a wide range of conditions. Therefore, real-time
monitoring and control are essential functions in power systems. SE can provide real-time data
for many of the central control and dispatch functions in a power system [111].
In power systems, there are always some imperfect measurements that are considered
unknown variables. SE can estimate the true values of these unknown variables by using
statistical criteria. With the development of the smart grid, the volume of the measuring data
is increasing. In this situation, real-time control requires a wider bandwidth and more
computing resources. To solve this issue, the state estimation can be executed at the edge
nodes in the local area. Then, the estimated results can be updated in the control center.
Edge computing is an ideal architecture to achieve this goal.
Meloni et al. [112] proposed a cloud–edge-based architecture for SE in modern smart
grids. This solution combines cloud resources and edge computing advantages. Meanwhile,
virtualization techniques are used to split the processing of measurement data from the
physical devices. The traditional evaluation of the state of the power grid is performed at a
slow rate and is suitable for steady-state operating conditions. The increasing scale of the
power grid challenges power management. Therefore, the proposed system includes sensing
devices such as PMUs that can dynamically monitor and control the system and properly
handle anomalous states. This effective wide-area measurement system is based on PMUs and
is bandwidth-consuming. To improve accuracy and reduce delay, edge computing is
introduced. The edge devices in the network are considered micro-cloud servers to host the
advanced processing functions and application modules. The results show that this cloud–
edge-based architecture can ensure the accuracy and latency of the estimation. The
bandwidth is greatly reduced even when the PMUs execute full operating estimation. In
another work, Kuraganti et al. [113] proposed a distributed hierarchy-based framework to
ensure the SE data is not attacked and manipulated. Typically, the data for SE are collected
from the PMUs and transmitted to a fixed center for future processing. The proposed
framework guarantees that both data aggregation and SE are executed on random devices.
The simulations on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 5-bus system and
IEEE 118-bus system show that the framework can observably protect the SE data.

4.8. Energy Storage

An increasing number of wide-range power outages have become more frequent in
recent years due to drastic climate change. Nowadays, extreme weather happens more
frequently, and these conditions challenge the stability and recovery capability of the power
system. The impact of power outages is more significant than before. To enhance the reliability
of the power system, Chuangpishit et al. [114] presented an advanced mobile energy storage
system (MESS) to enhance the resilience of the power system. MESS can be considered a
primary technology to offer a clean alternative to diesel or gas generators and provide
emergency outage management. Typically, the MESS is small in size and cannot supply all the
critical loads during the outage recovery time. Meanwhile, there are two more challenges:
reconfiguring the customer connections and dedicating the backup energy storage system; the
increasing size and number of devices are considered critical loads. As the technology of MESS
evolves, the system size and the grid scale are growing rapidly. The article introduces several
MESS use cases with planned or unplanned power outages. It also shows the business benefits
the MESS can bring. The results indicate that MESS is an ideal power supply during recovery
time. However, MESS is dependent on geography and some other distribution system
characteristics. Utilities should use MESS based on their conditions and requirements.

4.9. Resource Management

Since the grid edge is a comprehensive concept covering a series of resources at the
customer side, behind-the-meter (BTM) resources at the grid edge have become a popular
topic in recent years. In [115], Y. Y. C. Zhang illustrated that BTM resources are treated as a
primary component of the power grid. These resources, such as DERs and flexible loads, are
important during the traditional power systems’ transition to net-zero emissions and 100%
renewable generation. Therefore, monitoring and forecasting these resources are critical goals
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 19 of 28

in power system management. This paper focuses on discussing the gaps and issues of grid
edge visibility. The gap in this paper is considered as “the deficiency in the performance of a
grid entity’s responsibilities (e.g., efficiency or reliability) as a result of limitations in either the
existing sensing and measurement technologies or the surrounding institutional frameworks or
standards”. The gaps in grid edge visibility include four categories: weather forecasting, grid
edge monitoring, data standards, and stakeholder obstacles.
The first gap is weather sensing and forecasting. Accurate real-time forecasts and
weather monitoring play an important role in forecasting grid edge DERs and the net load. The
traditional method relies on third-party weather forecasting data, which are collected on a
very large spatial and temporal scale. To improve the accuracy and reduce latency of the
weather data, one solution is to develop local weather monitoring sensors. The local weather
monitoring sensors at the grid edge can provide real-time weather data and benefit resource
management. The second gap is the lack of real-time visibility of grid edge components. One
avenue to address this issue is to sort the grid edge devices by type and by load. Different
devices are suitable for using different monitors to collect data. The third gap is the lack of
standard data formats among different applications. With the development of the grid edge
resources, standard data can increase communication effectiveness. Last but not least,
stakeholder capability and interest also harm the grid edge visibility.
As distributed energy resources become the secondary side of the grid edge, distributed
grid edge control has become a new challenge for utilities. For distributed utility management,
volt and var are two primary parameters. However, objectives such as minimizing distribution
loss, saving energy, and reducing peak demand are far from easy for existing controlling
strategies to achieve. Therefore, Moghe [116] presented a distributed grid edge control by
using autonomous fast-acting hybrid power electronics devices.
The first contribution is that the presented distributed controlling strategy is an “edgeup”
architecture instead of the traditional “top-down” approach. Autonomous devices called the
Edge of Network Grid Optimization (ENGO), are introduced to realize the “edge-up” strategy.
ENGO devices are managed by a software layer called the Grid Edge Management System
(GEMS) [Wärtsilä Energy Storage—GEMS Digital Energy Platform
Available online: https://storage.wartsila.com/technology/gems/ (accessed on 27 June 2024)].
The ENGO-GEMS system provides an effective solution for utilities to manage the distributed
grid and achieve the objectives mentioned above. Furthermore, a control principle,
implemented with the coordination of set points between all ENGO devices and the major
assets, was presented in the ENGO-GEMS system.
Due to the diversity of energy resources and increasing demand for energy, the way the
power system produces and transmits energy is becoming more and more complex. The
adoption of these new energy resources presents new grid management challenges. In recent
years, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning have been introduced at the grid edge to
ensure the reliability and resiliency of energy systems. In [117], Y.C. Zhang et al. proposed edge
AI, an advanced AI technology that can handle the complex grid edge more efficiently. The
connected physical devices near the customer are embedded with AI applications and are in
charge of computation. Rather than completing the computation in the central data center,
handling the data with the devices close to where it is produced can make the operation of
edge devices more stable and reliable.

4.10. Security of Grid Edge Management System

Network-constrained energy management systems at the grid edge depend on the
interconnection of a circuit segment to deliver and receive load measurement. However, this
raises the risk of invisible false data injection attacks (FDIAs). To eliminate this risk, the paper
[118] proposes a framework to detect the FDIAs on loads and replace the anomalous data
with forecasted values. The detection algorithm in this framework comprises seven steps. The
first step is to implement state estimation with the received measurements. Then, the bad
data detection algorithm is proposed to check for anomalies in the load. If anomalous data are
detected, the system will replace the bad data with the forecasted values. Otherwise, a data-
driven autoencoder (AE) approach in another layer is responsible for identifying potential
attacks in the measurements. If there is no indication that the measurements are attacked, the
measured data can be used in a gridedge energy management system. This security
enhancement framework is tested by using an IEEE 13-bus system with three integrated DERs.
The evaluation results show that the proposed framework can effectively mitigate the risk of
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 20 of 28

FDIAs and enhance the resilient operation of grid-edge energy management systems. The
emergence of inverterbased DERs prompts diverse renewable energy sources to integrate into
the primary grid. Inverter-based DERs bring many considerable benefits, such as improving
power quality by minimizing harmonics and responding rapidly to fault isolation. Although
inverter-based DERs can provide improvements, there are still challenges that need to be
resolved. The first challenge, as presented by Gao et al. [119], is that the inherent instability of
renewable energy sources threatens the reliability of the system. The existing forecasting
method still cannot predict the variance between estimated and real values, which can result
in serious reliability issues. The second challenge is the stability of the system. Low inertia can
reduce the system’s stability margin. To address the limitations mentioned above, the authors
proposed a cyber–physical security assessment framework. The framework consists of a
cyber–physical system model involving dynamic attributes of inverter-based DERs. The
proposed framework was evaluated with IEEE 13-node and 123-node test feeders, and the
results show that this framework demonstrates significant improvement in resilience and
stabilization.

4.11. Renewable Energy Monitoring and Forecasting

In recent years, the shortage of energy resources has become a popular topic. It is urgent
to solve this issue by improving the efficiency of energy usage and developing renewable
energy resources. This subsection focuses on monitoring and forecasting the generation and
consumption of power produced by renewable energy resources.
In recent years, the power facilities of renewable energy, such as photovoltaic systems,
have been involved in a digital revolution. With the increasing scale of the distributed
renewable energy systems, it is essential to develop a new computing paradigm in monitoring.
In [120], Abdelmoula et al. proposed a framework for distributed photovoltaic systems
monitoring and fault detection in a smart city. This edge computing framework enables the
data to be processed at the edge of the network, reducing the time and bandwidth
consumption. Four light machine learning models are tested and selected as the best
performers and implemented in the edge nodes. The experiment results show that this
framework effectively improves the accuracy of fault detection in photovoltaic systems.
In [121], Lv et al. focused on forecasting short-term electricity generation and
consumption. In this paper, smart grid 2.0 is mentioned as the basic knowledge that refers to
the next generation of power grid, including distributed renewable energy resources, bi-
directional energy, and modern digital energy management systems. Smart microgrid is one of
the techniques that can help with realizing smart grid 2.0. It can provide automated
management of distributed renewable energy resources. To realize smart microgrids,
integrating edge computing and AI (edge–AI) plays a key role. An edge–AI-based forecasting
method is proposed in this article. This method includes a wind generation forecasting
algorithm implemented in edge devices based on convolutional neural network (CNN) and
gated recurrent unit (GRU) machine learning models, and an electric load prediction algorithm
in end users’ devices. Experiment results on real-world datasets from China and Belgium show
that the proposed algorithms improve the prediction accuracy of wind power generation and
consumption forecasting.
In [122], Nammouchi et al. discussed the energy management of microgrids. This paper
aims to address the microgrid monitoring issue. The proposed edge–AI framework integrates
machine learning models for forecasting power supply and demand at the edge of the smart
microgrids. Experiments on real-time data under different scenarios demonstrate that the
proposed framework can fit different types of microgrids and improve the flexibility and
performance of microgrids.
In recent years, hydrogen has become a popular renewable energy carrier and has gained
great attention from enterprises and governments. Saatloo et al. [123] proposed a sustainable
energy platform integrating plugin electric vehicles and fuel cell electric vehicles with hydrogen
as energy carriers. Furthermore, a decentralized model deployed in a mobile edge computing
system is implemented for this integrated hydrogen microgrid to interact in a local energy
market. According to the experiment results, the proposed platform can reduce the total cost.
In summary, this section focuses on nine primary topics in edge computing-enabled
smart grids, as shown in Table 3. Power grid distribution monitoring is one of the most
important research topics aimed at handling the geographical diversity in renewable energy
areas. With the development of the smart grid, smart meters play a crucial role in smart
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 21 of 28

power systems. Research on smart grid detection can provide a safer and more stable power
supply. The advanced metering system is another significant component of the smart grid,
with several applications discussed in this subsection. Furthermore, anomaly and fault
detection have been receiving increasing attention from the smart grid community recently.
Therefore, its subsection includes three popular methods of anomaly detection. The definition
and benefits of SE are discussed, and two applications focused on different topics are
described in its subsection. Finally, energy storage, resource management, and cyber security
are emerging topics associated with grid edge. Exploring the use of edge computing
technology in these areas helps enhance the resilience and reliability of the power grid.
References in this section are summarized in Table 3 by research topics and listed in Table 4 by
detailed settings in edge computing architecture.

Table 3. Reference Table of Edge Computing in Smart Grids.

Research Topics References
Power Grid Distribution Monitoring [91–94]
Smart Meters Management [95–97,100]
Data Collection and Analysis [101,102]
Anomaly Detection [103–107]
Measurement Placement [108,109]
State Estimation [112,113]
Energy Storage [114]
Resource Management [115–117]
Security of Grid Edge Management System [118,119]
Renewable Energy Forecasting [120–123]
Table 4. Table of Edge Computing Architecture Detailed Settings in Smart Grids.
References Edge Nodes Edge Servers
IoT Devices for monitoring the smart
[91] Wi-Fi access points or 5G base stations
grids
The sensors installed on the tower and
[93] Edge computing nodes
the wires
Smart information devices such as
[92,94–96,105] Concentrators
smart meters
[97] Smart meters Long Range (LoRa) nodes
[101,106] Smart meters Edge transformers
Power Quality Meter (PQM) and Co-located embedded personal
[109,112]
Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) computer (ePC)
[113] Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) The IEDs that are elected as leader
Distributed energy resources (DERs) Edge of Network Grid Optimization
[116]
at grid edge (ENGO) devices
Distributed energy resources (DERs)
[117,119] DER clients

5. Discussion and Future Opportunities

The major objective of this review paper is to comprehensively summarize and study
edge computing and its advantages that can benefit various industries, especially the energy
industry. In Sections 2 and 3, edge computing architectures and relative technologies are
explored. The practical examples in Sections 2 and 3 demonstrated that edge computing can
solve various issues by modifying specific edge computing frameworks based on basic edge
computing architectures. These examples can also prove that edge computing can be used in a
wide range of fields, such as smart cities and smart health. In the future, edge computing can
contribute to more traditional fields and help with digital transformation. In Section 4, various
edge computing technologies in the smart grid edge are discussed and illustrate that with the
development of the smart grids and grid edge, the usage of distributed smart devices and
energy resources is increasing. Edge computing can be an ideal solution to fulfill different
requirements in the energy industry, such as forecasting the generation of electricity with
renewable energy resources. Figure 6 also illustrates that edge computing has become more
and more important for energy systems and has been widely discussed in recent years.
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 22 of 28

Figure 6. The number of reviewed papers over the years.

The emergence of the latest technologies has also proved that there are still numerous
opportunities and topics to explore. In this section, we discuss several future opportunities for
edge computing at the grid edge, including grid edge intelligence, 5G-based grid edge
application, and grid edge workflow management.

5.1. Grid Edge Intelligence

At present, machine learning and AI are popular topics. As is well known, machine
learning is a subset of AI and is a highly efficient approach for forecasting and decisionmaking.
For power system management, it is important to keep the system operating stably and ensure
grid resiliency. Machine learning, as a highly successful mathematical method, has great
potential to satisfy these requirements well.
However, to pursue higher accuracy with machine learning models, a large amount of
training and verification is required. Three general methods to resolve this conflict are
improving the hardware of edge devices, optimizing machine learning models, and
partitioning the models deployed on the end devices at the grid edge. For hardware
improvement, the basic method is to add chips that can accelerate the training speed into the
edge devices. Multi-core processing systems, multiprocessors, or even graphics processing
units (GPUs) can be used in edge devices to accelerate the training speed. For partitioning the
models on the edge devices, the independent model can be deployed in all edge devices.
Another architecture is where edge devices cooperate with local edge servers to handle data
processing and model training. High-performance computing (HPC) can also be introduced
into edge intelligence and offer opportunities [124]. HPC is an ideal tool that can support real-
time processing of vast datasets. Furthermore, this computational strength enables edge
devices and edge servers to run scalable and complex machine learning algorithms. Although
most systems and compilers running on smart devices or edge servers can provide parallel
processing, the machine learning algorithms that can be executed in parallel still need to be
developed with HPC technologies. With the integration between HPC and machine learning,
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 23 of 28

the devices at the grid edge can complete more complex tasks, such as data preprocessing and
model training.
With the development of modern power systems and energy resources, the power grid
infrastructure encounters more and more uncertainties, such as erratic load [125]. It is
important for algorithms used in power systems to deal with massive real-time uncertain
variables. The power system is a huge and complex system with a large number of nonlinear
variables and uncertainties. Machine learning techniques can be used to propose models for
uncertainty quantification. For example, machine learning regressions are one of the effective
methods contributing to the development of models for uncertainty quantification.
There are also many other opportunities for machine learning to integrate into the grid
edge. Implementing machine learning or deep learning-based fault detection in embedded
edge devices can significantly augment the reliability of power systems. Cybersecurity of the
grid edge has arisen due to the sensitive data stored and transmitted at the edge. Machine
learning and AI can benefit the identifying and responding to potential threats.

5.2. 5G-Based Grid Edge Application

5G technologies are evolving rapidly and provide great opportunities for the
development of edge computing. They allow for low delay, large bandwidth, and high-capacity
communication. These advantages can benefit the power industry by efficiently connecting a
vast number of smart edge devices. Additionally, 5G helps to establish reliable and accurate
real-time control in smart grids. 5G is vital for solving problems in traditional power grids and
extending the scale of DERs.
Although 5G brings opportunities to the traditional power industry, it also raises
challenges. One of the most urgent problems to be solved is the rapid growth of data volume.
The combination of 5G and edge computing is an ideal approach to balance the computational
and data transmission burden. However, this also brings about a series of new challenges, such
as data storage and security problems in edge devices. Furthermore, 5G-based edge
computing can support faster fault detection, recovery, and real-time operations.

5.3. Grid Edge Workflow Management

Managing and optimizing operations at the edge of the power grid becomes more
challenging with the increasing data volume and complexity. An efficient grid edge workflow is
required to ensure the functional operation of data collection, monitoring, processing, and
analysis, as well as reliable and secure communication and interoperability among diverse
devices. Implementing automated control mechanisms, utilizing advanced algorithms, and
deploying best-fit edge computing architectures to facilitate the operation of edge devices at
the grid edge will certainly be a focus of research to enhance edge computing applicability and
efficiency in power system applications.

6. Conclusions
This paper provides a comprehensive review of edge computing from the aspects of basic
concepts, architecture, communication, and popular technologies. Edge computing, as an
emerging distributed computing paradigm, enables data processing and computing at the
edge of the network, close to the customer side. Three popular edge computing architectures
are introduced: MAEC, which operates distributed computing tasks on the edge devices at the
grid edge; Cloudlet computing, which features a Cloudlet layer between the cloud center and
the edge devices, where Cloudlets perform as small edge servers to handle lightweight
computing tasks; and fog computing, which includes a fog layer comprised of numerous fog
nodes. The state-of-the-art technologies used in edge computing are comprehensively
introduced. Various applications discussed demonstrate that edge computing has become a
crucial technology across various fields.
This paper also explores a wide range of power applications that utilize edge computing
technologies, effectively demonstrating how these technologies are enhancing power system
management. As the number of smart devices in power grids grows, along with the increasing
demands for speed and security, edge computing is expected to be deployed in increasingly
diverse scenarios, providing substantial benefits.

Finally, the paper discusses several future opportunities related to emerging techniques
as an extension of the review.
Energies 2024, 17, 3230 24 of 28

The articles mentioned in this review paper are all extracted from Google Scholar. The
selection criteria are as follows: The search terms are closely related to the topics discussed in
every subsection; The summarized works should be published in recent years; The papers
should clearly describe the usage of edge computing.
This review paper serves as a reference to researchers interested in edge computing to
comprehend the fundamental knowledge, learn about the popular applications, and advance
research in power systems.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.L. and S.J.; methodology, S.L. and S.J.; validation,
S.L. and S.J. and Y.C.; investigation, S.L.; resources, S.L.; writing—original draft preparation, S.L.; writing—
review and editing, S.L., S.J. and Y.C.; visualization, S.L.; supervision, S.J. and Y.C. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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