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Desire ias ancient history

Sociology of Development and Globalization (Jamia Millia Islamia)

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DESIRE IAS
TAMIL NADU
BOOK
(Summary)
REVISION OR SHORT NOTES

ANCIENT
HISTORY
ENGLISH MEDIUM

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LESSON 1
INDIA- GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
AND THEIR IMPACT ON HISTORY

(Revision or Short Notes)

(11th Class Tamil Nadu Book)

Key points

 The name Bharatavarsha or the land of Bharata was given to the whole country, after the name of an
ancient tribe called the Bharatas.
 This kind of political unity was attained at least twice during the Mauryan and Gupta Empires.
 The unity of India was also recognized by foreigners. They first came into contact with the people living
on the Sindhu or the Indus, and so they named the whole country after this river.
 The word Hind is derived from the Sanskrit term Sindhu, and in course of time the country came to be
known as ‘India’ in Greek, and ‘Hind’ in Persian and Arabic languages.
 In the third century B.C., Prakrit language served as the lingua franca of the country. Throughout the
major portion of India, Asoka’s inscriptions were written in the Prakrit language.

LESSON 2
PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND
THE HARAPPAN CULTURE

Part-1

The history of human settlements in India goes back to prehistoric times. No written records are available for the pre-
historic period. However, plenty of archaeological remains are found

In India, prehistoric period is divided into

a. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age),

b. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age),
c. Neolithic (New Stone Age) and
d. Metal Age.
 these periods were not uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent.
 The dating of the pre-historic period is done scientifically. The technique of radio-carbon dating is commonly used
for this purpose. It is based on measuring the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time. Another
dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the number of tree rings in wood.

Paleolithic or Old Stone Age

Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic people are scattered across the subcontinent. They also lived rarely
in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age

in India are:

 The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India.

 The Siwalik hills on the north India.

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 Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh.

 Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
 Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and
 Attirampakkam near Chennai.

Features

 people are called as hunter-gatherers.

 Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite.
 We have little knowledge about their language and communication.
 A few Old Stone Age paintings have also been found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places.
 The period before 10000 B.C. is assigned to the Old Stone Age.

Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age

 The next stage of human life is called Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age which falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000
B.C.
 transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age.
 Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of
Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh and Bihar.
 The paintings and engravings found

Features

 tiny stone artifacts, often not more than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths.
 The hunting-gathering pattern of life continued
 a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing.
 use of bow and arrow also began during this period.
 tendency to settle for longer periods in an area.
 domestication of animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation started.
 burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to have been practiced.

Neolithic Age

 dated from 6000 B.C to 4000 B.C.

 include the Kashmir valley,Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh and in several places of the Deccan.
 The important Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka,
Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.

Features

 practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of stone tools and the manufacture of pottery.
 emergence of village communities based on sedentary life.
 Stone tools were now polished.
 Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts.
 Wheels were used to make pottery. Pottery was used for cooking as well as storage of food grains.
 Large urns were used as coffins for the burial of the dead.
 Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India.
 people of Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool.

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Metal Age

 Neolithic period is followed by Chalcolithic (copper-stone) period when copper and bronze came to be used.
 The new technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an important development in human
civilization.
 The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age.
 Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas.
 The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related to Megalithic Burials.
 Megalith means Large Stone. The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are extensively found
in South India.
 Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and
Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu.
 Black and red pottery,iron artifacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons were found in the burial pits.

The Harappan Civilization

Part-2 (Revision Notes, Tamil Nadu Ancient History)

 Earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sind. Both
places are now in Pakistan
 It was first called the ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’.But this civilization was later named as the ‘Indus Civilization’
due to the discovery of more and more sites far away from the Indus valley.
 It has come to be called the ‘Harappan Civilization’ after the name of its first discovered site.

Important Sites

other sites are Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan

Salient Features of the Harappan Culture

1-Town Planning

 System of town planning on the lines of the grid system – that is streets and lanes cutting across one another
almost at right angles thus dividing the city into several rectangular blocks.
 Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick. Below the
citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the common people.
 use of burnt bricks
 absence of stone building

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 underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains which were covered by stone slabs or
bricks.
 Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath
 Flights of steps at either end lead to the surface.
 There are side rooms for changing clothes.
 The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks.
 Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room, and an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain.
It must have served as a ritual bathing site.
 The largest building in Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet breadth.
 But in the citadel of Harappa we find as many as six granaries

2-Economic life

 Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton.
 Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established.
 Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding examples of the Harappan metal craft.
 Gold and silver ornaments are found in many places.
 Pottery remains plain and in some places red and black painted
 Pottery is found. Beads were manufactured from a wide variety of semi-precious stones.
 Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran.
 trade links between the Indus and Sumerian people. Many seals of Indus valley have been found in Mesopotamia.
Trade was of the barter type.

3-Social Life

 Beads were worn by men and women

 ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi precious stones. The use of cosmetics was
common.
 Spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks, knives are made of copper.
 Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes. numerous specimens of
weapons of war such as axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.

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4-Arts

 Dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made of bronze

 Its right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm, covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture.
 Pots and jars were painted with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality.
 The pictorial motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees.
 On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock.

4-Script
 Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered
 Script was mostly written from right to left.
 In a few long seals the boustrophedon method – writing in the reverse direction in alternative lines – was adopted.

5-Religion
 chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and
two horns.
 He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different direction). Two deer
appear on his feet.
 The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. In latter times, Linga worship
was prevalent.
 Trees and animals were also worshipped by the Harappans.
 They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.

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6-Burial Methods
 cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro,Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar
 Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular at Mohenjodaro.
 At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins.
 Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa.
 The practice of pot burials is found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons. However, there is no clear
evidence for the practice of Sati.

Decline of the Harappan Culture

 According to some scholars the final blow was delivered by the invasion of Aryans. The destruction of forts is
mentioned in the Rig Veda
 discovery of human skeletons huddled together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded by foreigners.
 The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have enabled them to become masters of
this region

Team Desire IAS ( Inputs)

Analysis IMAGE

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LESSON 3
THE VEDIC CULTURE

Background

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 Cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C.

 Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-
Iranian region
 Their initial settlements were in the valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later, they moved into
Indo-Gangetic plains
 By 6th century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was referred to as Aryavarta.
 This period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500
B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C).

Original Home of the Aryans

 original home of the Aryans is a debatable question

 include the Arctic region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala Gangadhara Tilak argues that the
Aryans came from the Arctic region on astronomical calculations. However, the theory of southern Russia appears
to be more probable and widely accepted by historians.
 They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as Indo-Aryans. They spoke the Indo-Aryan language,
Sanskrit.

Vedic Literature

 word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means to know.
 term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior knowledge’.
 Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig,Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
 Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns.
 Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice.
 The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the
origins of Indian music are traced in it.
 The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals
 Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony.
 The Upanishads are philosophical texts dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world and
the mysteries of nature.
 The Aranyakas are called forest books and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices.
 The author of Ramayana was Valmiki and that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas.

Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.)

 Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers.

 This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and
Saraswathi.

Political Organization

 basic unit of political organization was kula or family

 Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama.
 leader of grama was known as gramani.
 group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was headed by vishayapati.
 highest political unit was called jana or tribe.

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 tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.
 The head of the kingdom was called as rajan or king.
 Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary.
 King was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of the army in his administration.
 There were two popular bodies called the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of
elders and the latter

Social Life

 Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the family was known
as grahapathi.
 Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families.
 Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development.
 There were women poets like Apala,Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
 Women could even attend the popular assemblies.
 There was no child marriage and the practice of sati was absent
 Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made of cotton and wool.
 A variety of ornaments were used by both men and women.
 Eating of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal.
 social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic period as it was in the later Vedic period.

Economic Condition

 Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing.
 Their wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle.
 When they permanently settled in North India they began to practice agriculture.
 With the knowledge and use of iron they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation.
Carpentry was another important profession
 Spinning was another important occupation
 Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments
 Trade was conducted on barter system. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used as media of exchange
in large transactions.

Religion

 Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces

 important Rig Vedic gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and Indra (Thunder).
 Indra was the most popular among them during the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni
 female gods like Aditi and Ushas.
 There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period.

Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.)

 Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains
 growth of large kingdoms Kuru and Panchala kingdoms
 After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence.
 The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila

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 later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India)
and Dakshinapatha (southern India).

Political Organization

 Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period

 Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period. Hence the royal
power had increased along with the increase in the size of kingdom.
 King performed various rituals
 include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). The kings also
assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth),Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler).
 a large number of new officials were involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita,senani and
gramani.
 At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village assemblies. The importance of the Samiti and
the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period

Economic Condition

 Iron was used extensively

 Agriculture became chief occupation
 They having Knowledge of manure
 Later Vedic people were familiar with the sea and they traded with countries like Babylon. A class of hereditary
merchants (vaniya) came into existence.
 Vaisyas also carried on trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known as ganas.
 Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of
exchange.

Social Life

 four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras) Brahmin occupied a higher position than a
Kshatriya but sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins
 power of the father increased during the Later Vedic period.
 There was no improvement in the status of women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men.
 Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies.
 Child marriages had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source
of misery.
 However, the women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.

Religion

 Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance
 Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later
Vedic period.
 importance of prayers declined and that of sacrifices increased. Priesthood became a profession and a hereditary
one.
 rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices

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 authors of the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and
insisted on true knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation.

LESSON 4
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

 Sixth century B.C. is considered a wonderful century in history. Great thinkers like Buddha, Mahavira, Heraclitus,
Zoroaster,Confucius and Lao Tse lived and preached their ideas in this century
 In India, the republican institutions were strong in the 6th century B.C. This enabled rise of heterodox sects against
the orthodox religion dominated by rites and rituals.
 Among them the most successful were Jainism and Buddhism

Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

 Primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India in the 6th century B.C.
 Sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive.
 Superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people
 Teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature and
therefore not easily understood by all.
 Need was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and Mahavira
 Other than the religious factor, social and economic factors also contributed to the rise of these two
religions.
 Tigid caste system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society.
 Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class.
 Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya origin.
 growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas.
 As a result, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow this.
Therefore, they began to extend support to Buddhism and Jainism.

Jainism
Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.)

 Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition.

 He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trisala.
 He married Yasoda and gave birth to a daughter.
 At the age of thirty he became an ascetic and wandered for twelve years.
 In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana.
 Thereafter, he was called Mahavira and Jina.
 He preached his doctrines for 30 years and died at the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha

Teachings of Mahavira
three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are:
 right faith
 right knowledge
 right conduct
Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira.
Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory that there is no God and that the world has been existing without
a creator and that all objects possess a soul.

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 Right conduct refers to the observance of the five great vows:

 not to injure life
 not to lie
 not to steal
 not to acquire property
 not to lead immoral life
 Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the Vedic rituals.
 Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful
 doctrine of asceticism and renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths by the practice of starvation,
nudity and other forms of self-torture.

Spread of Jainism
 Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings.
 He admitted both men and women in the Sangha
 The rapid spread of Jainism was due to the dedicated work of the members of the Sangha which consisted
of both monks and lay followers.
 It spread rapidly in Western India and Karnataka. Chandragupta Maurya Kharavela of Kalinga and the
royal dynasties of south India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas
patronized Jainism.
 By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley.
 Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka.
 Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named Sthulabahu who changed the code of
conduct for the monks.
 This led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (white clad)and Digambaras (Sky-clad or
Naked).
 first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the
beginning of the 3rd century B.C.
 The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5th century A.D.
 The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this council.

Buddhism
Life of Gautama Buddha (567- 487 B.C.)
 Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 567 B.C. in Lumbini Garden near
Kapilavastu.
 His father was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and mother Mayadevi
 he was brought up by his aunt Prajapati Gautami.
 At the age of sixteen he married Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula.
 The sight of an old man,a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from worldly life.
 He left home at the age of twenty nine
 He wandered for seven years and met several teachers but could not get enlightenment.
 At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which he got Enlightenment
(Nirvana) at the age of thirty five.
 Since then he became known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’
 his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares and for the next forty five years he led the life of a preacher. He
died at the age of eighty at Kusinagara.
 most important disciples of Buddha were Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali.
Kings like Prasenajit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his doctrines and
became his disciples.
 Buddha visited places like Benares, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Vaisali, Nalanda and Pataligrama

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Teachings of Buddha
 The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are:
 The world is full of suffering.
 The cause of suffering is desire.
 If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed.
This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.
 The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.
 Buddha neither accepts god nor rejects the existence of god.
 He laid great emphasis on the law of karma.
 He taught that the soul does not exist.
 Even under the gravest provocation he did not show the least anger or hatred and instead
 conquered everyone by his love and compassion.
 He was a rationalist who tried to explain things in the light of reason and not on the basis of blind
faith
 he did not make a direct attack on the caste system, he was against any social distinctions and
threw open his order to all
 Buddhism was more a social than religious revolution.
 It taught the code of practical ethics and laid down the principle of social equality.

Spread of Buddhism
 Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers (upasikas).
 The monks were organized into the Sangha for the purpose of spreading his teachings.
 The membership was open to all persons, male or female and without any caste restrictions.
 Sangha was governed on democratic lines
 Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican states of North India embraced this religion
 Asoka embraced Buddhism.
 Through his missionary effort Asoka spread Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon.
 Thus a local religious sect was transformed into a world religion.

Buddhist Councils
 first Buddhist Council was held at Rajagraha under the chairmanship of Mahakasapa immediately after
the death of Buddha.
 Its purpose was to maintain the purity of the teachings of the Buddha second Buddhist Council was
convened at Vaisali around 383 B.C.
 The third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka. Moggaliputta Tissa
presided over it.
 The final version of Tripitakas was completed in this council.
 The fourth Buddhist Council was convened in Kashmir by Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra.
Asvagosha participated in this council.
 The new school of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism came into existence during this council.
 The Buddhism preached by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka was known as Hinayana.
 Buddhist texts were collected and compiled some five hundred years after the death of the Buddha.
 They are known as the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya and the Abhidhamma Pitakas.
 They are written in the Pali language

Causes for the Decline of Buddhism in India

 revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to the fall of popularity of Buddhism.

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 The use of Pali, the language of the masses as the language of Buddhism was given up from the 1 st century
A.D.
 The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite.
 After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of idol worship and making offerings led to the
deterioration of moral standards.
 the attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries and the Turkish invaders in 12th century destroyed the
monasteries.

Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture

 concept of ahimsa
 Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was notable. The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya
 Chaityas
 Viharas
 through residential universities like those at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila
 language of Pali and other local languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism.
 spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.

Team DesireIAS Inputs

Analysis Part
(Team DesireIAS Inputs)
Jainism & Buddhism (Similarities & Differences)
Similarities :

 The source of both the religion is vedic religion and both and indebted to Upanishads

 Both Gautam Buddha and Mahavir belonged to princely families and not to priestly families.

 Both deny the existence of God.

 Both denied the authority of the Vedas and the necessity of performing sacrifices and rituals.

 Both have accepted the theories of Karma rebirth and Moksha.

 Both taught in the language of the common people i.e. Prakrit and not in Sanskrit which was the language
of the priests.

 Both of them were opposed to animal sacrifices.

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 Both of them admitted disciples from all the castes and from both sexes.

 Ahimsa is the prominent principle of both the religions.

 Both Buddhism and Jainism put stress on right conduct and right knowledge and not on religious
ceremonial and ritual as the way to obtain salvation.

 Both, the religions came as a sort of reform of Hindu religion.

 Both the Religions were later on divided into two sects. Buddhism was divided into Mahayana and
Hinayana. Jainism was divided into Svetambara and Digambara.

 Both had their own three gems or 'Tri Ratna'. Tri Ratna of Jainism were right philosophy right knowledge
and right character. The Tri-Ratna of Buddhism were Budhha, Dhamma and Sangha.

 Both had three main religious texts. Tripitaka, i.e. Vinaypitak, Suttapitaka and Abidhamma pitak were the
three religious texts of Buddhism, where as Anga i.e, Anga, Upanga and Mulgrajitha were those of the
Jainism.

Dis-similarities :

 Difference regarding conception Moksha : According to Buddhism, a man attains Moksha when he ends
all the desires and can attain it while living in the world. But according, to Jainism Moksha is freedom from
miseries and can be attained only after death.

 Means of attainment of Moksha: According to Buddhist Sangha is proper for attainment of Moksha and
they hate self-mortifications and severe penances. Jainism believes in fasts and severest penances.

 Ahimsa : Though both emphasise the principle of Ahimsa, yet Jainism is more strict in this connection.

 Soul:Buddhists do not believe in the existence of soul whereas Jainism believes the existence of soul in
every living being.

 Regarding Conduct:Buddhism emphasises the eight noble piths whereas Jainism emphasises Tri Ratna.

 Language of Religious texts :Most of the Jain texts are in Sanskrit and Prakrit whereas Buddhist text are
in Pali.

 connection with Hinduism : Jain religion is nearer to Hinduism whereas Buddhism followed the policy of
keeping away from Hinduism.

 Caste system :Jains opposed it but Buddhism opposed and attacked vehemently.

 Royal support and patronage :Buddhism received the royal support and patronage of kings like Ashoka
and Kanishka. But Jainism could never receive strong royal support and Patronage.

 Propagation :Buddhism spread to foreign countries whereas Jainism did not travel outside the boundaries
of India

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LESSON 5
THE RISE OF MAGADHA AND ALEXANDER’S INVASION

Background
 In the beginning of the 6th century B.C., the northern India consisted of a large number of independent kingdoms.
 had monarchical forms of government, while some others were republic
 While there was a concentration of monarchies on the Gangetic plain, the republics were scattered in the foothills
of the Himalayas and in northwestern India.
 In the republics, the power of decision in all matters of state vested with the Public Assembly which was composed
of the tribal representatives or heads of families. All decisions were by a majority vote.
 Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’.
 They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka,
Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja.
 The Jain texts also contain references to the existence of sixteen kingdoms.
 In course of time, the small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually got eliminated.
 Finally in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived

Vatsa
 situated on the banks of the river Yamuna.
 capital Kausambi near modern Allahabad. Its most popular ruler was Udayana
 After his death, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom

Avanti
 CapitalUjjain
 important rulerPradyota.
 He patronized Buddhism

Kosala
 Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its famous ruler. He was highly educated. His position was
further trengthened . He was highly educated
 His sister was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequently there was a dispute with
Ajatasatru.
 After the death of this powerful king, Kosala became part of the Magadha.

Magadha

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 Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous.
 It became the nerve centre of political activity in north India.
 Magadha was endowed by nature with certain geographical and strategic advantages.
 strategic position between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It had a fertile
soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron
 deposits near Gaya added to its natural assets. Her location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days
contributed to her wealth. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha.
 During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.

Bimbisara (546 - 494 B.C.)

 Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty.
 He married Kosaladevi, sister of Prasenajit. He was given the Kasi region as dowry which yielded large revenue.
 Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. However, both religions claim
him as their supporter and devotee. He seems to have made numerous gifts to the Buddhist Sangha
Ajatasatru (494 - 462 B.C.)
 He fought against Kosala and Vaisali. His won a great success against a formidable confederacy led by the
Lichchavis of Vaisali.
 realised the strategic importance of the small village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra).
 But it is generally believed that in the beginning he was a follower of Jainism and subsequently embraced Buddhism.
He is said to have met Gautama Buddha.
 This scene is also depicted in the sculptures of Barhut. According to the Mahavamsa, he constructed several chaityas
and viharas.
 He was also instrumental in convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha soon after the death of the Buddha.
 immediate successor of Ajatasatru was Udayin
 Udayin’s successors were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Saisunaga

Saisunaga dynasty
 After Saisunaga, the mighty empire began to collapse. His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka.
 During his reign the second Buddhist Council was held at Vaisali. Kalasoka was killed by the founder of the Nanda
dynasty

Nandas
 Mahapadma Nanda was a powerful ruler of the Nanda dynasty. He uprooted the kshatriya dynasties in north India
and assumed the title ekarat.
 The Puranas speak of the extensive conquests made by Mahapadma.
 The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by the Nandas.
 Many historians believe that a considerable portion of the Deccan was also under the control of the Nandas.
Therefore, Mahapadma Nanda may be regarded as a great empire builder
 enormous wealth of the Nandas is also referred to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the poet Mamulanar.
 The oppressive way of tax collection by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people.
 Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya initiated a popular movement against the Nanda rule.
It was during this time that Alexander invaded India.

PERSIAN AND GREEK INVASIONS

Persian Invasions
Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C)
 Cyrus the Great was the greatest conqueror of the Achaemenian Empire.He was the first conqueror who led an
expedition and entered into India.
 He captured the Gandhara region. All Indian tribes to the west of the Indus river submitted to him and paid tribute.

Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.)

 Darius sent a naval expedition under Skylas to explore the Indus.

Xerxes (465-456 B.C.)

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 Not so important for UPSC Exam

Effects of the Persian Invasion

 Persian invasion provided an impetus to the growth of Indo-Iranian commerce. Also, it prepared the ground for
Alexander’s invasion.
 The use of the Kharoshti script, a form of Iranian writing became popular in northwestern India and some of Asoka’s
edicts were written in that script very idea of issuing edicts by Asoka and the wording used in the edicts are traced
to Iranian influence

Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.)

Political Condition on the eve of Alexander’s Invasion
 After two centuries of the Persian invasion, Alexander from Macedonia invaded India. On the eve of his invasion,
there were a number of small kingdoms in northwestern India.
 northwestern India remained the most disunited part of India and the rulers were fighting with one another. They
never come together against common enemy

Causes of the Invasion

 Alexander ascended the throne of Macedonia after the death of his father Philip in 334 B.C. He conquered the whole
of Persia by defeating Darius III in the battle of Arbela in 330 B.C.
 writings of Greek authors like Herodotus about the fabulous wealth of India attracted Alexander
 that on the eastern side of India there was the continuation of the sea, according the geographical knowledge of his
period. So, he thought that by conquering India, he would also conquer the eastern boundary of the world

Battle of Hydaspes
 In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and spent nearly ten months in fighting with the tribes.
 He crossed the Indus in February 326 B.C. with the help of the bridge of boats.
 He was warmly received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila. From there Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit.
 But Porus refused and decided to fight against Alexander. Then Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the
river Hydaspes (Jhelum).
 As there were heavy floods in the river, Alexander was not able to cross it It was a well-contested battle.
 Although Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle Alexander was impressed by the courage reinstated him on his
throne
 Alexander continued his march as far as the river Beas encountering opposition from the local tribes. He wanted
to proceed still further eastwards towards the Gangetic valley.
 But he could not do so because his soldiers refused to fight.
 Hardships of prolonged warfare made them tired and they wanted to return home.
 He divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put them under his governors.
 he reached Babylon where he fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C.

Effects of Alexander’s invasion

 immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was that it encouraged political unification of north India under the
Mauryas.The system of small independent states came to an end
 direct contact between India and Greece.
 His authority in the Indus valley was a short-lived one because of the expansion of Mauryan Empire under
Chandragupta Maurya

Chapter 6
THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

 Opens a new era in the history of India. For the first time, the political unity was achieved in India. Moreover, the
history writing has also become clear from this period due to accuracy in chronology and sources.
 a number of epigraphical records are also available

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Literary Sources
Kautilya’s Arthasastra

 This book in Sanskrit was written by Kautilya, a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya. Kautilya was also called
‘Indian Machiavelli’.
 The manuscript of Arthasastra was first discovered by R. Shama Sastri in 1904.

The Arthasastra contains 15 books and 180 chapters but it can be divided into three parts:

 the first deals with the king and his council and the departments of government;
 the second with civil and criminal law; and
 the third with diplomacy and war. It is the most important literary source for the history of the Mauryas.

Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa

 The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in Sanskrit. Although written during the Gupta period, it
describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas.
 It also gives a picture on the socio-economic condition under the Mauryas.

Megasthenes’ Indica

 Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His book Indica has survived only
in fragments.
 Yet, his account gives details about the Mauryan administration, particularly the administration of the capital city
of Pataliputra and also the military organization

Other Literature

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 Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on the role Asoka in spreading Buddhism in Sri
Lanka.

Archaeological Sources
Edicts of Asoka

 inscriptions of Asoka were first deciphered by James Princep in 1837. They are written in Pali language and in
some places Prakrit was used. The Brahmi script was employed for writing.
 In the northwestern India Asokan inscriptions were found in Karoshti script.
 There are fourteen Major Rock Edicts minor Rock Edicts and minor pillar Edicts.
 These Edicts of Asoka deal with Asoka’s Dhamma and also instructions given to his officials.
 The XIII Rock Edict gives details about his war with Kalinga.
 The Pillar Edict VII gives a summary of his efforts to promote the Dhamma within his kingdom

POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE MAURYAS

Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.)

 Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. He, at the young age of 25, captured Pataliputra
from the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty, Dhanananda.
 In this task he was assisted by Kautilya, who was also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta.
 he moved to central India and occupied the region north of Narmada river.
 In 305 B.C., he marched against Selukas Niketar, who was Alexander’s General controlling the northwestern India.
Chandragupta Maurya defeated him and a treaty was signed.
 By this treaty, Selukas Niketar ceded the trans-Indus territories – namely Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia – to the
Mauryan Empire. He also gave his daughter in marriage to the Mauryan prince.
 Chandragupta made a gift of 500 elephants to Selukas. Megasthenes was sent to the Mauryan court as Greek
ambassador
 Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour of his
son Bindusara. Then he went to Sravana Belgola, near Mysore along with Jain monks led by Bhadrabhagu and
starved himself to death.

Bindusara (298 – 273 B.C.)

 Bindusara was called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning slayer of enemies. He is said to have conquered
the Deccan up to Mysore. Taranatha, the Tibetan monk states that Bindusara conquered 16 states comprising ‘the
land between the two seas’.
 The Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far south
 Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian king Antiochus I. Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I
asking for sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist
 Bindusara supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect.

Asoka the Great (273 – 232 B.C.)

 He acted as Governor of Ujjain

 There was an interval of four years between Asoka’s accession to the throne (273 B.C.) and his actual coronation
(269 B.C.).
 Ceylonese Chronicles, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa state that Asoka captured power after killing his ninety nine
brothers including the his elder brother Susima.

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 The youngest brother Tissa was spared. But according to Taranatha of Tibet, Asoka killed only six of his brothers.
 Asoka’s Edict also refers to his brothers acting as officers in his administration.
 war with Kalinga in 261 B.C.
 effects of the war were described by Asoka himself in the Rock edict XIII: “A hundred and fifty
 thousand were killed and many times that number perished…” After the war he annexed Kalinga to the Mauryan
Empire.
 Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta

Asoka and Buddhism

 According some scholars, his conversion to Buddhism was gradual and not immediate. About 261 B.C.
 Asoka became a Sakya Upasaka (lay dsicple) and two and a half years later, a Bikshu (monk).
 Then he gave up hunting, visited Bodh-Gaya, and organized missions.
 He appointed special officers called Dharma Mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma.
 In 241 B.C., he visited the birth place of Buddha, the Lumbini Garden, near Kapilavastu. He also visited other holy
places of Buddhism like Sarnath, Sravasti and Kusinagara.
 He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra who planted there the branch
of the original Bodhi tree.
 Asoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 240 B.C. in order to strengthen the Sangha. It was
presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa.

Extent of Asoka’s Empire

 Asoka’s inscriptions mention the southernmost kingdoms –Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras – as
border-states.Therefore these states remained outside the Mauryan Empire.
 According to Rajatarangini, Kashmir was a part of the Mauryan Empire. Nepal was also within the Mauryan empire
northwestern frontier was already demarcated by Chandragupta Maurya.

Asoka’s Dhamma

his policy of Dhamma was a still broad concept.It was a way of life, a code of conduct and a set of principles to be adopted
and practiced by the people at large. His principles of Dhamma were clearly stated in his Edicts.

The main features of Asoka’s Dhamma

 Service to father and mother, practice of ahimsa, love of truth,reverence to teachers and good treatment of
relatives.
 Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings and avoiding expensive and meaningless ceremonies and
rituals
 Efficient organization of administration in the direction of social welfare and maintenance of constant contact
with people through the system of Dhammayatras.
 Humane treatment of servants by masters and prisoners by government officials.
 Consideration and non-violence to animals and courtesy to relations and liberality to Brahmins.
 Tolerance among all the religious sects.
 Conquest through Dhamma instead of through war.
 concept of non-violence and other similar ideas of Asoka’s Dhamma are identical with the teachings of Buddha.
But he did not equate Dhamma with Buddhist teachings. Buddhism remained his personal belief

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Department of Commerce and Industry

 This department had controlled the retail and wholesale prices of goods and tried to ensure their steady supply
through its officers called Adyakshas.
 It also controlled weights and measures, levied custom duties and regulated foreign trade

Judicial and Police Departments

 Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal courts.

 The chief justice of the Supreme Court at the capital was called Dharmathikarin.
 There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and Different kinds of punishment such as fines,
imprisonment, mutilation and death were given to the offenders.
 Torture was employed to extract truth. Police stations were found in all principal centres. Both Kautilya and
Asokan Edicts mention about jails and jail officials.
 Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Asoka’s inscriptions.

Census

 Census was regular during the Mauryan period.

 They were also to count the animals in each house. The census in the towns was taken by municipal officials to
track the movement of population both foreign and indigenous. The data collected were cross checked by the
spies.
 The Census appears to be a permanent institution in the Mauryan administration

Provincial and Local Administration

 Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with their capitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The
provincial governors were mostly appointed from the members of royal family.
 District administration was under the charge of Rajukas, whose position and functions are similar to modern
collectors. He was assisted by Yuktas or subordinate officials.
 Village administration was in the hands of Gramani and his official superior was called Gopa who was in charge of
ten or fifteen villages Both Kautilya and Megasthanes provided the system of Municipal administration.chief duty
was to maintain law and order.
 Megasthenes refers to the six committees of five members each to look after the administration of
Pataliputra.These committees looked after: 1. Industries 2. Foreigners 3. Registration of birth and deaths 4. Trade
5. Manufacture and sale of goods 6. Collection of sales tax.

Mauryan Art and Architecture

 monuments before the period of Asoka were mostly made of wood and therefore perished.
 The use of stone started from the time of Asoka

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Pillars

 found in places like Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and Saranath

 Saranath pillar with four lions standing back to back is the most magnificent. The Indian government adopted this
capital with some modifications as its state emblem.

Stupas

 Asoka built a number of stupas throughout his empire but majority of them were destroyed during foreign
invasions. Only a few have survived
 best example is the famous Sanchi stupa with massive dimensions. It was originally built with bricks but later
enlarged after the time of Asoka.

Caves

 caves presented to the Ajivikas by Asoka and his son Dasaratha remain important heritage of
 the Mauryas. Their interior walls are polished like mirror
 caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya are wonderful pieces of Mauryan architecture.

Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas

 traditional approach attributes the decline to Asoka’s policies and his weak successors. Another approach holds
the inadequate political and economic institutions to sustain such a vast empire.
 Asoka’s pro-Buddhist policies antagonized the Brahmins who brought about a revolution led by Pushyamitra
Sunga. But Asoka was never acted against Brahmins.

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 That Asoka’s policy of non-violence reduced the fighting spirit of his army was another charge against him. But
Asoka had never slackened his control over his empire despite following a pacifist policy.
 Therefore solely blaming Asoka for the decline of the Mauryan empire may not be correct because Asoka was
more a pragmatist than an idealist weak successors, partition of empire and administrative abuses after Asoka’s
reign.
 The combination of these factors speeded up the breakup of the Mauryan empire and facilitated Pushyamitra
Sunga to drive away the Mauryan power and establish the Sunga dynasty.

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Chapter-7
POST-MAURYAN INDIA

 After the death of Asoka, his successors were not able to keep the vast Mauryan Empire intact. The provinces
started declaring their independence.
 Kalinga declared its independence and in the further south the Satavahanas established their independent rule.
As a result, the Mauryan rule was confined to the Gangetic valley and it was soon replaced by the Sunga dynasty

Sungas

 founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the commander-in-chief under the Mauryas
 challenge to the Sunga rule was to protect north India against the invasions of the Bactrian Greeks from the
northwest.
 The Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied it for some time. However, Pushyamitra succeeded in
regaining the lost territory. He also fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga who invaded north India.

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 staunch follower of Brahmanism. He performed two asvamedha sacrifices. Buddhist sources refer him as a
persecutor of Buddhism. But there is enough evidence to show that Pushyamitra patronised Buddhist art. During
his reign the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and further improved.
 last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of the Kanva
dynasty. The Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years. After the fall of the Kanvas, the history of Magatha was a blank
until the establishment of the Gupta dynasty.
 Sungas was important because they defended the Gangetic valley from foreign invasions. In the cultural sphere,
the Sungas revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice.
 They also promoted the growth of Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language. In short, the Sunga rule was a brilliant
anticipation of the golden age of the Guptas

Satavahanas

 In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryas. Their rule
lasted for about 450 years. They were also known as the Andhras.
 The Puranas and inscriptions remain important sources for the history of Satavahanas. Among the inscriptions,
the Nasik and Nanaghad inscriptions throw much light on the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni.
 founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. He was succeeded by Krishna, who extended the kingdom up to
Nasik in the west. The third king was Sri Satakarni.
 seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He reigned for a period of five years. Hala became famous
for his book Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakrit language
 greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni.
 His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his mother Gautami Balasri
 He patronized Brahmanism. Yet, he also gave donations to Buddhists
 Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi. He extended the Satavahana power
up to the mouth of the Krishna river. He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed.
 They reveal the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas. The last great ruler of Satavahanas was Yajna
Sri Satakarni

Economic Condition

 remarkable progress in the fields of trade and industry during the Satavahana rule. Merchants organized guilds to
increase their activities.
 Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade.
 greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west Deccan. Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast
were the other important seaports

Cultural Contributions

 built chaityas and viharas

 Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi stupa
 patronized the Prakrit language and literature. Hala’s Sattasai is an excellent piece of Prakrit literature

Foreign Invasions of Northwest India

Bactrians

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 Bactria and Parthia became independent from the Syrian empire in the middle of the third century B.C. Demetrius,
the Greek ruler of Bactria invaded Afghanistan and Punjab and occupied them.
 From Taxila, he sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and Menander for further conquests. Appolodotus
conquered the Sindh and marched up to Ujjain. Menander extended his rule up to Mathura and from there he
made attempts to capture Pataliputra. But he was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra
Sunga
 Menander was also known as Milinda and the capital of his kingdom was Sakala (Sialcot). He evinced much interest
in Buddhism and his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena was compiled in the Pali work, Milindapanho
(Questions of Milinda).
 He also embraced Buddhism. A Greek ambassador Heliodorus became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar
at Besnagar

Sakas

 Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia and captured them from the Greek rulers
 There were two different groups of Sakas – the Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and the Western satraps ruling
over Maharashtra
 founder the Saka rule in India in the first century B.C. was Maues. His son and successor was Azes I, who was
considered to be the founder of the Vikrama era.
 Sakas rulers of Taxila were overthrown by the Parthians

Kushanas

 Kushanas were a branch of Yuchi tribe

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 whose original home was central Asia. They first came to Bactria displacing the Sakas
 founder of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I.
 He occupied the Kabul valley and issued coins in his name. His son Wima Kadphises or Kadphises II
conquered the whole of northwestern India as far as Mathura.
 He issued gold coins with high-sounding titles like the ‘Lord of the Whole World’. He was a devotee of
Lord Siva.

Kanishka (78 – 120 A.D.)

 He was the founder of the Saka era which starts from 78 A.D.

Kanishka’s Conquests

 he conquered Magadha and extended his power as far as Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya.
 According to Kalhana, Kanishka invaded Kashmir and occupied it. His coins are found in many places like Mathura,
Sravasti, Kausambi and Benares fought against the Chinese and acquired some territories from them
 Kanishka annexed the territories of Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan into his empire
 empire of Kanishka was a vast one extending from Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east, and from Kashmir
in the north to Malwa in the south. His capital was Purushapura or modern day Peshawar. Mathura was another
important city in his empire

Kanishka and Buddhism

 Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign. However, his coins exhibit the images of not only
Buddha but also Greek and Hindu gods. It reflects the Kanishka’s toleration towards other religions. In the age of
Kanishka the Mahayana Buddhism came into vogue.
 sent missionaries to Central Asia and China for the propagation of the new faith
 He patronised Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna.
 He also convened the Fourth Buddhist Council to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and doctrine.
 It was held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar in Kashmir under the presidentship of Vasumitra. About
500 monks attended the Council.
 The Council prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas and the Mahayana doctrine was given final
shape.
 Asvagosha was a great philosopher, poet and dramatist.
 He was the author of Buddhacharita. Nagarjuna from south India adorned the court of Kanishka.
 The famous physician of ancient India Charaka was also patronized by him.
Gandhara Art
 Gandhara school of art is the territory in and around Peshawar in northwestern India. The best of the Gandhara
sculpture was produced during the first and second centuries A.D.
 It originated during the reign of Indo-Greek rulers but the real patrons of this school of art were the Sakas and
the Kushanas, particularly Kanishka. Gandhara art was a blend of Indian and Graeco-Roman elements. Specimens
of Gandhara

salient features of Gandhara art are:

 minute attention to physical features like muscles, moustache and curtly hair.
 Thick drapery with large and bold fold lines.
 Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and symbolic expressions.
 height of the stupa was raised and ornamentation was added to the structure of the stupa

Mathura School of Art

 It flourished in the first century A.D.

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 Mathura school of art developed on indigenous lines. The Buddha images exhibit the spiritual feeling in his face
which was largely absent in the Gandhara school.
 Mathura school also carved out the images of Siva and Vishnu along with their consorts Parvathi and Lakshmi. The
female figures of yakshinis and apsaras of the Mathura school were beautifully carved

Successors of Kanishka and end of Kushana Rule

 last important Kushana ruler was Vasudeva
 The Kushana empire was very much reduced in his rule. Most of his inscriptions are found in and around
Mathura. He seems to have been a worshipper of Siva.

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Chapter-8
SANGAM AGE

 Important chapter in the history of South India.

 According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu
popularly called Muchchangam.
 These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas.
 The first Sangam, held at Then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work of this
Sangam was available.
 The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except Tolkappiyam.
 The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of poets who
produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived.

Sangam Literature
 corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics
Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
 Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a work on Tamil grammar but it
provides information on the political and social Economic conditions of the Sangam period.
 The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works
 Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works –
 Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram (valour).
 Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar. Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai
Sattanar

Other Sources

 Sangam literature, the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mention the commercial
contacts between the West and South India.
 The Asokan inscriptions mention the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers on the south of the Mauryan empire.
 The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms

Period of Sangam Literature

 Roman coins issued by Roman emperors of the first century A.D were found in plenty in various places of Tamil
Nadu

Political History

 Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam Age.

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Cheras
 Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and
Musiri. They had the palmyra flowers as their garland.
 The Pugalur inscription of the first century A.D refers to three generations of Chera rulers. Padirruppattu also
provides information on Chera kings.
 Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd century A.D
 his expedition to the Himalayas was remarkable. He defeated many north Indian monarchs. Senguttuvan
introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu.

Cholas

 Chola kingdom of the Sangam period extended from modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh. Their
capital was first located at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar. Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas
 In the Battle of Venni he defeated the mighty confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor
chieftains.
 He also built Kallanai across the river Kaveri and also constructed many irrigation tanks.

Pandyas

 The Pandyas ruled over the present day day southern Tamil Nadu.
 Their capital was Madurai.
 Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the socio-economic condition of the Pandya country
including the flourishing seaport of Korkai
 Pandyan rule during the Sangam Age began to decline due to the invasion of the Kalabhras.

Sangam Polity

 Hereditary monarchy was the form of government

 king had also taken the advice of his minister,court-poet and the imperial court or avai. The Chera kings assumed
titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar,
 Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem – carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow for the
Cheras.
 king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. They were ministers
(amaichar),priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar).
 The military administration was also efficiently organized during the Sangam Age. Each ruler had a regular army
and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
 Land revenue was the chief source of state’s income while custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade.
 Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury.
 Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and day to prevent robbery and smuggling

Sangam Society

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 Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam
(agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).
 Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation,hunting and honey collection.
 Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation,
 cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.
 Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
 Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and
 salt manufacturing.
 Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.
 Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, anthanar,vanigar and vellalar.
 The ruling class was called arasar. Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion. Vanigars
carried on trade and commerce. The vellalas were agriculturists

Religion

 primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
 Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period.

Position of Women

 Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed to Tamil
literature.
 Love marriage was a common practice. Women were allowed to choose their life partners.
 life of widows was miserable. The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society. The class of
dancers was patronized by the kings and nobles

Fine Arts

 royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts in folk songs and folk
dances.
 Koothu was the most popular entertainment of the people.

Economy of the Sangam Age

 Agriculture was the chief occupation. Rice was the common crop.
 Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country. The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular.
 Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality.
 External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms. After the ascendancy of the Roman
Empire, the Roman trade assumed importance.
 The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with precious goods.
Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi,Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam
 main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and
turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief imports

End of the Sangam Age

 Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. The Kalabhras occupied
the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries
 Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period. The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas
in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and established their rule

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Chapter- 9
GUPTA EMPIRE

Sources

 Puranas throw light on the royal genealogy of the Gupta kings. Contemporary literary works like the
Devichandraguptam and the Mudhrakshasam written by Visakadatta provide information regarding the rise of
the Guptas.
 The Chinese traveler Fahien, who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II, has left a valuable account of
the social, economic and religious conditions of the Gupta empire.
 inscriptions like the Meherauli Iron Pillar Inscription and the Allahabad Pillar inscription. The first refers to the
achievements of Chandragupta I. The most important source for the reign of Samudragupta is the Allahabad Pillar
inscription. It describes his personality and achievements.
 This inscription is engraved on an Asokan pillar. It is written in classical Sanskrit, using the Nagari script. It consists
of 33 lines composed by Harisena. It describes the circumstances of Samudragupta’s accession, his military
campaigns in north India and the Deccan, his relationship with other contemporary rulers, and his
accomplishments as a poet and scholar

Chandragupta I (320 – 330 A.D.)

 founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. He was succeeded by Ghatotkacha. These two were called Maharajas
 next ruler was Chandragupta I and he was the first to be called Maharajadhiraja (the great king of kings). This title
indicates his extensive conquests. He strengthened his position by a matrimonial alliance with the Licchavis. He
married Kumaradevi, a princess of that family.
 Meherauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions his extensive conquests. Chandragupta I is considered to be the founder
of the Gupta era which starts with his accession in A.D. 320

Samudragupta (330-380 A.D.)

 Samudragupta was the greatest of the rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The Allahabad Pillar inscription provides a
detailed account of his reign. It refers to three stages in his military campaign:
1-Against some rulers of North India
2.His famous Dakshinapatha expedition against South Indian rulers
3.A second campaign against some other rulers of North India.
 In the first campaign Samudragupta defeated Achyuta and Nagasena. Achyuta was probably a Naga ruler.
Nagasena belonged to the Kota family which was ruling over the upper Gangetic valley.
 They were defeated and their states were annexed. As a result of this short campaign, Samudragupta had gained
complete mastery over the upper Gangetic valley.
 Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that Samudragupta defeated twelve rulers in his South Indian Expedition

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 Samudragupta’s policy in South India was different. He did not destroy and annex those kingdoms. Instead, he
defeated the rulers but gave them back their kingdoms. He only insisted on them to acknowledge his suzerainty
 third stage of Samudragupta’s campaign was to eliminate his remaining north Indian rivals. He fought against nine
kings, uprooted them and annexed their territories
 Most of these rulers were members of the Naga family, then ruling over different parts of north India.
 performed the asvamedha sacrifice. He issued gold and silver coins with the legend ‘restorer of the asvamedha’.
It is because of his military achievements Samudragupta was hailed as ‘Indian Napoleo

Extant of Samudragupta’s Empire

 After these conquests, Samudragupta’s rule extended over the upper Gangetic valley, the greater part of modern
U.P., a portion of central India and the southwestern part of Bengal. These territories were directly administered
by him
 Kingdoms on the east coast of the Deccan, as far as the Pallava Kingdom, acknowledged his suzerainty.

Estimate of Samudragupta

 Allahabad Pillar inscription speaks of his magnanimity to his foes, his polished intellect, his poetic skill and his
proficiency in music. It calls him Kaviraja because of his ability in composing verses. His image depicting him with
Veena is found in the coins issued by him.
 He was also a patron of many poets and scholars, one of whom was Harisena. Thus he must be credited with a
share in the promotion of Sanskrit literature and learning
 ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other creeds. He evinced keen interest in Buddhism and was
the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandu.

Chandragupta II (380-415 A.D.)

 Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II Vikramaditya
 the immediate successor of Samudragupta was Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta II.
 He married Kuberanaga, a Naga princess of central India. He gave his daughter Prabhavati in marriage
 to the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II.

Conquest of Western India

 greatest of the military achievements of Chandragupta II was his war against the Saka satraps of western India.
Rudrasimha III, the last ruler of the Saka satrap was defeated, dethroned and killed. His territories in western
Malwa and the Kathiawar Peninsula were annexed into the Gupta Empire. A
 fter this victory he performed the horse sacrifice and assumed the title Sakari, meaning, ‘destroyer of Sakas’. He
also called himself Vikramaditya
 western boundary of the Empire reached to the Arabian Sea gaining access to Broach, Sopara, Cambay and other
sea ports.
 Ujjain became an important commercial city and soon became the alternative capital of the Guptas. The fine
cotton clothes of Bengal Indigo from Bihar, silk from Banares, the scents of the Himalayas and the sandal and
species from the south were brought to these ports without any interference.
 The western traders poured Roman gold into India in return for Indian products. The great wealth of the Gupta
Empire was manifest in the variety of gold coins issued by Chandragupta II.

Other Conquests

 Kushanas ruling in this region were subdued by him. With these conquests, the Gupta empire extended in the
west as far as western Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar.
 In the northwest it extended beyond the Hindukush up to Bactria. In the east, it included even eastern Bengal and
in the south the Narmada river formed the boundary

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Fahien’s Visit

 famous Chinese pilgrim, Fahien visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II. Out of his nine years
stay in India, he spent six years in the Gupta empire.
 He came to India by the land route through Khotan, Kashgar, Gandhara and Punjab. He visited Peshawar,
Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara,Pataliputra, Kasi and Bodh Gaya among other places.
He returned by the sea route, visiting on the way Ceylon and Java.
 He stayed in Pataliputra for three years studying Sanskrit and copying Buddhist texts
 Fahien provides valuable information on the religious, social and economic condition of the Gupta empire.
According to him,Buddhism was in a flourishing condition in the northwestern India but in the Gangetic
valley it was in a state of neglect.
 He refers to the Gangetic valley as the ‘land of Brahmanism’. Fahien mentions the unsatisfactory state of
some of the Buddhist holy places like Kapilavastu and Kusinagara. According to him the economic
condition of the empire was prosperous
 he did not mention the name of Chandragupta II. He was not interested in political affairs. His interest
was primarily religion. He assessed everything from the Buddhist angle

Estimate of Chandragupta II

 power and glory of Gupta empire reached its peak under the rule Chandragupta II Vikramaditya
 great literary figures like Kalidasa. He promoted artistic activity. Because of the high level of cultural
 Gupta period is generally referred to as a golden age

Successors of Chandragupta II

 Kumaragupta was the son and successor of Chandragupta II.

 He issued a number of coins and his inscriptions are found all over the Gupta empire. He also performed an
asvamedha sacrifice.
 he laid the foundation of the Nalanda University
 At the end of his reign, a powerful wealthy tribe called the ‘Pushyamitras’ defeated the Gupta army. A branch of
the Huns from Central Asia made attempts to cross the Hindukush mountains and invade India.
 Skandagupta who really faced the Hun invasion. He fought successfully against the Huns and saved the empire
 After Skandagupta’s death, many of his successors like Purugupta, Narasimhagupta, Buddhagupta and
 Baladitya could not save the Gupta empire from the Huns. Ultimately,the Gupta power totally disappeared due to
the Hun invasions and later by the rise of Yasodharman in Malwa

Gupta Administration

 Gupta kings assumed titles like Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat and Chakravartin. The
king was assisted in his administration by a council consisting of a chief minister, a Senapati or commander in-
chief of the army and other important officials. A high official called Sandivigraha was mentioned in the Gupta
inscriptions, most probably minister for foreign affairs
 provincial administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas.
 Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis and provincial governors as Uparikas.
 They were mostly chosen from among the princes. Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishyas or districts.
 They were governed by Vishyapatis. Nagara Sreshtis were the officers looking after the city administration. The
villages in the district were under the control of Gramikas.
 There were no restrictions on people’s movements and they enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom. There
was no state interference in the individual’s life. Punishments were not severe.
 Imposing a fine was a common punishment. There was no spy system.

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 The administration was so efficient that the roads were kept safe for travelers, and there was no fear of thieves.
He mentioned that people were generally prosperous and the crimes were negligible.
 Fahien had also appreciated the efficiency of the Gupta administration as he was able to travel without any fear
throughout the Gangetic valley. On the whole the administration was more liberal than that of the Mauryas.

Social Life

 Indian society had given way to those foreigners who had become permanent residents here. But during the Gupta
period, the caste system became rigid. The Brahmins occupied the top ladder of the society.
 They were given enormous gifts by the rulers as well as other wealthy people. The practice of untouchability had
slowly begun during this period. Fahien mentions that Chandalas were segregated from the society. Their
miserable condition was elaborated by the Chinese traveler.
 position of women had also become miserable during the Gupta period. They were prohibited from studying the
religious texts like the Puranas.
 But it was insisted that they should be protected and generously treated by men. The practice of Swyamvara was
given up and the Manusmriti suggested the early marriage for girls
 religion, Brahmanism reigned supreme during the Gupta period. It had two branches - Vaishnavism and
Saivism.Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavaites.
 They performed Aswamedha sacrifices. The worship of images and celebration of religious festivals with
 Religious literature like the Puranas was composed during this period. The progress of Brahmanism led to the
neglect of Buddhism and Jainism.
 Fahien refers to the decline of Buddhism in the Gangetic valley. But a few Buddhist scholars like Vasubandhu were
patronized by Gupta kings. In western and southern India Jainism flourished. The great Jain Council was held at
Valabhi during this period and the Jain Canon of the Swetambras was written

Art and Culture

 Gupta period witnessed a tremendous progress in the field of art, science and literature and on account of this it
has been called “a golden age”.
 But it should be remembered that there was no dark period before the Gupta rule

Art and Architecture

 Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period. But most of the architecture of this period
had been lost due to foreign invasions like that of Huns.
 temple at Deogarh near Jhansi and the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas near Allahabad remain important
specimen of the Gupta art. There was no influence of Gandhara style.
 Buddha statue unearthed at Saranath was unique piece of Gupta art. The Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta
is also remarkable
 Metallurgy had also made a wonderful progress during the Gupta period
 gigantic copper statue of Buddha, originally found at Sultanganj now kept at Birmingham museum, was about
seven and a half feet height and nearly a ton weight. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is still free from rust
though completely exposed to sun and rain for so many centuries
 paintings of the Gupta period are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior. The mural paintings of Ajantha mostly illustrate
the life of the Buddha as depicted in the Jataka stories.
 The paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were highly influenced by the Ajantha style
 Gupta coinage was also remarkable. Samudragupta issued eight types of gold coins
 Chandragupta II and his successors had also issued gold, silver and copper coins of different varieties

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Literature
 Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta period. Nagari script had evolved from the Brahmi script
 best of the Sanskrit literature belonged to the Gupta age
 Himself a great poet, Samudragupta patronized a number of scholars including Harisena.
 The court of Chandragupta II was adorned by the celebrated Navratnas. Kalidasa remain the foremost among
them.
 His master-piece was the Sanskrit drama Shakuntala.
 It is considered one among the ‘hundred best books of the world’.
 He wrote two other plays - the Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvasiya.
 His two well-known epics are Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava. Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are his two lyrics
 Visakadatta was another celebrated author of this period. He was the author of two Sanskrit dramas,
Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.
 Sudraka was a renowned poet of this age and his book Mrichchakatika is rich in humour and pathos. Bharavi’s
Kritarjuniya is the story of the conflict between Arjuna and Siva. Dandin was the author of Kavyadarsa and
Dasakumaracharita.
 Vasavadatta written by Subhandhu. The Panchatantra stories were composed by Vishnusarma during the Gupta
period. The Buddhist author Amarasimha compiled a lexicon called Amarakosa
 Puranas in their present form were composed during this period. There are eighteen Puranas. The most important
among them are the Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas
Science
 Aryabhatta was a great mathematician and astronomer. He wrote the book Aryabhatiya in 499 A.D. It deals with
mathematics and astronomy.It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses.
 Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was spherical in shape and that it rotates on its own axis.
However, these views were rejected by later astronomers like Varahamihira and Brahmagupta
 Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems. He was also a great authority on
astrology.His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in Sanskrit literature. It deals with a variety of subjects like
astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture, weather, animals, marriage and omens. His Brihadjataka is
considered to be a standard work on astrology
 In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this period. He was the last of the great medical trio of ancient
India. The other two scholars Charaka and Susruta lived before the Gupta age. Vagbhata was the author
Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight branches of medicine).

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Chapter 10
HARSHAVARDHANA (606 – 647 A.D.)

 Decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period of political disorder and disunity in North India. It was only
in the beginning of the seventh century A.D. that Harshvardhana succeeded in establishing a larger kingdom in
north India.
 chief sources for tracing the history of Harsha and his times are the Harshacharita written by Bana and the Travel
accounts of Hiuen Tsang.
 Bana was the court poet of Harsha. Hiuen Tsang was the Chinese traveler who visited India in the seventh century
A.D.
 Besides these two sources, the dramas written by Harsha,namely Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyardarsika also
provide useful information.
 The Madhuben plate inscription and the Sonpat inscription are also helpful to know the chronology of Harsha.
The Banskhera inscription contains the signature of Harsha

Early Life of Harsha

 founder of the family of Harsha was Pushyabhuti.Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas.
 They called themselves Vardhanas. After the Hun invasions they assumed independence.
 The first important king of Pushyabhuti dynasty was Prabhakaravardhana. His capital was Thaneswar, north of
Delhi.
 He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka

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 Harsha now succeeded his brother at Thaneswar

Harsha’s Military Conquests

 In his first expedition, Harsha drove out Sasanka from Kanauj. He made Kanauj his new capital. This made him the
most powerful ruler of north India.
 most important military campaign of Harsha was against the Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II.
 Both the accounts of Hiuen Tsang and the inscriptions of Pulakesin II provide the details of this campaign.
 Harsha with an ambition to extend his kingdom south of the Narmada river marched against the Chalukya ruler
defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin, who after this achievement assumed the title Paramesvara.
 Nepal had accepted Harsha’s overlordship. Harsha established his control over Kashmir and its ruler sent tributes
to him.
 He also maintained cordial relations with Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam. Harsha’s last military campaign
was against the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success.
 Thus Harsha established his hold over the whole of north India. The regions modern Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct control peripheral states such as Kashmir,Sind, Valabhi and
Kamarupa acknowledged his sovereignty

Harsha and Buddhism

 Harsha was a devout Saiva but later he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist. Hiuen Tsang converted him to
Mahayana Buddhism. Harsha prohibited the use of animal food in his kingdom and punished those who kill any
living being.
 He erected thousands of stupas and established travellers’ rests all over his kingdom. He also erected monasteries
at the sacred places of Buddhists.
 Once in five years he convened a gathering of representatives of all religions and honoured them with gifts and
costly presents.

Kanauj Assembly

 Harsha organized a religious assembly at Kanauj to honour the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang towards the close of
his reign
 Hiuen Tsang explained the values of Mahayana doctrine

Allahabad Conference

 Conference held at Allahabad, known as Prayag. It was the one among the conferences routinely convened by
Harsha once in five years. Harsha gave away his enormous wealth as gifts to the members of all
 According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha was so lavish that he emptied the treasury and even gave away the clothes and
jewels he was wearing

Harsha’s Administration

 Taxation was also light and forced labour was also rare. One sixth of the produce was collected as land tax. Cruel
punishments of the Mauryan period continued in the times of Harsha.
 Hiuen Tsang condemned the trials as barbarous and superstitious. Harsha’s army consisted of the traditional four
divisions – foot, horse, chariot and elephant.
 The number of cavalry was more than one lakh and the elephants more than sixty thousands. This was much more
than that of the Mauryan army. The maintenance of public records
 archive of the Harsha period was known as nilopitu

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Society and Economy under Harsha

 Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang portray the social life in the times of Harsha
 Brahmins were the privileged section of the society and they were given land grants by the kings
 position of women was not satisfactory. The institution of Swyamvara (the choice of choosing her husband) had
declined. Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly among the higher castes.
 system of dowry had also become common. The practice of sati was also prevalent. Hiuen Tsang mentions three
ways of disposal of the dead – cremation, water burial and exposure in the woods
 trade and commerce had declined during Harsha’s period. This is evident from the decline of trade centres, less
number of coins, and slow activities of merchant guilds.
 there was a sharp economic decline as compared to the economy of the Gupta period.

Cultural Progress
 Hiuen Tsang describes the glory of the monastery with many storeys built by Harsha at Nalanda. He also speaks
of a copper statue of Buddha with eight feet in height
 brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur with its rich architecture is assigned to the period of Harsha.
 His biographer Banabhatta adorned his royal court. Besides Harshacharita, he wrote Kadambari
 Matanga Divakara and the famous Barthrihari, who was the poet,philosopher and grammarian. Harsha himself
authored three plays -Ratnavali, Priyadarsika and Nagananda. Harsha patronised the Nalanda University by his
liberal endowments
 Hiuen Tsang visited the Nalanda University and remained as a student

Nalanda University

 educational institutions. The most famous among them were the Hinayana University of Valabhi and the
Mahayana University of Nalanda. Hiuen Tsang gives a very valuable account of the Nalanda University.
 The term Nalanda means “giver of knowledge”. It was founded by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta period.
 It was patronised by his successors and later by Harsha.
 The professors of the University were called panditas. Some of its renowned professors were Dingnaga,
Dharmapala, Sthiramati and Silabadhra. Dharmapala was a native of Kanchipuram and he became the head of the
Nalanda University.
 Nalanda University was a residential university and education was free including the boarding and lodging
 Though it was a Mahayana University, different religious subjects like the Vedas, Hinayana doctrine, Sankhya and
Yoga philosophies were also taught. In addition to that, general subjects like logic, grammar, astronomy, medicine
and art were
 Admission was made by means of an entrance examination. The entrance test was so difficult that not more than
thirty percent of the candidates were successful.
 Discipline was very strict. More than lectures, discussion played an important part and the medium of instruction
was Sanskrit
 According to Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, there were 3000 students on its rolls. It had an observatory
and a great library housed in three buildings
 it was an institution of advanced learning and research

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Chapter 11
SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS – I
PALLAVAS

 After the decline of the Sangam Age in the Tamil country, the Kalabhra rule lasted for about 250 years.
 Thereafter, the Pallavas established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam with its capital at Kanchipuram.
 Their rule continued till Tondaimandalam was captured and annexed by the Imperial Cholas in the beginning of
the tenth century A.D.

Origin of the Pallavas

 They were equated with the Parthians, the foreigners who ruled western India. Another view was that the Pallavas
were a branch of the Brahmin royal dynasty of the Vakatakas of the Deccan.
 The third view relates the Pallavas with the descendents of the Chola prince and a Naga princess whose native
was the island of Manipallavam. But these theories on the origin of the Pallavas were not supported by adequate
evidences.
 the view that the Pallavas were the natives of Tondaimandalam itself was widely accepted by scholar
 After the fall of the Satavahanas in the third century A.D., they became independent. The Pallavas issued their
earlier inscriptions in Prakrit and Sanskrit because of their Satavahana connections, and also patronized
Brahmanism.

Political History

 early Pallava rulers from 250 A.D. to 350 A.D. issued their charters in Prakrit
 second line of Pallava rulers who ruled between 350 A.D. and 550 A.D. issued their charters in Sanskrit.
 The most important ruler of this line was Vishnugopa who was defeated by Samudragupta during his South Indian
expedition.
 The rulers of the third line who ruled from 575 A.D. to their ultimate fall in the ninth century issued their charters
both in Sanskrit and Tamil.
 Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this line. He destroyed the Kalabhras and firmly established the Pallava rule in
Tondaimandalam.
 He also defeated the Cholas and extended the Pallava territory up to the river Kaveri. Other great Pallava rulers
of this line were Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I, and Narasimhavarman II.

Mahendravarman I (600 – 630 A.D.)

 long-drawn Pallava – Chalukya Conflict began during his period. Pulakesin II marched against the Pallavas and
captured the northern part of their kingdom.

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 Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the early part of his career. He was converted to Saivism by the
influence of the Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar. He built a Siva temple at Tiruvadi.
 He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara,Satyasandha, Chettakari (builder of temples) Chitrakarapuli,
Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa
 He was a great builder of cave temples. The Mandagappattu inscription hails him as Vichitrachitta who
constructed a temple for Brahma, Vishnu and Siva without the use of bricks, timber, metal and mortar
 He had also authored the Sanskrit work Mattavilasa Prahasanam. His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents in
painting.

Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.)

 Narasimhavarman I was also known as Mamalla, which means ‘great wrestler’.

 His victory over Pulakesin II in the Battle of Manimangalam near Kanchi is mentioned in Kuram copper plates. The
Pallava army under General Paranjothi pursued the retreating Narasimhavarman I assumed the title
‘Vatapikonda’
 During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram. His description of Kanchi is vivid. He calls it
a big and beautiful
 He calls it a big and beautiful city, six miles in circumference. It had 100 Buddhist monasteries in which about
10,000 Buddhist monks lived
 Narasimhavarman I was the founder of Mamallapuram and the monolithic rathas were erected during his reign.

Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha (695 -722 A.D.)

 He was also known as Rajasimha.

 Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram were built in this period
 famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court. He sent embassies to China and the maritime
trade flourished during his reign. Rajasimha assumed titles like Sankarabhakta, Vadhyavidyadhara and
Agamapriya.
 He was succeeded by Parameswaravarman II and Nandivarman II
 Chola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava ruler Aparajita and seized the Kanchi region. With this, the rule of
Pallava dynasty came to an end.

Administration of the Pallavas

 Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. The Pallava state was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was
administered by officers appointed by the king.
 The king was at the Centre of administration in which he was assisted by able ministers. He was the fountain of
justice. He maintained a well-trained army.
 He provided land-grants to the temples known as Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as Brahmadeya.
 It was also the responsibility of the central government to provide irrigation facilities to the lands. A number of
irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava kings.
 The irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
 Detailed information on the tax system could also be traced from the Pallava inscriptions.
 Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue.
 The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted from tax village assemblies called sabhas and their
committees.
 They maintained records of all village lands, looked after local affairs and managed temples

Society under the Pallavas

 caste system became rigid. The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society.

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 They were given land-grants by the kings and nobles. They were also given the responsibility of looking after the
temples.
 The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism and
Jainism. The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism

Education and Literature

Pallavas capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning.

 Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India and abroad.
 The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi. Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer came
to study at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the Nalanada University, belonged to Kanchi.
Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu.
 Dandin, another Sanskrit writer adorned the court of Narasimhavarman II. Mahendravaraman I composed the
Sanskrit play Mattavilasaprahasanam
 Nayanmars and Alwars composed religious hymns in Tamil. The Devaram composed by Nayanmars
 and the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars represent the religious literature of the Pallava period.
 Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated the Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in Tamil.
Nandikkalambagam was another important work but the name of the author of this work is not known. Music and
dance also developed during this period

Pallava Art and Architecture

 Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from the rock. In fact, the Dravidian style of temple architecture
began with the Pallava rule.
 It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas and culminated in structural
temples.
Development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages
 Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples
 second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at
Mamallapuram five rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava rathas, signifies five different styles of temple
architecture.
 In the next stage, Rajasimha introduced the structural temples. These temples were built by using The soft sand
rocks. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of
the early structural temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is the greatest architectural master
piece of the Pallava art
 last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The
Vaikundaperumal temple, Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram belong to this stage
of architecture
 Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture
 Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco painting in stone.

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Fine Arts

 Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.

 The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and instruments Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this
period.
 The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the title
Chittirakkarapuli.

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LESSON 12
SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS – II
CHALUKYAS AND RASHTRAKUTAS

Chalukyas (543 – 755 A.D.)

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 Pulakesin I was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty. He established a small kingdom with Vatapi or Badami as its
capital

Pulakesin II (608-642 A.D.)

 Aihole inscription issued by him gives the details of his reign.Another notable achievement of Pulakesin II was the
defeat of Harshavardhana on the banks of the river Narmada. He put a check to the ambition of Harsha to conquer
the south.
 In his first expedition against the Pallavas, Pulakesin II emerged victorious. But he suffered a humiliating defeat at
the hands of Narasimhavarman I near Kanchi.
 Subsequently, the Chalukya capital Vatapi was captured and destroyed by the Pallavas. The most important event
in the reign of Pulakesin II was the visit of Hiuen Tsang to his kingdom.
 successor of Pulakesin II was Vikramaditya
 Kirtivarman II was the last of the rulers of the Chalukyas. He was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of the
Rashtrakuta dynasty

Administration and Social Life under the Chalukyas

 Highly centralized unlike that of the Pallavas and the Cholas. Village autonomy was absent under the Chalukyas.
The Chalukyas had a great maritime power.
 Badami Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus but they gave respect to other religions. Importance was given to
Vedic rites and rituals Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II who composed the Aihole inscription was a Jain.

Art and Architecture

 Chalukyas were great patrons of art. They developed the vesara style
 vesara style reached its culmination only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas. The structural temples of the
Chalukyas exist at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. Cave temple architecture was also famous under the Chalukyas
 best specimens of Chalukya paintings can be seen in the Badami cave temple and in the Ajanta caves. The
reception given to a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II is depicted in a painting at Ajantha
 Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages. The first stage is represented by the temples at Aihole
and Badami.
four are important.
1. Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat-roofed structure consisting of a pillared hall.
2. Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya.
3. Huchimalligudi temple.
4. The Jain temple at Meguti.
 Among the temples at Badami,the Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya are notable for their
architectural beauty.
 Papanatha temple is the most notable in the northern style. The Sangamesvara temple and the
 Virupaksha temple are famous for their Dravidian style. The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the
Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. It was built by one of the queens of Vikramaditya II.

Rashtrakutas (755 – 975 A.D.)

 Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and Kannada language was their mother tongue. Dantidurga was the founder
of the Rashtrakuta dynasty
 successor Krishna I  He defeated the Gangas and the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He built the magnificent rock-
cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora
 Amoghavarsha I (815- 880 A.D.) ruled for a long period of 64 years.
 a follower of Jainism. wrote the famous Kannada work, Kavirajamarga.
 successors of Amoghavarsha I, Krishna III  He marched against the Cholas and defeated them at Takkolam.
 He marched further south and captured Tanjore. He went as far as Rameswaram and occupied it for sometime.

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 He built several temples in the conquered territories including the Krishneswara temple at Rameswaram.

Aministration

 Rashtrakuta Empire was divided into several provinces called rashtras under the control of rashtrapatis.
 They were further divided into vishayas or districts governed by vishayapatis.
 The next subdivision was bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the control of bhogapatis.
 These officers were directly appointed by the central government.
 The village administration was carried on by the village headmen. However, the village assemblies played a
significant role in the village administration.

Society and Economy

 Hindu sects of Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished during the period of Rashtrakutas. Yet, they did not affect the
progress of Jainism under the patronage of Rashtrakuta kings and officers.
 Almost one third of the population of the Deccan were Jains. There were some prosperous Buddhist settlements
at places like Kanheri, Sholapur and Dharwa
 There was an active commerce between the Deccan and the Arabs. The Rashtrakuta kings promoted the Arab
trade by maintaining friendship with them

Cultural Contributions

 Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit literature

 Trivikrama wrote Nalachampu and the Kavirahasya was composed by Halayudha during the reign of Krishna III.
 The Jain literature flourished under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas. Amogavarsha I, who was a Jain patronized
many Jain scholars. His teacher Jinasena composed Parsvabhudaya
 great mathematician of this period, Viracharya was the author of Ganitasaram.
 Amogavarsha’s Kavirajamarga was the first poetic work in Kannada language

Art and Architecture

 art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and Elephanta. At Ellora, the most remarkable
temple is the Kailasa temple. It was excavated during the reign of Krishna I
 temple consists of four parts - the main shrine, the entrance gateway, an intermediate shrine for Nandi and
mandapa surrounding the courtyard
 It has a three-tiered sikhara or tower resembling the sikhara of the Mamallapuram rathas.
 sculpture of the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon. In another sculpture Ravana was making
attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva.
 The scenes of Ramayana were also depicted on the walls. The general characteristics of the Kailasa temple are
more Dravidian.
 Elephanta is an island near Bombay. It was originally called Sripuri. The Portuguese after seeing the large figure of
an elephant named it Elephanta
 most imposing figure of this temple is Trimurthi. The sculpture is six metre high. It is said to represent the three
aspects of Shiva as Creator, Preserver and Destroyer.

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Chapter 13
IMPERIAL CHOLAS

 After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas became feudatories in Uraiyur. They became prominent in the
ninth century.Their capital was Tanjore.
 They also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula. Therefore, they are called as the Imperial
Cholas.
 founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya.
 His son Aditya put an end to the Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita and annexed Tondaimandalam.
 Parantaka I was one of the important early Chola rulers. He defeated the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon. But he
suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas in the famous battle of Takkolam.
 Parantaka I was a great builder of temples. He also provided the vimana of the famous Nataraja temple at
Chidambaram with a golden roof.
 The two famous Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village administration under the
Cholas belong to his reign. After a gap of thirty years, the Cholas regained their supremacy under Rajaraja I.

Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)

It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I that the Chola power reached its highest point of glory. His military conquests
were:
1.The defeat of the Chera ruler Bhaskararavivarman in the naval battle of Kandalursalai and the destruction of the Chera
navy.
2.The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and establishment of Chola authority in the Pandya country

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3-invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra I. The capital was shifted from Anuradhapura to Polanaruva
where a Shiva temple was built
4-Chola power extended up to the river Tungabadhra
5-Rajaraja’s last military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldive Islands which were conquered Rajaraja
was a devout follower of Saivism. He completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeeswara
temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D. He also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.

Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)

 He continued his father’s policy of aggressive conquests and expansion. His important wars were
 He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries
 He also excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of the city.
 Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the most famous being Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram Kondan and
Pandita Cholan.
 devout Saiva and built a temple for that god at the new capital Gangaikondacholapuram tolerant towards the
Vaishnav and Buddhist sects
 Kulottunga I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter Ammangadevi.He succeeded the Chola throne
 During his reign Sri Lanka became independent.
 Chola country was absorbed into the Pandya Empire.

Chola Administration
Central Government

 emperor or king was at the top of the administration.

 They undertook royal tours to increase the efficiency of the administration. There was
 elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called perundanam and sirudanam.
Revenue

 The land revenue department was well organized. It was called as puravuvarithinaikkalam.
 All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for assessment of revenue. The residential portion of the village
was called ur nattam.
 These and other lands such as the lands belonging to temples were exempted from tax During he hard times,
there were remission of taxes and Kulottunga I became famous by abolishing tolls and earned the title – Sungam
Tavirtta Cholan.

Military Administration
 Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy. About seventy
regiments were mentioned in the inscriptions.
 The royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai. Within this there was a personal troop to defend the king
known as Velaikkarar
 Cholas paid special attention to their navy. The naval achievements of the Tamils reached its climax under the
Cholas. They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts. In fact, the Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake for
sometime

Provincial Administration

 Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each mandalam into valanadus and nadus. In each nadu there
were a number of autonomous villages.
 The royal princes or officers were in charge of mandalams.
 The valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu under nattar.
 The town was known as nagaram and it was under the administration of a council called nagarattar

Village Assemblies

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 system of village autonomy with sabhas

 Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at Uttiramerur provide details of the formation and
functions of village councils.
 That village was divided into thirty wards and each was to nominate its members to the village council.
The qualifications to become a ward member were:
a.Ownership of at least one fourth veli of land.
b.Own residence.
c.Above thirty years and below seventy years of age.
d.Knowledge of Vedas
norms of disqualification
a.Those who had been members of the committees for the past three years.
b.Those who had failed to submit accounts as committee members.
c.Those who had committed sins.
d.Those who had stolen the property of others
 From the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for each ward by kudavolai system for a year.
 The names of eligible persons were written on palm-leaves and put into a pot.
 A young boy or girl would take out thirty names each for one ward. They were divided into six variyams such as
take up six different functions of the village administration.
 The committee members were called variyapperumakkal.
 They usually met in the temple or under a tree and passed resolutions. The number of committees and ward
members varied from village to village
Socio-economic Life
 Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges
 two major divisions among the castes – Valangai and Idangai caste
 position of women did not improve. The practice of ‘sati’ was prevalent among the royal families. The devadasi
system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged during this period.
 Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish
 The mathas had great influence during this period. Both agriculture and industry flourished.
 Reclamation of forest lands and the construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to agricultural prosperity.
 The weaving industry, particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi flourished Commercial contacts between the Chola
Empire and China, Sumatra, Java and Arabia were extensively prevalent.
 Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry.

Education and Literature

 Education was also given importance
 The inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai provide details of the colleges existed in these
places
 Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like mathematics and medicine were taught in these institutions
 The development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the Chola period. Sivakasintamani written by
Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belonged to 10th century. The Ramayana composed by
 Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the two master-pieces of this age
 Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola kings.

Art and Architecture

 chief feature of the Chola temple is the vimana. The early Chola temples were found at Narthamalai and
Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district and at Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district.
 The Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a master-piece of South Indian art and architecture.
 It consists of the vimana, ardhamandapa,mahamandapa and a large pavilion in the front known as the
Nandimandapa.
 Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I. The Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram in Tanjore
District and the Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam are examples of later Chola temples.

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 The walls of the Chola temples such as the Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain numerous icons
of large size with fine execution.
 The bronzes of the Chola period are world-famous. The bronze statues of Nataraja or dancing Siva are master
pieces. The Chola paintings were found on the walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples

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Chapter 14
THE SPREAD OF INDIAN CULTURE IN OTHER
ASIAN COUNTRIES

 India had established commercial contacts with other countries from the earliest times. It had inevitably resulted
in the spread of Indian languages, religions, art and architecture, philosophy, beliefs, customs and manners.
 Indian political adventurers even established Hindu kingdoms in Indian political adventurers even established
Hindu kingdoms in some parts of South East Asia. However, this did not lead to any kind of colonialism or
imperialism in the modern sense.

Central Asia

 Central Asia was a great centre of Indian culture in the early centuries of the Christian era

India and China

 China was influenced both by land route passing through Central Asia and the sea route through Burma. Buddhism
reached China in the beginning of the first century A.D.
 Indian scholars translated many Sanskrit works at the request of Chinese emperors

India and Tibet

 Tibet was influenced by India from the seventh century.

 The famous Buddhist king Gampo founded the city of Lhasa and introduced Buddhism.
 In the eleventh century the Pala dynasty of Bengal had close contacts with Tibet. When Bengal was
 attacked by the Muslim rulers, many Buddhist monks sought shelter in Tibet

India and Sri Lanka

 In the fifth century, Buddha Ghosha visited Sri Lanka and consolidated there the Hinayana Buddhism

Indian Culture in South East Asia

 The ancient traditions refer to traders’ voyages to Suvarnabhumi, (the land of gold) a name generally given to all
the countries of the East Asia.
 Indians began to colonize the East Asia in the Gupta period. It was further encouraged by the Pallavas

Cambodia (Kambhoja)

 Cambodia was colonised by Indians in the first century A.D.

 They influenced the native people called the Khemers.
 The ruling dynasty was known as Kambojas and their country was Kamboja or modern Cambodia. Under the early
rulers Saivism and Vaishnavism made steady progre
 Numerous Sanskrit inscriptions give us a detailed history of its kings.
 Like the Pallava kings, they were called Varmans. Yasovarman and Suryavarman II were two well-known rulers
 There are plenty of Sanskrit inscriptions

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 built by Suryavarman II in his capital city Angkor. It was popularly called as the Angkorwat Temple
 The temple is constructed on the Dravidian style and the sculptures
 The Kambhoja kingdom declined only in fifteenth century

Champa

 Champa or South Annam is situated to the east of Cambodia.

 A number of Sanskrit inscriptions throw light on the history of Champa
 Twelve Indian dynasties ruled over Champa and by the thirteenth century Champa was annexed to Cambodia
 Champa Saivism and Vaishnavism flourished. Buddhism also existed side by side.

Siam or Thailand

 traditional laws of that country were composed on the model of Dharmasastras.

 The temples at Bangkok contain many sculptures depicting the Ramayana

Sumatra and Java

 Several Hindu kingdoms existed here between fifth to fifteenth centuries A.D.
 The most important Hindu kingdom in the big island of Sumatra was Sri Vijaya developed into a powerful maritime
and commercial power known as the Sailendra empire extending its sway over the neighbouring islands of Java,
Bali, Borneo and over Cam bodia.
 The Sailendra rulers were Mahayana Buddhists and maintained cordial relations with the Indian kingdoms of the
Palas of Bengal and the Cholas of Tamil Nadu.
 Rajaraja Chola allowed the Sailendra king Maravijayottungavarman to build a Buddhist monastery at
Nagapattinam.
 His son Rajendra conquered the Sailendra kingdom for sometime greatest monument of Indo-Java art is the
Borobudur which was built during A.D. 750-850 under the patronage of the Sailendras
 Borobudur is described as an epic in stone, the most wonderful Buddhist stupa in the world.
 In the twelfth century, eastern Java with Kadiri as its capital developed into the leading kingdom of Java.
 In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries which marked the golden age of Javanese culture

Bali

 Bali came under the rule of Hindu dynasties as early as the sixth century.
 I-Tsing refers to the prevalence of Buddhism there in the seventh century.
 The stone and copper plate inscriptions from that island show that it was colonised directly from India.
 Later it became subordinate to Java.
 Its people continue to be Hindus and even today we find the prevalence of the caste system there

Myanmar

 The cultural contacts between India and Burma (now Myanmar) dates back to the period of Asoka, who sent his
missionaries there to preach Buddhism.
 Many Hindu kingdoms existed in Burma.
 Pali and Sanskrit were the languages of Burma till thirteenth century.
 Both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism were followed by the Burmese
 Indian religions and Indian culture moulded the lives of the primitive inhabitants of these regions who were
elevated to a higher plan of civilization
****

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