1.

Foundations Of Environmental Systems and Societies

1.1- Environmental value systems

∙ Environmental value system (EVS) – a worldview that affects the way an

individual or society perceives and acts on environmental issues, based on
their background (e.g. economic, cultural and sociopolitical contexts)

∙ Society – an arbitrary group of individuals who share some common

characteristics, such as geographical location, cultural background, historical
time frame, religious perspective, and value system

∙ Technocentrist – a person who has a technology-centred EVS

∙ Ecocentrist – a person who has a nature-centred EVS

∙ Anthropocentrist – a person who has a people-centred EVS

∙ Deep ecologiist – an ecocentrist who sees humans as subject to nature not in

control of it

∙ Cornucopian – a technocentrist who believes that continued progress and

providing material items for humanity can be achieved through continued
advances in technology

∙ Environnmental manager – an anthropocentrist who believes that humans

should manage natural systems for economic profit

∙ Self-reliance soft ecologist – an anthropocentrist who believes that

communities should play an active role in environmental issues

∙ Intrinsic value – refers to the intangible importance of a species or ecosystem,

for example the aesthetic, ethical, spiritual or ecological value

1. Assessment tip

You may be asked to explain the role of historical influences in shaping the development of the
environmental movement. Your answers need to describe the personality or event, explain how
it has influenced the movement, and explain exactly what gave rise to the influence.

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 2. Assessment tip

In the range of historical influences selected, it is beneficial to have both local and global
examples.

Further possible examples of historical influences could include: James Lovelock’s

development of the Gaia hypothesis; whaling; Gulf of Mexico oil spill of 2010; Chipko
movement; Rio Earth Summit 2012 (Rio+20); Earth Day; Copenhagen Accord. You can also
research and find out about any recent or local events that are of interest to you.

3. Assessment tip

It is important to recognize that all EVSs are individual and that there is no “wrong” EVS.
During the ESS course you should develop your own EVSs and be able to justify your
decisions on environmental issues based on your EVSs.

4. Assessment tip

Prepare arguments examining ecocentric versus technocentric approaches for a range of

different environmental issues (e.g. water scarcity, food supply, farming, climate change, etc).
This will enable you to comment on how different EVSs influence the way that people respond
to environmental issues.

5. Assessment tip

When justifying your personal viewpoint on environmental issues you need to reflect on where
you stand on the continuum of EVSs regarding specific issues found throughout the ESS
syllabus (e.g. population control, resource exploitation, and sustainable development).

The EVS of an individual will inevitably be shaped by cultural, economic, and socio-political
context. You should recognize this and appreciate that others may have equally valid
viewpoints.

6. Assessment tip

Examples from the extremes of the EVS spectrum can be used to illustrate contrasting
viewpoints. For example, in relation to the exploitation of oil reserves in a pristine (i.e.
untouched) environment, deep ecologists would be concerned that nature will be damaged and
favour the rights of species to remain unmolested over the rights of humans to exploit
resources for economic gain, whereas cornucopians would feel that resources are there to be
exploited and used to generate income, believing that with sufficient ingenuity and technical
expertise potential environmental obstacles can be overcome.
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 7. Assessment tip

It can be argued that technology is a tool which cannot, on its own, solve any problem; there
has to be political will to make changes and then technology can help to provide solutions.

8. Assessment tip

You need to be able to discuss the view that the environment can have its own intrinsic
value.

Intrinsic value means that something has value in its own right, i.e. inbuilt/inherent worth.

1. Concept link

EVS: Environmental value systems are a key concept and are discussed in each topic of the
ESS syllabus.

2. Concept link

SUSTAINABILITY: People’s approach to environmental matters; whether it is ecocentric or

technocentric, will determine the degree to which the solutions they propose are sustainable.

1. Test yourself

1.1 Justify your personal viewpoint on the exploitation of tropical rainforest. [4]

2. Test yourself

2. Distinguish between anthropocentrism and technocentrism. [4]

3. State what is meant by the term “environmental value system”. [1]

4.Sustainable development depends on the interaction between social, environmental, and

economic factors. State the priority for each of the following sectors of society: self- reliant soft
ecologists, conservationbiologists, and bankers. [3]

5.Describe how a self-reliant soft ecologist, a conservation biologist, and a banker may each
support sustainable development. [3]

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1.2-Systems and models

∙ System – an assemblage of parts and the relationships between them, which

together constitute an entity or whole.

∙ open system – a system in which both matter and energy are exchanged with its
surroundings (for example, natural ecosystems)

∙ Closed system– a system in which energy, but not matter, is exchanged with its
surroundings (for example, the Earth)

∙ Isolated system – a system that exchanges neither matter nor energy with its
surroundings (for example, the Universe as far as we know)

∙ Model – a simplified description designed to show the structure or workings of

an object, system or concept

1. Assessment tip
A systems approach should be taken for all of the topics covered in the ESS course and you
should be able to apply the systems approach to each topic you cover. You should be able to
interpret given system diagrams and use data to produce your own, for example to show
carbon cycling, food production and soil systems.

2. Assessment tip
Systems diagrams should always be in the same format, with storages (boxes) linked by arrows
(flows). They should be kept as visually simple as possible (figure 1.2.1).

3. Assessment tip
You need to be able to construct system diagrams from information provided to you.

4. Assessment tip
You must be able to apply the systems concept to a range of scales, from small-scale local
ecosystems e.g. a pond, to large ecosystems such as biomes.

5. Assessment tip
You need to be able to construct a model from a given set of information.

6. Assessment tip
You need to be able to evaluate the use of models.
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1.3-Energy and equilibria

∙ Entropy – a measure of the amount of disorder, chaos or randomness in a system;

the greater the disorder, the higher the level of entropy. Entropy increases in a
system

∙ Equilibrium – a state of balance among the components of a system

∙ Stable equilibrium – tendency in a system for it to return to a previous

equilibrium condition following disturbance (as opposed to unstable equilibrium)

∙ Steady-state equilibrium – the condition of an open system in which there are no

changes over the longer term, but in which there may be oscillations in the very
short term. There are continuing inputs and outputs of matter and energy, but the
system as a whole remains in a more or less constant state (for example, a climax
ecosystem)

∙ Feedback – when part of the output from a system returns as an input, so as to

affect subsequent outputs

∙ Positive feedback – feedback that increases change; it promotes deviation away

from an equilibrium and drives the system towards a tipping point where a new
equilibrium is adopted

∙ negative feedback – feedback that tends to counteract any deviation from

equilibrium, and promotes stability

∙ Tipping point – the minimum amount of change within a system that will
destabilize it, causing it to reach a new equilibrium or stable state

∙ Resilience – the tendency of an ecological or social system to avoid tipping

points and maintain stability

∙ Diversity – can be defined as “the variety of life”, although the meaning depends
on the context in which it is used (i.e. can refer to species, habitat or genetic
diversity)

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 1. Assessment tip

You will need to understand the relationships between resilience, stability, equilibria and
diversity – emphasis should be put on these interrelationships as you study this part of the
course.

2. Assessment tip

The first law of thermodynamics (the law of conservation of energy) states that energy
entering a system equals energy leaving it (energy can neither be created nor destroyed),
whereas the second law states that energy in systems is gradually transformed into heat
energy due to inefficient transfer, increasing disorder (entropy).

3. Assessment tip

You need to be able to explain the implications of the first and second law of thermodynamics
for ecological systems.

4. Assessment tip

Light energy starts the food chain but is then transferred from producer to consumers as
chemical energy.

5. Assessment tip
You need to be able to apply the first and second laws of thermodynamics to energy
transformations and the maintenance of order in living systems.

6. Assessment tip

You need to be able to evaluate the possible consequences of tipping points.

7. Assessment tip

You need to be able to discuss resilience in a variety of systems, both ecological and societal.

8. Assessment tip
Human threats themselves do not affect resilience directly, because resilience is the inherent
property of the system to resist threats (tied up in its storages, diversity and so on) and the
degree of threat will not change this. However, human activities that diminish the inherent
resilience of the system by reducing its storages and diversity will change the resilience of the
system.

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 9. Assessment tip

You should be able to refer to examples of human impacts and relate these to possible
tipping points.

Concept link

EQUILIBRIUM: This is a key concept and as such it is explored through the ESS syllabus.

1. Test your self

1.6 Distinguish between negative and positive feedback using examples from
environmental systems. [4]

2. Test your self

1.7 Outline what is meant by a tipping point. [1]

1.8 Suggest one social and one ecological impact that might arise from the equilibrium
shift in the Great Barrier Reef system. [2]

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1.4-Sustainability

∙ Sustainability – the use and management of resources that allows full natural
replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected
by their extraction and use

∙ Natural capital – a term used for natural resources that can produce a sustainable
natural income of goods or services

∙ Natural income – the yield obtained from natural resources

∙ Goods – marketable commodities exploited by humans

∙ Services – natural processes that provide a benefit to the human environment

∙ Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – a detailed survey that provides

decision makers with information in order to consider the environmental impact of
a project. The assessment should include a baseline study to measure environmental
conditions before development commences, and to identify areas and species of
conservation importance. Monitoring should continue for some time after the
development

∙ Ecological footprint (EF) – the area of land and water required to sustainably
provide all resources at the rate at which they are being consumed by a given
population

1. Assessment tip

The concept of sustainability should be used throughout the course, where appropriate.

2. Assessment tip

You need to be able to explain the relationship between natural capital, natural income
and sustainability.

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 3. Assessment tip

If asked to discuss the potential ecological services and goods provided by a named ecosystem,
make sure that you give a valid, specific, named example, such as a tropical forest in Amazonia.
The range of goods and services provided should be discussed in the context of the named
ecosystem. The goods and services must be for human use, and so “biodiversity” would be too
vague unless linked to medicines, food or tourism for example.

4. Assessment tip

You need to be able to discuss the value of ecosystem services to a society.

5. Assessment tip

You need to be able to discuss how environmental indicators such as MA can be used to
evaluate the progress of a project to increase sustainability.

6. Assessment tip

You need to be able to evaluate the use of EIAs in assessing sustainable development.

7. Assessment tip

You are not expected to explore an environmental impact assessment (EIA) in depth, but rather
to focus on the principles of their use.

8. Assessment tip

You need to be able to explain the relationship between ecological footprint and sustainability.

Concept link

SUSTAINABILITY is a key concept and as such it is addressed throughout the course.

1. Test your self

1.9 Explain how the concepts of natural capital and natural income are useful models in
managing the sustainable exploitation of a resource. [4]

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 2. Test your self

1.10 State two regulating services that mountains, moorlands and heaths provide. [2]

1.11 Suggest two likely cultural services supplied by urban ecosystems. [2]

1.12 State supporting services from enclosed farmland. [2]

3. Test your self

1.13 Outline possible limitations of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). [4]

4. Test your self

1.14 Compare ecocentric and technocentric approaches to reducing an ecological

footprint. [4]

1.15 Explain how developments in technology may increase or decrease the ecological
footprint of a human population. [4]

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1.5-Humans and pollution

∙ Pollution – the addition of a substance or an agent to an environment through

human activity, at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by
the environment, and which has an appreciable effect on the organisms in the
environment

∙ Non-point source pollution – pollution that arises from numerous widely

dispersed origin

∙ Point source pollution – pollution that arises from a single clearly identifiable site

∙ Persistent organic pollutants(PoPs) – organic compounds that are difficult to

break down

∙ Biodegradable – capable of being broken down by natural biological processes

∙ Primary pollution – a pollutant that is active on emission

∙ Secondary pollution – pollution arising when primary pollutants undergo physical

or chemical change

∙ Acute pollution – pollution that produces its effects through a short, intense
exposure, where symptoms are usually experienced within hours

∙ Chronic pollution – pollution that produces its effects through low-level, long- term
exposure, and where disease symptoms develop up to several decades later

1. Assessment tip

The terms “pollutant” and “contaminant” in environmental chemistry mean the same thing.

2. Assessment tip

Pollutants only become pollutants when there is too much. For example, not all fertilizer or
manure causes pollution. Spreading manure on fields does not cause pollution if the amount
spread can be used by plants.

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 3. Assessment tip

When providing examples of primary pollutants you need to include their direct impact. For
example, NOx can be either primary or secondary without such specification. Examples of
secondary pollutants need to include the process leading to their pollutionary impact.

4. Assessment tip

You need to be able to construct systems diagrams to show the impact of pollutants.

5. Assessment tip

The principles of pollution, particularly relating to pollution management (see table 1.5.1),
should be used throughout the course when addressing issues of pollution. There are clear
advantages of employing the earlier strategies of pollution management over the later ones.
Collaboration is an important factor in pollution management.

6. Assessment tip

You need to be able to evaluate the effectiveness of each of the three different levels of
intervention given a specific example of pollution.

7. Assessment tip

You need to be able to evaluate the use of DDT, i.e. advantages and disadvantages, with an
overall conclusion about its use.

Concept link

STRATEGY: Clear management strategies are needed to tackle the environmental problems
caused by pollution.

Test your self

1.16 Explain how economic factors affect a country’s approach to pollution management.
[4]

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