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Coastal Development: Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements

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Commissioned by

BLUE PAPER

Coastal Development:
Resilience,
Restoration and
Infrastructure
Requirements
LEAD AUTHORS

Andy Steven, Kwasi Appeaning Addo, Ghislaine Llewellyn and Vu Thanh Ca

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Isaac Boateng, Rodrigo Bustamante, Christopher Doropoulos, Chris

Gillies, Mark Hemer, Priscila Lopes, James Kairo, Munsur Rahman, Lalao
Aigrette Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, Megan Saunders, U. Rashid Sumaila,
Frida Sidik, Louise Teh, Mat Vanderklift and Maria Vozzo

oceanpanel.org
 About the High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

The High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy (Ocean Panel) is a unique initiative by 14 world leaders
who are building momentum for a sustainable ocean economy in which effective protection, sustainable
production and equitable prosperity go hand in hand. By enhancing humanity’s relationship with the ocean,
bridging ocean health and wealth, working with diverse stakeholders and harnessing the latest knowledge,
the Ocean Panel aims to facilitate a better, more resilient future for people and the planet.

Established in September 2018, the Ocean Panel has been working with government, business, financial
institutions, the science community and civil society to catalyse and scale bold, pragmatic solutions across
policy, governance, technology and finance to ultimately develop an action agenda for transitioning to
a sustainable ocean economy. Co-chaired by Norway and Palau, the Ocean Panel is the only ocean policy
body made up of serving world leaders with the authority needed to trigger, amplify and accelerate action
worldwide for ocean priorities. The Ocean Panel comprises members from Australia, Canada, Chile, Fiji, Ghana,
Indonesia, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, Namibia, Norway, Palau and Portugal and is supported by the UN
Secretary-General’s Special Envoy for the Ocean.

The Ocean Panel’s approach is both ambitious and practical. Collaborative partnerships are essential to
converting knowledge into action. To develop a common understanding of what a sustainable ocean economy
looks like, the Ocean Panel gathers input from a wide array of stakeholders, including an Expert Group and
an Advisory Network. The Secretariat, based at World Resources Institute, assists with analytical work,
communications and stakeholder engagement.

In the spirit of achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), providing value to the UN Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development and meeting the objectives of the Paris Agreement, the Ocean
Panel commissioned a comprehensive assessment of ocean science and knowledge that has significant
policy relevance. This includes a series of 16 Blue Papers and various Special Reports that offer a synthesis of
knowledge, new thinking and perspectives, and opportunities for action. This body of work is informing a new
ocean narrative in the forthcoming Towards a Sustainable Ocean Economy report. Together, this research and
new narrative serve as inputs to the Ocean Panel’s deliberations for its forthcoming action agenda.
Ultimately, these papers are an independent input to the Ocean Panel process and do not necessarily
represent the thinking of the Ocean Panel, Sherpas or Secretariat.

Suggested Citation: Steven, A.D.L., Appeaning Addo, K., Llewellyn, G., Vu, T.C. et al. 2020. Coastal Development:
Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.
www.oceanpanel.org/blue-papers/coastal-development-resilience-restoration-and-infrastructure-
requirements.

ii | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Table of Contents
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Highlights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Coastal Changes and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Risks to Coastal Resilience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4. Building Coastal Resilience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5. Conclusions and Opportunities for Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
About the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Foreword
The High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy (Ocean Panel) commissioned us, the co-chairs of the Ocean
Panel Expert Group, to produce a series of Blue Papers to explore pressing challenges at the nexus of the ocean
and the economy to ultimately inform a new ocean report and the Ocean Panel’s action agenda. The Ocean Panel
identified 16 specific topics for which it sought a synthesis of knowledge and opportunities for action. In response,
we convened 16 teams of global experts—over 200 authors from nearly 50 countries—who reviewed and analysed
the latest knowledge. They then provided new thinking and perspectives on how technology, policy, governance and
finance can be applied to catalyse a more sustainable and prosperous relationship with the ocean. In short, these
Special Reports and Blue Papers provide the information needed to transition to a sustainable ocean economy.

The Expert Group, a global group of over 70 experts, is tasked with helping to ensure the high quality and intellectual
integrity of the Ocean Panel’s work. All Blue Papers are subject to a rigorous and independent peer-review process.
The arguments, findings and opportunities for action represent the views of the authors. The launches of these
papers, which are taking place between November 2019 and October 2020, create opportunities for exchange
and dialogue between political leaders, policymakers, the financial community, business leaders, the scientific
community and civil society.

Coastal ecosystems are undergoing profound changes, threatened by climate change, urbanisation, over-exploitation
of resources and, more recently, COVID-19. A unique window of opportunity exists to protect coastal ecosystems and
coastal communities from further harm in a rapidly changing world. Coastal restoration is one action that can boost
economic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, while preserving ecosystem services, community cohesion and
climate adaptation.

The latest in the Blue Paper series, “Coastal Development: Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements”,
makes the economic and security case for the development of resilient coastlines, and examines trade-offs between
coastal protection and infrastructure development. The paper illustrates that practical solutions exist which can be
implemented to allow economic and infrastructure development, without compromising the integrity and benefits of
coastal ecosystems or disadvantaging the people who rely upon them.

As co-chairs of the Expert Group, we are excited to share this paper and wish to warmly thank the authors, the
reviewers and the Secretariat for supporting this research. We are also grateful for the vision of the Ocean Panel
members in commissioning this important body of work. We hope they and other parties act on the opportunities
identified in this paper.

Hon. Jane Lubchenco, Ph.D. Professor Peter Haugan, Ph.D. Hon. Mari Elka Pangestu, Ph.D.
Oregon State University Institute of Marine Research, Norway University of Indonesia

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 1

Highlights
ƒ Resilient coastal ecosystems are central to the ƒ This Blue Paper focuses on how to enhance coastal
realisation of a sustainable, inclusive, prosperous, and ecosystem resilience and enable sustainable pathways
equitable ocean economy, as coastal areas are home for economic, infrastructure and social development,
to more than 40 percent of the world’s population and without compromising the integrity and benefits of coastal
host most of the transport, commercial, residential ecosystems, or disadvantaging the people who rely upon
and national defence infrastructure of more than 200 them.
nations and territories.
ƒ This paper identifies opportunities for nations to cooperate
ƒ Coastal ecosystems are undergoing profound by building upon past success to realise a sustainable ocean
changes, as they are challenged by climate change, economy through championing the following four coastal
threatened by urbanisation and poor upstream opportunities for action: build ecosystem resilience; mitigate
agriculture and extractive industry practices, impacts of terrestrial and extractive activities on coastal
increasing sprawl of coastal infrastructure, and over- ecosystems; advance sustainable, future-proofed blue
exploitation of resources. infrastructure; and enhance community resilience, equity
and access.
ƒ Failure to properly manage our coastal ecosystems
will result in continued environmental damage, ƒ With COVID-19 creating an imperative for stimulating
compromised development of established and economic activity, there is a unique window of opportunity
emerging ocean sectors, disadvantaged nations and to ensure that relevant policy and investment decisions
peoples, as well as inadequate infrastructure to meet address the challenges faced by coastal ecosystems and
the demands of changing demographics and climate communities, as well as foster sustainable economic
change impacts. pathways. This involves supporting the recovery and
development of impacted communities, building the
ƒ To ensure the environmental, economic and social
resilience of coastal ecosystems and safeguarding the
sustainability of our space-constrained coastal
services they provide and future-ready built infrastructure.
ecosystems, ongoing development of our coasts must
be balanced across multiple competing uses.

ƒ The full range of economic, social, cultural and

environmental values of coastal ecosystems must
be balanced through enduring partnerships and
active stewardship from government, industry and
communities, and supported through innovation and
research.

2 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

1. Introduction
More than 200 countries have a coastline, and this Coastal environments occur where the land and the
forms the basis for their claims to territorial waters and ocean meet, and they are the place where, historically,
exclusive economic zones (EEZs). Globally, about 40 people have concentrated and prospered. These
percent of the world’s population live within the “near environments are intrinsically dynamic—shaped
coastal zone”—the area below an elevation of 100 metres as they are by the interaction of marine, terrestrial
(m) and closer than 100 kilometres (km) from the coast and atmospheric processes. However, they are also
(Kummu et al. 2016). The vast majority of resources for profoundly changing across human timescales, as
current and emerging sectors that comprise the “ocean— they are challenged by extreme climate events that are
or blue—economy” are concentrated along coastal areas escalating in frequency and severity, and threatened by
within these EEZs and must operate within a complex, increasing population growth and urbanisation, poor
multiple-use and often space-constrained context. The upstream land practices, conversion of coastal habitats,
near coastal zone is also where the majority of many and environmental impacts from industry, pollutants
coastal nations’ commercial, residential, transport and and over-exploitation of resources. These changes are
national defence infrastructure is situated, and it is the direct and physical through the loss, fragmentation
backbone to domestic and international supply chains and alteration of many ecosystems, but also functional,
that deliver the marine goods and services upon which through a loss of resilience that diminishes the capability
we increasingly rely. of coastal environments to resist and recover from
such perturbations. Poorly designed and operated
Coasts sustain livelihoods for hundreds of millions
infrastructure can also create harmful environmental
of people in work that ranges from artisanal small-
and social impacts, increase vulnerability to natural
scale fisheries and aquaculture to transnational
disasters and can sometimes leave an unserviceable
fishing, shipping, energy and tourism industries. Our
burden of debt.
increasingly urbanised societies are highly dependent
upon coastal resources for food, energy, minerals and Future projections over the coming decades of our
pharmaceuticals. Consequently, the coastal economy— accelerating use and dependence on the coastal
which is much broader in its accounting than the ocean zone for living space and resources highlight that,
economy because it includes not only the sum of outputs unless we change the way we manage and adapt our
from ocean resources but also employment on or near use of coastal environments, there will be profound
the coast—makes a disproportionately high contribution consequences for the resilience of coastal environments
to the economies of many countries, and to the global and the communities that rely upon them. To
ocean economy (He et al. 2014; Mohanty et al. 2015; avoid the realisation of these projections requires
NOEP 2016; Voyer et al. 2018). A significant, but mostly innovative approaches to increase the resilience of
unquantified, informal or grey economy also occurs coastal environments, and to ensure that the services
within coastal settings and underpins the livelihoods they provide are sustained. Nature-based solutions
of some of the most disadvantaged populations. In are increasingly being adopted as complementary
addition to providing these important provisioning approaches to bridging this adaptation gap, to make
goods, the biodiversity and natural functions of intact infrastructure more resilient to climate change effects
coastal ecosystems provide regulating, supporting and and add longer-term value to infrastructure assets.
cultural services that also underpin the ocean economy.
They are also critical to our aspirations for achieving
These services are recognised as nature’s contributions
a sustainable ocean economy and many of the
to people (NCP), as they are central to links between
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). To realise a
nature and people and their culture knowledge systems
sustainable ocean economy that protects, produces
(Pascual et al. 2017; Diaz et al. 2018; IPBES 2019).

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 3

 and prospers, fundamental issues of equity, inclusion the integrity and benefits of coastal ecosystems or
and access must be addressed by developing better disadvantaging the people who rely upon them. Thus, we
governance, participatory, finance and capability- use the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on
enhancing mechanisms. While COVID-19 has had a Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) conceptual
profound impact on the economies and social fabric of framework, which rationalises inclusive valuation of
many nations, under the banner of “build back better”, nature’s contributions to people in decision-making, and
there are significant opportunities to address many of we consider resilience not only in physical and ecological
the challenges confronting coastal environments, by contexts but also in terms of social, institutional and
adopting approaches that support both a sustainable financial resilience (see Table 1).
ocean economy and associated livelihoods to create win- We have drawn upon a number of recent
win outcomes for governments and coastal communities. intergovernmental reports, notably the
For example, promoting natural infrastructure and grey- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
green infrastructure nation-building projects provides Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere (IPCC 2019)
jobs and builds coastal resilience, while establishing and the IPBES Global Assessment Report (2019), which
local supply chains for fisheries supports community provide comprehensive global assessments of current
resilience in low-income countries. and projected conditions of coastal environments.
This Blue Paper reviews the major human activities Likewise, there are a number of other excellent reports
that have increased pressure on coastal ecosystems that develop solutions spanning a number of fields:
and reduced their resilience. Our focus is principally on innovation, finance, engineering and material science,
reviewing and identifying practicable solutions that can and behavioural psychology. Many of the coastal
be implemented to enhance coastal ecosystem resilience issues and their potential solutions can only be briefly
and enable sustainable pathways for economic and considered here, and several companion Blue Papers
infrastructure development, without compromising provide more detailed analysis.

Table 1. Coastal Resilience Definitions Adopted for this Report

TYPE OF RESILIENCE CHARACTERISTICS

Physical resilience Resilience of existing and planned infrastructure, including through risk-sensitive land-use plan-
ning, incorporation of structural resilient measures into infrastructure projects, investments in
structural risk reduction measures, and improved operation and maintenance of infrastructure
as pathways to building physical resilience.

Financial resilience Improved financial management and timely provision of adequate flows through contingency
financing, increased availability and coverage of insurance and capital market risk transfer
solutions. Comprehensive risk financing solutions and enhanced capabilities to use financing
effectively.
Social and institutional Governance and the promotion of poverty reduction and social protection programmes that
resilience build community resilience and channel support to affected poor households. In particular,
building women’s resilience through greater access to technologies and finance, diversification
of livelihoods, and increased participation in women-led solutions.
Ecological resilience Natural ecosystems play multiple roles in conferring resilience. Examples of this type of resil-
ience are enhancing support for nature-based climate and disaster solutions, including upper
watershed restoration, wetlands restoration, mangrove rehabilitation, and installation of deten-
tion basins and retention ponds to reduce flooding, storm surges and coastal erosion.

Source: Adapted from ADB 2019.

4 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

2. Coastal Changes
and Challenges
For millennia, coastal environments have been the (RCP2.6 and RCP8.5, respectively). Table 2 summarises
location of many civilisations, providing resources and the historical changes and future projections for climate
materials for local use, as well as trade along sea routes drivers and ocean and coastal conditions, while below,
with other nations (Paine 2014). Today, however, the we focus on the consequences and implications of
scale of coastal use and resource demand, driven by rising sea levels, warmer and more acidic water, and a
rapid population growth and increasing urbanisation, greater frequency of extreme climate events, for coastal
is unprecedented and has been referred to as the blue environments.
acceleration—a race among diverse and often competing
Changes in the observation record—which extends back
interests for ocean food, material and space (Jouffray
to the early 1900s for tide gauges and more recently
et al. 2020). Concurrently, coastal environments, which
for measurements from satellites—from the ocean
have always been shaped by climate processes, are
around the world are clear: sea surface temperatures,
now the frontline of anthropogenic climate change,
wave energy, storminess and acidity have all risen, in
with these environments and their dependent human
many cases doubled, and have continued to accelerate,
communities already experiencing the impacts of
particularly in the last 30 years (Table 2). Near-term and
both extreme climate events and slow-onset changes,
end-of-century model projections all predict, with a
such as sea level rise. Together, these climate-induced
high degree of certainty, that these trends will continue
changes and the accelerating demand for coastal
to increase and to accelerate. What is unclear is the
space and resources, as well as the forms of pollution
magnitude, extent and timing of slow-onset climate
that result (e.g. litter, wastewater), are threatening
drivers, such as global mean sea level rise (GSLR), and
the extent, condition and biodiversity of many coastal
the frequency of occurrence and magnitude of extreme
ecosystems, and the goods and services we derive from
climate events, including inundation and marine
them. Below, we briefly summarise global patterns of
heatwaves.
change in climate conditions and human demand for
coastal resources and space over the last 50 or so years, These changes in ocean state result from both changes
and projections for the coming three decades that will occurring directly within the ocean, such as the changes
profoundly shape and alter our coastal environments. in heat content, density stratification and circulation
patterns, and cryosphere changes that include the
2.1 Climate Changes and Coasts melting of glaciers, particularly in Greenland and the
Rising carbon dioxide (CO2) and greenhouse gas Antarctic, and sea ice. Both of these factors can act to
emissions have led to well-documented global increases dilute the salinity of seawater, leading to changes in
in sea level and sea temperatures, which have resulted density and circulation patterns, but only glacial melt
in stormier and more extreme sea conditions. The IPCC will increase the volume of the ocean.
Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere (IPCC 2019; Changes in ocean condition and state are magnified in
and key chapters: Bindoff et al. 2019; Magnan et al. 2019; shallow coastal environments, where tidal and wave
Oppenheimer et al. 2019) provides the most current and energy have their greatest impact on shorelines, and
authoritative analysis of recent (1950–present) observed extend across the regional tidal range, and can result
changes in the climate system, and future projections in: increased frequency of inundation and subsidence,
(to 2100) based on low and high Representative changes in wetlands, increased erosion of beaches
Concentration Pathway (RCP) emission scenarios and soft cliffs, and the salinisation of surface and

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 5

 Table 2. Summary of Key Observation and Trends in Climate Change

PARAMETER OBSERVED TRENDS NEAR-TERM PHYSICAL EFFECTS KEY REFERENCES

(2030–80) AND ON COASTAL
END-OF-CENTURY ECOSYSTEMS AND
PROJECTIONS SETTLEMENTS
Global mean sea Rate change from Up to 2050, global Permanent submergence, Storlazzi et al. (2018)
level 1.38 mm/year during mean sea level will rise flood damage, erosion, Vitousek et al. (2017)
1901–90 to 3.16 mm/ between 0.24 m and saltwater intrusion, rising Donnelson Wright et
year during 1993–2015 0.32 m. water tables/impeded al. (2019a, 2019b)
In 2100, the numbers drainage, ecosystem loss Becker et al. (2020)
are 0.59 m and 1.10 m, (and change) Oppenheimer et al.
respectively (2019)
Regional mean sea Rising and accelerating Increased regional Coastal flooding, submer- Oppenheimer et al.
level relative sea level nearly gence, erosion, salinisa- (2019)
everywhere (RCP8.5) tion Minderhoud et al.
(2020)

Extreme sea levels Increase due to More frequent extreme Coastal flooding, erosion, Mentaschi et al.
increase in storm sea level events as a saltwater intrusion (2018)
intensity consequence of sea level
rise at many locations by
the end of the centu-
ry (RCP8.5)

Waves Small increases in Low confidence for Coastal erosion, overtop- Young and Ribal
significant wave height projections overall but ping and coastal flooding (2019)
with larger increases medium confidence for Reguero et al.
in extreme conditions Southern Ocean increas- (2019a)
and largest increase in es in wave height Camus et al. (2017)
the Southern Ocean

Winds Small increases in wind General trend of reduc- Wind waves, storm surges, Young and Ribal
velocity with larger tion in wind velocity in coastal currents, land (2019)
increases in extreme summer, autumn and coastal infrastructure Zheng et al. (2019)
conditions and largest spring, but increase in damage
increase in the South- winter in Northern and
ern Ocean Central Europe. General
increase in extreme
conditions

Storms, tropical Regionally variable Decrease in global tropi- Higher storm surge Kossin et al. (2020)
cyclones, extra- but increase in annual cal cyclone frequenc but levels and storm waves,
tropical cyclones global proportion proportion of cyclones coastal flooding, erosion,
of tropical cyclones that reach Category 4 saltwater intrusion, rising
reaching Category 4 or or 5 water tables/impeded
5 intensity intensity will increase by drainage, wetland loss
1–10% (RCP8.5); (and change). Coastal in-
frastructure damage and
flood defence failure

6 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Table 2. Summary of Key Observation and Trends in Climate Change (continued)

PARAMETER OBSERVED TRENDS NEAR-TERM PHYSICAL EFFECTS KEY REFERENCES

(2030–80) AND ON COASTAL
END-OF-CENTURY ECOSYSTEMS AND
PROJECTIONS SETTLEMENTS
Sea surface tem- SST warming rates 0–2,000 m layer of the Increase in number of Bindoff et al. (2019)
perature highest near the ocean ocean projected to warm coral bleaching events,
surface (>0.1°C per de- by 900 zettajoules (ZJ) number of coastal bottom
cade in the upper 75 m (RCP2.6) and 2,150 ZJ dead zones due to density
from 1971 to 2010) (RCP8.5) stratification, harmful al-
decreasing with depth gal bloom events, altered
ecosystem structure,
increased stress to coastal
ecosystems

Marine heatwaves Doubled since 1980s Projected to increase Changes to stratifica- Bindoff et al. (2019)
(high confidence) tion and circulation, Oliver et al. (2019)
reduced incidence of sea
ice at higher latitudes,
increased coral bleaching
and mortality, increased
poleward species mi-
gration, decrease in the
abundance of kelp forests,
massive sea bird die-off
and harmful algal bloom

Freshwater input Declining trend in Increase in high latitude Altered flood risk in coast- Wang et al. (2019)
annual volume of and wet tropics and de- al lowlands, water quality, Llovel et al. (2019)
freshwater input crease in other tropical salinity, fluvial sediment
regions supply, circulation and
nutrient supply

Sea ice and perma- A loss of soil carbon of By 2100, thaw-affected More storm surges, Nitzbon et al. (2020)
frost thaw 5.4% per year across carbon increase 3-fold increasing ocean swells, Plaza et al. (2019)
the site (RCP4.5) to coastal erosion and land Rignot et al. 2019
Arctic sea ice loss of 12-fold (RCP8.5) loss in the Arctic and
over 40% over the last Antarctica regions
last 40 years.
Ocean acidification Ocean surface water pH drops of between Increased CO2 fertilisa- Bindoff et al. (2019)
pH is declining by a 0.1 (RCP2.6) and 0.3 tion, decreased seawater Agostini et al. (2018)
very likely range of (RCP8.5) pH units by pH and carbonate ion Gao et al. (2019)
0.017 to 0.027 pH units 2100, with regional and concentration. Enhancing
per decade, since 1980 local variability, exacer- coral reef dissolution and
bated in polar regions bioerosion, affecting coral
species distribution and
community

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 7

 groundwater. Here, the local or relative sea level is Prolonged extreme ocean warming events—also known
complicated and compounded by activities occurring as marine heatwaves—over the period 1982 to 2016 have
within the coastal zone that affect land elevation, such doubled in frequency and have become longer lasting,
as subsidence, as well as prevailing winds and water more intense and more extensive. Climate models
circulation. project further increases in the frequency of marine
heatwaves, notably in the Arctic Ocean and tropical
While there are significant regional variations, GSLR over oceans. Marine heatwaves can severely impact marine
the coming century (to 2100) could increase by between ecosystems, resulting in losses of species and habitats
0.43 m (c.4 millimetres (mm) per year) under RCP2.6, and from ecosystems as varied as coral reefs, kelp forests,
0.84 m (c.15 mm per year) under RCP8.5. Locally high sea seagrass meadows and mangrove forests, and indirect
levels, which historically only occurred once per century effects like disruption to sediment-nutrient dynamics
(historical centennial events or HCE), are projected and carbon storage (Hughes et al. 2017, 2018; Arias-Ortiz
by 2050 to occur at least annually in many locations, et al. 2018; Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2018; Oliver et al. 2019;
inundating many low-lying areas, including deltaic Smale et al. 2018, 2019; Babcock et al. 2019; Garcias-
regions (e.g. Bangladesh and the Mekong Delta), coastal Bonet et al. 2019; Hebbeln et al. 2019; Holbrook et al.
megacities (e.g. Jakarta and Manila) and small islands 2019, 2020; Sanford et al. 2019; Thomsen et al. 2019;
(e.g. Oceania), impacting their coastal ecosystems, Wernberg et al. 2019).
economic development and habitability (Vitousek et
al. 2017; Storlazzi et al. 2018; Minderhoud et al. 2019; Deoxygenation in coastal regions results not only from
Oppenheimer et al. 2019; Donnelson Wright et al. 2019a, rising sea temperatures but also over-fertilisation and
2019b; Becker et al. 2020). associated runoff from agriculture and from sewage
outputs into coastal waters, which leads to algal blooms
In conjunction with sea level rise, greater wave action that consume oxygen once they die and decay. Since the
(wave height, period) and changes in direction and mid-20th century, over 700 coastal sites have reported
intensity, and more frequent and intense storm surges new or worsening low-oxygen conditions. Such oxygen
will affect many coastal areas that were previously minimum zones can cause widespread changes to
never, or infrequently, exposed to such events. These marine ecosystems, including loss of invertebrate and
changes can result in cascading impacts on coastal fish species and changes in biogeochemical cycling.
infrastructure and communities living in coastal areas, Climate models confirm this decline and predict
which are considered further in Section 3.3. Projected continuing and accelerating ocean deoxygenation
changes in sea level and wave action, and storm surges (Breitburg et al. 2018; Laffoley and Baxter 2018;
will be important considerations for how we build Oschlies et al. 2018; Limburg et al. 2020; Rodríguez-
future climate-ready coastal infrastructure (Bhatia et al. Martínez et al. 2020).
2018; Morss et al. 2018; Abram et al. 2019; Bindoff et al.
2019; Fernández-Montblanc et al. 2019; Kim et al. 2019; Over the last 25 years, the pH in the surface waters of
Marcos et al. 2019; Magnan et al. 2019; Morim et al. 2019; the ocean has reduced as they have absorbed more
Oppenheimer et al. 2019; Reguero et al. 2019b). CO2, and it is projected to decline further during this
century, leading to under-saturation of the carbonate
Coastal shelf waters, from polar regions to the tropics, are system in the Arctic Ocean, major parts of the Southern,
also undergoing profound changes as a result of changes North Pacific and Northwestern Atlantic Oceans (Orr et
in patterns of water circulation and stratification, warmer al. 2005; Hauri et al. 2015; Sasse et al. 2015; Bindoff et
sea surface temperatures, deoxygenation and more acidic al. 2019). As a result, primary productivity of calcifying
conditions. Rising sea surface temperatures have led to and non-calcifying plankton species are projected to
well-documented and rapid changes in the distributions decrease, while the calcification of corals and bivalves
of many marine taxa, including fish, birds and mammals, can be impeded, making them more brittle and
while changes in circulation and upwelling events have susceptible to damage, which causes higher mortality,
affected the productivity of many eastern boundary reduced recruitment, increased vulnerability to disease
systems of the Pacific and Atlantic (Bakun et al. 2015; and increasing sensitivity to warming (Fabricius et al.
Champion et al. 2018). 2011; Doropoulos et al. 2012; Nagelkerken and Connell

8 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

2015; Mollica et al. 2018; Gao et al. 2019; Hall-Spencer Coastal landforms
and Harvey 2019; Liao et al. 2019). In coastal waters,
Coastlines comprise a variety of coastal landforms—
carbonate chemistry is also affected by freshwater runoff
beaches, dunes, cliffs, reefs, estuaries, rias, fjords,
which lowers pH due to leachate from acid sulphate
bays and headlands—that have developed at the
soils and humic acids from groundwaters. The extent of
dynamic interface of land and sea and have evolved
coastal acidification can be exacerbated by sea level rise,
over multiple timescales from quasi-cyclical patterns of
catchment driven flooding and land runoff, and has had
erosion and accretion that occur under varying climatic,
significant impacts on the shellfish industry—a US$19
oceanographic and geological conditions.
billion global industry—and can lead to intermittent fish-
kills (Salisbury et al. 2008; Barton et al. 2015; Gledhill et Along exposed open coasts erosion is the dominant
al. 2015; Fitzer et al. 2018). process weathering these environments. About 50
percent of the world’s coastlines are rocky and sandy
2.2 Changes to Coastal beaches. Rocky coasts form where harder more stable
Environments and Ecosystems substrates predominate, forming reefs that are often
covered subtidally by seaweeds and shellfish beds,
Coastal ecosystems are diverse, forming a mosaic of
which in turn support biodiverse communities. Intertidal
interconnected seascapes, which vary latitudinally
areas are exposed to strong environmental gradients and
from the tropics to the poles, across intertidal and
these ecosystems are highly sensitive to ocean warming,
cross-shelf gradients from land to ocean, and in
acidification and extreme heat exposure during low tide
relation to the amount of tidal and wave energy. These
emersion. While rocky coastlines form a physical barrier
coastal ecosystems are most often classified by their
between the land and the sea, softer lithologies are more
geomorphic landform (e.g. estuaries, sandy beaches
susceptible to both physical and biological erosion,
and rocky shores) or by their foundation species, which
with significant morphological changes often following
can be wetland vegetation (e.g. saltmarshes, seagrass
extreme events such as storms or tropical cyclones
meadows, mangrove forests) or biogenic structures such
(Hawkins et al. 2016; Ciavola and Coco 2017; Young and
as coral and shellfish reefs. Many of these ecosystems,
Carilli 2019).
particularly over the last 50 years, have undergone
massive worldwide reductions in their extent and in Muddy depositional environments, such as estuaries,
their functional resilience, which are the combined deltas and tidal flats, are highly dynamic as they are
consequence of various human activities (clearing and affected by natural and/or human-induced processes
fragmentation of vegetation, hydrological alterations, originating from both the land and the sea. In addition
decreased coastal sediment supply, pollution and to GSLR, changes occurring in adjacent catchments that
emplacement of coastal infrastructure) as well as climate affect sediment supply can result in land subsidence or
change. Combined with other coastal pressures, such coastal erosion, or introduce pollution. This in turn can
as pollution, most countries are experiencing increased lead to flooding, land loss, salination of coastal aquifers
cumulative impacts in their coastal areas, with islands and river reaches, with consequences for properties,
in the Caribbean and mid-latitudes of the Indian Ocean agricultural production and food security, especially in
experiencing the greatest impacts (Halpern et al. 2015, agriculture-dependent coastal countries (Khanom 2016).
2019). In this section, we summarise observed global
changes to these ecosystems, while Figure 1 represents Shoreline erosion leads to loss of coastal habitats and
the global extent of these changes. The companion Blue can, together with sea level rise, contribute to “coastal
Paper Critical Habitats and Biodiversity (Rogers et al. squeeze” when the intertidal region is constrained by
2020) provides comprehensive analyses of these changes infrastructure built above high water. Shoreline erosion
in habitats and biodiversity. increases the risk of increased flooding and damage to
coastal infrastructure and anthropogenic activities, such
as upstream dam construction, and river and coastal
sand mining, while coastal infrastructure development

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 9

 Figure 1. Areal Extent and Historical and Projected Losses of Major Coastal Ecosystems

High-latitude coastlines10 Sandy Beaches

Global area cover: 30% of coastline Global area cover:
30% of coastline
Seagrasses
Global area cover: 325,000 km2 Estuaries & Deltas5
Recent rate of loss: -2-7 %/yr Global area cover: 10,800 km2
percentage in MPA: 26% Recent rate of loss: -0.05 %/yr
percentage in MPA: 16%

Oyster Reefs
Recent rate of loss: Saltmarshes4
85% last century Global area cover: 55,000 km2
Recent rate of loss: -1-2 %/yr
percentage in MPA: 42%

Seaweeds
Global area cover: 3.5M km2
Recent rate of loss: -0.02 %/yr Mangroves2,3
Percentage in MPA: 42% Global area cover: 138,000 km2
Recent rate of loss: -0.1 %/yr
percentage in MPA: 43%
Tropical coral reefs7, 8
Global area cover: 284,300 km2 Tidal flats4
Recent rate of loss: -1 %/yr Global area cover: 128,000 km2
Percentage in MPA: 40% Recent rate of loss: -0.5 %/yr

Source: CSIRO. 1 Beck et al. 2011; 2 Bunting et al. 2018; 3 Goldberg et al. 2020; 4 Mcowen et al. 2017; 5 Murray et al. 2018; 6 Nienhuis et al. 2020; 7
Rogers et al. 2020; 8 UNEP 2020; 9 Vousdoukas et al. 2020; 10 Wernberg et al. 2019.

can significantly alter depositional processes that world’s sandy beaches could face severe erosion,
lead to increased erosion and subsequently diminish but in low-elevation coastal zones the figure is more
the resilience of coastal habitats and increase risks to than 30 percent. A number of countries, including
infrastructure (Naylor et al. 2010; Brooks and Spencer the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gambia,
2012; Pontee 2014; Koehnken and Rintoul 2018). Jersey, Suriname, Comoros, Guinea-Bissau, Pakistan,
could face extensive sandy beach erosion issues by
Satellite-based observational records, from the 1980s to
the end of the 21st century (Luijendijk et al. 2018;
the present, demonstrate changes in the global extent of
Vousdoukas et al. 2020). Worldwide, sandy beaches
coastal landforms and show strong regional patterns—
show vegetation transformations caused by erosion
with some areas eroding and others accreting—that
following locally severe wave events with the
reflect a dynamic balance between prevailing sea
original dense vegetation being replaced by sparser
conditions and the extent of catchment and hydrological
vegetation and often resulting in a regime shift in
modification. When globally aggregated, these patterns
the beach morphology and shifts in the associated
can be less discernible, which belies the significance of
fauna composition. Coastal dunes are extensive
regional changes. Over the last 40 years:
along the world’s sandy shorelines and back the
ƒ The loss of permanent land in coastal areas is almost majority of beaches forming a linked system. Human
28,000 km2, which is almost twice as large as land disturbances, especially tourism and recreation
gained within the same period; more than 50 percent that have increased foot and vehicular traffic, have
of this net loss of 14,000 km2 occurred along Asian increased erosion rates on sandy beaches and dunes,
and Caspian coasts (Mentaschi et al. 2018). while coastal squeeze has constrained sediment
supply and accretion capacity. Paradoxically,
ƒ Twenty-four percent of the world’s sandy beaches
vegetation cover on sand-dunes has increased
have eroded at rates exceeding 0.5 m/year, but other
substantially on multiple, geographically dispersed,
areas either accreted (28 percent) or were stable.
coastal dune fields on all continents in the period
It is projected that by 2050 13–15 percent of the
1984–2017 and points to enhanced dune stability and

10 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

 storm buffering effects (Jackson et al. 2019; Nayak have also substantially increased nutrient and
and Byrne 2019). organic matter inputs since the 1970s resulting in
eutrophication (Ericson et al. 2006; Nicholls et al.
ƒ Tidal flats are intertidal, muddy, sedimentary 2020; Nienhuis et al. 2020).
habitats, often flanking estuaries, and are widely
distributed, with a present global extent of ƒ Some of the most significant effects of climate change
128,000 km2, of which 70 percent occur in three are occurring along high latitude (polar) coastlines
continents (Asia 44 percent; North America 15.5 that occur to the north and south of 60o (IPCC 2019).
percent; South America 11 percent). Since 1984, it is Whereas Arctic coastlines represent about one-third
estimated that 16 percent of tidal flats have been lost, of the world’s coastlines and occur over a range of
principally from coastal development and coastal geological and oceanographic settings, Antarctic
erosion due to reduced sediment delivery from major coastlines are often permanently covered in ice.
rivers and sinking of riverine deltas. In China, massive Rapid and accelerated Arctic sea ice loss, which has
losses of tidal flats have resulted from reclamation, or averaged 10 percent per decade over the last 40
conversion to other activities, principally aquaculture years, is attributed to the impacts of land–ocean
(Murray et al. 2018). warming and the northward heat advection into
the Arctic Ocean. The possibility of a nearly ice-
ƒ Deltas account for less than 1 percent of global free Arctic summer within the next 15 years has led
land area, yet are home to more than half a billion to speculation as to whether this will create new
people and some of the largest cities. Deltas have a shipping channels between Asia and Europe. With
dynamic and evolving geomorphology, formed by longer open-water periods during summer, extra
the accumulation of unconsolidated river-borne fine wave activity is expected to result in higher erosion
sediments (mud, silt and clay) and so are particularly rates along many high-latitude shorelines, while
sensitive to anthropogenic activities which influence warmer temperatures and increased frequencies of
the mobilisation, delivery, deposition and erosion extreme storms may trigger landscape instability,
of sediment to and from a delta. Over the past 30 increase sediment and nutrient supply, change
years, despite sea level rise, deltas globally have carbon fluxes, affect the structure and composition
experienced a net land gain of 54 km2 per year with of pelagic communities and benthic habitats and the
deltas being responsible for 30 percent of all net land well-being of dependent human populations. Given
area gains that result principally from deforestation- the rapidity of these changes, adequate governance
induced increases in fluvial sediment supply. Yet, frameworks need to be urgently implemented (Moline
for nearly 1,000 deltas, river damming has resulted et al. 2008; Krause-Jensen and Duarte 2014; Kroon et
in a severe (more than 50 percent) reduction in al. 2014; Bull et al. 2019; Gardner et al. 2018; Bendixen
anthropogenic sediment flux, resulting in global et al. 2019b; Oppenheimer et al. 2019; Rignot et al.
deltaic land loss of 12 km2 per year. In many of the 2019; Ouyang et al. 2020; Kumar et al. 2020; Hugelius
major deltas (e.g. Mekong, Irrawaddy, Ganges- et al. 2020; Peng et al. 2020).
Brahmaputra), this decline of sediment supply due to
upstream dam construction, combined with land-use Vegetated coastal ecosystems
changes, river sand mining and over-abstraction
Vegetated coastal ecosystems, including saltmarshes,
of groundwater, has led to deltaic subsidence
mangroves, seagrasses, and kelp and other seaweed, are
rates at least twice the concurrent rate of GMSL
wetland systems that form important interconnected
rise (3 mm/year). As a consequence, flooding now
habitats which support high biodiversity and provide
routinely occurs in many deltas around the world,
valuable ecosystem services, such as fisheries
with an estimated 260,000 km2 of delta temporarily
production, sediment and nutrient trapping, storm
submerged in the 1990s/2000s, and leads to saline
protections and carbon storage. Mangroves typically
or brackish water intrusion that increases residual
grow between the low and high tide, and reach
salinity of potable and irrigated water. Intensive
their highest abundance and diversity in the tropics,
human activities around estuaries and river deltas
predominantly in the Indo-Pacific region. Saltmarshes

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 11

 occur particularly in middle to high latitudes but often 2018; Agarwal et al. 2019; Friess et al. 2019; Goldberg
overlap with mangrove distributions, resulting in et al. 2020; Richards et al. 2020; Turschwell et al.
dynamic transitions between these two communities. 2020a).
Seagrasses rooted in unconsolidated sediments grow in
ƒ Saltmarshes, with a present global extent of
shallow coastal waters to 60 m depth and have a global
c.56,000 km2, are declining around the world, having
distribution. Seaweeds attach to solid reef substrates,
lost between 25 and 50 percent of their global
with some species such as kelp—a brown algae—forming
historical coverage through conversion to agriculture,
large canopies present in more than 40 percent of the
urban and industrial land uses. Many saltmarshes are
world’s marine ecoregions.
also being squeezed between an eroding seaward
However, these ecosystems have been extensively edge and fixed flood defence walls, and agricultural
modified by human activities and must also adapt to grazing has a marked effect on the structure and
accelerating rates of climate change. For example, it is composition of saltmarsh vegetation, reducing its
estimated that eustatic sea level rise could result in the height and the diversity of plant and invertebrate
loss of 22 percent of the world’s coastal wetlands by species (Bromberg Gedan et al. 2009; Crooks et al.
2080, and in the Indo-Pacific region, where sediment 2011; Mcowen et al. 2017; Thomas et al. 2017).
delivery has declined due to damming of rivers, existing
ƒ Seagrass meadows, with a present global distribution
mangrove forests at sites with low tidal range and low
of about 300,000 km2, are estimated to have been
sediment supply could be submerged as early as 2070
lost at rates of 110 km2 per annum between 1980 and
(Waycott et al. 2009; Duarte et al. 2013; Blankespoor
2006. Current losses are particularly high in East and
et al. 2014; Copertino et al. 2016; Lovelock et al. 2016;
Southeast Asia, principally as the consequence of
Kelleway et al. 2017; van Oosterzee and Duke 2017;
coastal development: poor water quality resulting
Besset et al. 2019; Serrano et al. 2019a, 2019b).
from watershed siltation, physical disturbance
The current extent and historical loss of these such as dredging and coastal reclamation, and the
ecosystems are summarised in Figure 1, and below. degradation of food webs from aquaculture and
fisheries (Waycott et al. 2009; Short et al. 2011;
ƒ Globally more than 6,000 km2 of mangroves were Erftemeijer and Shuail 2012; McKenzie et al. 2020;
cleared between 1996 (142,795 km2) and the present UNEP et al. 2020).
(137,000 km2). Contemporary (2000–present) global
losses (0.2–0.6 percent per year) of mangroves are ƒ Loss of macroalgal forests over the last half-century
an order of magnitude less than losses during the has been significant, although spatially variable; kelps
late 20th century, and have resulted primarily from have declined by 38 percent in some ecoregions, but
land-use change, usually through conversion but have either grown or remained stable in other regions
also fragmentation. In Southeast Asia, mangrove loss such as southern South America. Temperature is a
has been recorded at twice the global rate, where key determinant of the biogeographic distribution
conversion of mangroves to shrimp aquaculture of many seaweeds, so increases in sea temperatures
accounted for more than 50 percent of losses, while have led to changes in range and abundance. Kelp
more recently oil palm plantations and coastal die-off from marine heatwaves has been reported
erosion are leading to further losses. In Brazil, Puerto along the coasts of Europe, South Africa and Australia,
Rico, Cameroon, China and Singapore, large areas and the kelp is replaced by a less diverse turf-
of mangroves have been lost to urban development. dominated ecosystem (Ling et al. 2015; Krumhansl
Significant declines in the delivery of upstream et al. 2016; Vergés et al. 2016; Wernberg et al. 2016;
sediment supply have further diminished the ability Piñeiro-Corbeira et al. 2018; Filbee-Dexter and
of mangroves to expand and to keep pace with rising Wernberg 2018; Smale et al. 2019; Wernberg et al.
sea levels (Richards and Friess 2016; Woodroffe et al. 2019; Wernberg and Filbee-Dexter 2019; Friedlander
2016; Hamilton and Casey 2016; Bunting et al. 2018; et al. 2020).
Romañach et al. 2018; Worthington and Spalding

12 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Coral and shellfish reefs productivity. Dredging, habitat degradation, including
poor water quality and altered species interactions,
Coral reefs occur throughout tropical latitudes and are
disease outbreaks and habitat loss, have contributed to
one of the most diverse and productive ecosystems,
the drastic decline in bivalve habitats with an estimated
providing services that support almost 30 percent
85 percent of oyster reefs lost over the last century, as
of the world’s marine fish species fisheries, and 500
well as largely unquantified losses of other habitat-
million people who depend on them for work, food and
forming bivalves, such as the formerly widespread green-
coastal protection in more than 100 countries across
lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) beds in New Zealand,
Australasia, Southeast Asia, the Indo-Pacific, the Middle
which now occur at less than 1 percent of historical levels
East, the Caribbean and the tropical Americas. Coral
(Lenihan and Peterson 1998; Newell and Koch 2004;
reefs throughout the world are today one of the most
Piehler and Smyth 2011; Scyphers et al. 2011; Beck et al.
endangered habitats, threatened by a combination of
2011; Grabowski et al. 2012; Paul 2012).
climate change and human activities that weaken the
natural resilience of coral reefs.
2.3 Coastal Development
Activities such as over-exploitation and destructive Changes
fishing, watershed and marine-based pollution, and
The key global economic trends relevant to maritime
coastal infrastructure development have had an impact
sectors are increasing energy demand, increasing food
on reef population structure and biodiversity by reducing
and water demand, and increasing population growth
coral recruitment, survival and growth, and hindering
and urbanisation, all of which depend on coastal
community recovery (Fabricius 2005; Roff et al. 2012;
infrastructure. Factors such as adaptation to climate
Otaño-Cruz et al. 2017; Lam et al. 2018; MacNeil et al.
change, developing economies seeking an increasing
2019; Vo et al. 2019).
share of global growth, growing expectations around
Since 1998, marine heatwaves have bleached, or killed, health and safety and human rights, and technological
corals on many reefs across the Indo-Pacific, Atlantic innovations are also relevant to maritime and coastal
and Caribbean. In 2016 and 2017, heat stress associated development trends and coastal infrastructure. Energy
with consecutive El Niño events triggered the third production, food production and water demand, as
major global coral bleaching event, resulting in severe well as urbanisation and population growth, represent
coral bleaching of around 70 percent of the world’s over a third of the global economy and provide up
reefs throughout all three tropical ocean basins; in the to two-thirds of jobs. While natural resources make
Great Barrier Reef, the world’s largest reef system, half human development possible and underpin economic
of the corals died. Further projected increase in sea growth, our accelerating demand for coastal space and
level, storm intensity, marine heatwaves, turbidity, resources, as well as the forms of pollution that result
nutrient concentration due to floods may contribute (e.g. litter, wastewater), threatens the extent, condition
to the degradation trend of a majority of coral reefs and biodiversity of many coastal ecosystems (IPBES
worldwide and require comprehensive management 2019; WEF 2020a). Below, we summarise the major
and intervention responses (Hoegh-Guldberg and trends in coastal development and discuss the potential
Bruno 2010; Hughes et al. 2017, 2018; Magel et al. 2019; consequences.
Morrison et al. 2019, 2020).
Population growth and urbanisation
Shellfish reef ecosystems have, until recent times, been
About 40 percent of the world’s population lives within
overlooked as an important estuary habitat. Historically,
100 km of the coast and 11 percent live in low-lying
dense aggregations of bivalves, their shells, associated
coastal areas that are less than 10 m above sea level.
species and accumulated sediments were a dominant
While the majority of these populations are based on
habitat in temperate and subtropical estuaries around
continental coastal areas, small island developing states
the world. Oyster reefs provide numerous ecosystem
(SIDS) are home to 65 million people, while 4 million
services, such as improvements to water quality
people live within the Arctic region. Coastal population
through filtration, shoreline stabilisation and fisheries
growth has been increasing at around twice the rate

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 13

 of national growth and is the result of population and Although this proliferation of structures provides a suite
demographic changes, as well as migration from rural of economic, social and even ecological benefits, it also
areas to cities, and displacement of some indigenous replaces natural habitats and can modify environmental
and other disaffected communities. Over the next conditions critical to habitat persistence at regional
decade, population growth will occur most significantly scales. Catchment-based infrastructure, such as dams,
in Africa (380 million) and Asia (373 million), where the that affect the natural patterns of hydrological discharge
urban population is expected to grow by 2.5 billion over and sediment transport to the coast, can also affect
the next 30 years (Creel 2003; McGranahan et al. 2007; downstream coastal ecosystems.
Ford et al. 2015; Neumann et al. 2015; Kummu et al. 2016;
As of 2018, the physical footprint of built structures
Jones and O’Neill 2016; Merkens et al. 2016).
was at least 32,000 km2 worldwide, and is expected
Population growth has been accompanied by rapid to increase by at least 23 percent (7,300 km2) to cover
urbanisation, and today 55 percent of the global urban 39,400 km2 by 2028. The global area of seascape that
population lives in coastal settlements, and 16 of the is modified around these structures is estimated to be
world’s 31 megacities—those with over 10 million in the order of 1.0 to 3.4 million km2 globally, an area
inhabitants—are coastal, including New York City, Tokyo, comparable to the global extent of urban land (Bugnot
Jakarta, Mumbai, Shanghai and Lagos. Asia has the et al. 2020). This concentration of structures close to the
greatest intensification of coastal population, property shore means that many coastal habitats are affected by
and infrastructure, with 10 of the world’s megacities, multiple structures.
and 20 of the top 30 most populated coastal cities. Even
There are also substantial regional differences in the
in many SIDS, urbanisation is a growing concern, where
amount of different types of marine infrastructure.
38 million (59 percent) already live in urban settlements.
Proportionally, China, Democratic People’s Republic
Globally, from 1985 to 2015, urbanisation expanded on
of Korea and the Philippines have the largest marine
average by 9,687 km2 per year, with nearly 70 percent of
infrastructure footprints; nearly half of all oil and gas
this development occurring in Asia and North America
rigs are located in the US Gulf of Mexico, while wind and
(Small and Nicholls 2003; Jongman et al. 2012; UN-
tidal farms are spread along the coasts of North America,
Habitat 2015; Liu et al. 2020).
India, the United Kingdom, Germany and in the Asian
North Pacific (Bugnot et al. 2020).
Infrastructure development
Coastal infrastructure systems form the backbone Table 3 represents the current extent and projected
of every society, providing essential services that growth of various infrastructure and activities occurring
include coastal defence, trade, tourism, fisheries in, and adjacent to, coastal environments. There is
and aquaculture, energy, water, waste management, also a growing number of regional-scale transnational
transport, telecommunications and other industries. infrastructure projects under way that will fundamentally
Urbanisation is, however, not only a land-based problem, change the use of the coastal zone and marine water
and coastal development has led to a proliferation of offshore and in areas beyond national jurisdictions and,
coastal infrastructure, commonly referred to as “ocean unless carefully managed, these present serious threats
sprawl”, that is occurring worldwide along coastlines to biodiversity (see Box 1).
and in near-shore waters, and is more recently expanding
Since investment in infrastructure is at an all-time
offshore as industries seek to utilise new resources and
high globally, an ever-increasing number of decisions
access space to operate. Along and adjacent to coastal
are being made now that will lock in patterns of
foreshores, infrastructure for defence, residential and
development for future generations (Bromberg Gedan
commercial developments, transport and tourism/
et al. 2009; Aerts et al. 2011; Sekovski et al. 2012;
recreation are common, while moving further offshore
Jennerjahn and Mitchell 2013). Such infrastructure,
infrastructure for aquaculture, oil and gas, offshore
unless carefully planned to account for future climate
renewable energy, mineral extraction and
conditions, constructed using environmentally sensitive
desalination occur.
methods, and operated with appropriate regulations,

14 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Table 3. Crowded Coasts: Global Growth of Major Coastal Infrastructure

CATEGORY TYPE FOOTPRINT CATEGORY TYPE FOOTPRINT

Coastal reclaimed Area: 3,370 km 2
Large dams 10 Number: 58,000
land2 Water
Artificial islands1 Number: 480 Infrastructure Desalination plants Number: 16,000
Reclamation Area: 1,267 km2 Growth rate: 10.5%/yr
Artificial reefs Area: 36,000 km 2
Commercial Number: 4,700
harbours Area: 4,500 km2
Cemented Length: >14,000 km Marinas Number: 9,628
shorelines Area: 776 km2
Breakwaters 1 Number: 268 Commercial Number: 95,402
Coastal Defence Area: 577 km2 vessels9 Growth rate: 2.6%/yr
Ports and
Coastal canals6 Area: 4,000km Cruise ships7 Number: 272
Shipping
Growth rate: 6%/yr
Oil rigs Number: 5,179 Fishing vessels8 Number: 4,600,000
Area: 89,964 km2
Growth rate: 1.2%/yr
Oil pipelines1 Length: 136,000 km Motor vessels8 Number: 67,800
Growth rate: 1.2%/yr
Energy
Offshore wind Number: 6,000 Coastal aquaculture Number: 78,240
Infrastructure
energy1 Area: 30%/yr and mariculture1 Area: 22,927 km2
Growth rate: 3%/yr
Offshore wave and Growth rate: 208%/yr
Miscellaneous Telecom cables1 Number: 428
tidal energy1 Length: 39,304 km
Growth rate: 8.2%/yr

Source: CSIRO. 1 Bugnot et al. 2020; 2 Donchyts et al. 2016; 3 Jones et al. 2019; 4 Jouffray et al. 2020; 5 Liu et al. 2020; 6 Waltham and Conolly 2011; 7
CLIA 2019; 8 FAO 2020a; 9 UNCTAD 2020b; 10 Mulligan et al. 2020.

can pose significant environmental risks to coastal and related infrastructure have replaced once natural
environments, including: changes in coastal morphology shorelines by more than 50 percent in some cities and
from disruption to natural sedimentary processes, countries; for example, wetlands along China’s 34,000-
destruction and fragmentation of coastal habitat, and km coastline have been replaced with 13,830 km of hard
impacts on resident and migratory wildlife through engineering structures (Luo et al. 2015). Such coastal
disruption to established connectivity pathways or from defence structures can have a variety of negative effects
“accidents” with infrastructure (Dafforn et al. 2015; Firth on adjacent coastal ecosystems. These structures are
et al. 2016; Hughes 2019; Hughes et al. 2020). Below, the typically designed to reflect waves and reduce coastal
major forms of infrastructure, their extent and projected flooding and erosion; consequently, they can alter
growth, and known impacts on coastal ecosystems are wave exposure, interfere with the spatial dynamics of
summarised. sediment transport, and impede animal movement
and connectivity between habitats. Over the longer
Coastal defence structures: With increased term, this can cause changes in sediment, current
urbanisation, rising sea levels and stormier seas, and wave dynamics that accelerate erosion, leading
shorelines worldwide have dramatically changed as they to the loss of beaches and other coastal habitats they
become increasingly “hardened” with a proliferation were intended to protect. Artificial structures may also
of coastal armouring infrastructure, constructed to produce larger-scale impacts through their alteration of
protect coastal populations and their property, transport ecological connectivity, which restricts the movement
infrastructure, industry and commerce, and amenity and or dispersal of organisms, and which may in turn,
recreational areas. Seawalls, breakwaters, jetties, piers

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 15

 Box 1. Regional Coastal Infrastructure Projects
Belt and Road Initiative and the Maritime Silk Road: The Belt and Road Initiative is a long-term Chinese
government vision for improved global connectivity, expanded production and trade chains, and closer
overall cooperation. Potentially spanning 72 countries, the Belt and Road Initiative is the largest infrastructure
project of all time (valued at over $8 trillion by 2049) and seeks to create connections between core cities
and key ports across Eurasia, Asia and parts of the African continent through infrastructure development
in the transport, energy, mining, IT and communications sectors. First announced in 2013, the 21st Century
Maritime Silk Road is the maritime/coastal component of the Belt and Road Initiative, and focuses on creating
a network (string of pearls) of ports, through construction, expansion or operation, and the development
of portside industrial parks and special economic zones that link China’s coastal ports through the South
China Sea to the Indian Ocean, extending to Africa and Europe; and potentially to the Pacific Ocean (Figure
B2.1). To date, deep-water ports projects have been initiated in Africa (Tunisia, Senegal, Tanzania, Djibouti,
Gabon, Mozambique, Ghana), Asia (Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Indonesia) the Middle East (Oman, Israel)
and Europe (Greece). Studies looking at the potential environmental impact of the Belt and Road Initiative
have identified that over 400 threatened marine species, including mammals, could be affected by port
infrastructure, while over 200 threatened species are at risk from an increase in shipping traffic and noise
pollution (Huang 2016; Hughes 2019; Hughes et al. 2020; Narain et al. 2020; Turschwell et al. 2020b).

Figure B1.1. Map of Belt and Road Initiative and 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road

LAPSETT Corridor
Bangladesh Coastal plan

Red Sea Project



 












   

16 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

 LAPSSET Corridor, Africa: The LAPSSET Corridor Program is a regional project intended to provide transport
and logistics infrastructure aimed at creating seamless connectivity between the eastern African countries
of Kenya, Ethiopia and South Sudan. The project connects a population of 160 million people in the three
countries and is part of the larger land bridge that will connect the East African coast (at Lamu Port) to the West
African coast (at Douala Port). The LAPSSET Corridor is intended to operate as an Economic Corridor with the
objective of providing multiple eastern African nations access to a large-scale economic trade system, thereby
promoting socioeconomic development in the region. The LAPSSET Corridor Program consists of several
subsidiary projects, including the development of deep-water ports, railway lines and highways connecting
cities in Kenya, South Sudan and Ethiopia, oil refineries and pipelines, and international airports and resort
cities (LAPSSET Corridor Development Authority 2016; Okafor-Yarwood et al. 2020).

Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100: The Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 is the combination of long-term strategies and
subsequent interventions for ensuring long-term water and food security, economic growth and environmental
sustainability. It aims to effectively reduce vulnerability to natural disasters and build resilience to climate
change and other delta challenges through robust, adaptive and integrated strategies, and equitable water
governance. Six hotspot areas were identified: coastal zone; Barind and drought-prone areas; Haor region
(flash-flood areas); Chittagong hill tracts and coast; major rivers and estuaries, and urban areas (Bangladesh
Planning Commission 2018).

The Red Sea Project: The Red Sea Project is a large-scale luxury tourism development that will extend over
28,000 km2 along the shores of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The area includes the Al-Wajh lagoon, a large
lagoon area with 92 islands, valuable ecosystems and rich biodiversity, including species of global conservation
importance. The Red Sea Development Company, responsible for the execution of the Red Sea Project, has
committed to achieving a net-positive impact on biodiversity. To grow tourism, which currently represents only
3 percent of the economy, it will create a special economic zone that is expected to attract 1 million people
every year, create 70,000 new jobs and add $5.9 billion to the Saudi GDP (Chalastani et al. 2020).

influence the genetic structure and size of populations, negative environmental and social impacts on coasts,
the distribution of species, community structure and including principally altering regional coastal processes
ecological functioning (Bulleri and Chapman 2010; which disturb the sediment balance and exposing
Nordstrom 2014; Bishop et al. 2017; Leo et al. 2019). down-drift areas to increased erosion. Oil, sewage and
noise pollution can result from port operations and can
Ports and harbours: Seaports are nodal hubs in the
seriously impact surrounding marine life and disrupt
maritime transportation network, enabling more
social amenity (Zanuttigh 2014; Lee et al. 2015; Johnston
than 90 percent of world trade. A growing reliance
et al 2015; IAPH 2016; IMO 2017; Camus et al. 2019; Leo
on marine transport for international trade has led
et al. 2019; Santana-Ceballos et al. 2019; Vaughan 2019;
to the construction of more ports and harbours, and
Valdor et al. 2020).
the expansion and deepening of existing facilities to
accommodate larger vessels. Today, there are more than Energy infrastructure: Conventional oil and gas
4,700 commercially active ports worldwide, which are platforms and associated pipelines, and increasingly
used by more than 50,000 international merchant ships, offshore renewable energy technologies, including
manned by over a million seafarers, and carry more than wind farms and tidal power, are common infrastructure
90 percent (>10 billion tonnes in 2015) of global trade in coastal and offshore environments. Tidal farms are
by weight. The development and operation of ports located closest to the shoreline, with 41 percent closer
and harbours have been associated with a number of than 2 km in 2018, while nearly half (47 percent) of all

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 17

 wind farms were located within 10–50 km of the coast, government entities, often with overlapping jurisdictions
and half of all oil and gas fields were located within and sometime incompatible mandates, which results in
40 km of the shoreline. a struggle to balance conservation and sustainable
use, to set appropriate operational limits for individual
Catchment infrastructure: Infrastructure such as dams
sectors, to resolve conflicts between overlapping
and weirs for the impoundment of water, irrigation,
incompatible uses and to properly assess the cumulative
hydroelectric power generation and flood protection
impact of activities.
results in hydrologic alteration of the quantity and
timing of river flow. Decreased fluvial sediment transfer Competition and conflict over access to coastal space
to coastal regions can lead to sand-starved beaches, and resources have often led to allegations of “ocean
and accelerated coastal erosion of deltas and loss of grabbing” by powerful actors to secure exclusivity
mangrove forests. Construction of embankments and or dominance over a resource, and have often
navigation structures can result in rivers becoming disadvantaged other groups, particularly livelihood-
disconnected from their floodplains, disrupting natural dependent local communities, indigenous and artisanal
sediment fluxes, reducing marine and ecological peoples, or those seeking to undertake recreational
connectivity. Coastal aquifers are more vulnerable to and cultural activities. In many nations today, coastal
groundwater extraction than to predicted sea level rise developments and industries face greater scrutiny of
under a wide range of hydrogeologic conditions, and their environmental and social performance than in the
over-pumping has led to saltwater intrusion, subsidence past, and many businesses now seek “social licence”
and loss of the water supply for future use. Lack of through local environmental and social responsibility
appropriate sewage processing facilities in coastal areas programmes that create benefits for the local
can increase the nutrient pollution and consequent community, but this is sometimes viewed negatively as
degradation of coastal ecological systems (Poulos and nothing more than “green-washing”.
Collins 2002; Giannico and Souder 2005; Al-Bahry et
To accommodate increasing urban and industrial
al. 2009; Dafforn et al. 2015; Reopanichkul et al. 2009;
development, agriculture, silviculture (notably oil palm)
Ferguson and Gleeson 2012; Martínez et al. 2014; Rovira
and aquaculture (notably shrimp), coastal space has
et al. 2014; Firth et al. 2016; Chee et al. 2017; Smith et
been created by both the clearing of existing coastal
al. 2017; Appeaning Addo et al. 2018; Tessler et al. 2018;
vegetation, including mangroves, saltmarshes, coastal
Silva et al. 2019; Luijendijk et al. 2020).
dunes and tidal flats, and the reclamation of intertidal
and subtidal areas. Urban land expansion rates are
Competition for coastal space
significantly higher in coastal areas than in adjacent
Today, coasts are an increasingly crowded space, where
hinterland, and it is estimated that by 2030, global urban
various sectors of the economy vie for access to areas
land cover will increase to 1,527,000 km2 (Brown et al.
within territorial and EEZ waters, not only for food and
2013; Seto et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2020).
materials, but for a number of other activities, including
tourism and leisure, transport and telecommunications. Coastal infilling, dredging and reclamation have been
Other activities, such as aquaculture and renewable the primary means of expanding the coastal foreshore
energies, seek to produce rather than extract or creating artificial islands, and produce direct loss of
seafood and energy, but require coastal space with marine habitat. While reclamation of coastal wetlands
environmental conditions conducive to their operation. and tidal flats has been practised for millennia, the
The growth and success of these emerging industries current scale to meet increasing demands for land is
are central to the predicted growth and significance of unprecedented. Globally, it is estimated that 33,700 km2
the ocean economy over the next few decades (see Box of land has been added to coastal areas over the last
2) and will place further demands on access to coastal 30 years, with more than 1,250 km2 of land being
space. reclaimed from 16 megacities between the mid-1980s
and 2017. Further ambitious land reclamation projects
The allocation of space and the management of
are under way in many regions of the world (see Box
associated resources is the responsibility of various
1). China, in particular, is leading the world in large-

18 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Box 2. Key Coastal Growth Sectors of the Ocean Economy
Coastal (beach-based) and maritime (water-based) tourism is the second largest employer in the ocean
economy, providing 1 in 11 jobs worldwide and generating more than $1.5 trillion in trade income or 9.2
percent of global GDP, and it is the dominant sector in an increasing number of national economies. For some
island states, tourism can comprise 25 percent of national GDP. Globally, over 350 million people annually
travel to the coral reef coast, and the coral reef tourism sector has an estimated annual value of $36 billion
globally, with over 70 countries and territories having “million dollar reefs”—reefs that generate over $1
million in tourism spending. Cruise-ship tourism has been growing (at least until the COVID-19 pandemic, see
Box 3) at 7.7 percent, and can account for more than 90 percent of international visitors to some destinations.
By 2030, coastal and maritime tourism is expected to comprise 26 percent of the total ocean industry value-
added, and will employ c.1.5 million more people than it does at present. Coastal and maritime tourism
generates indirect land activities linked to infrastructure construction that are responsible for pollution and
destruction of natural habitats, as well as for pressure on natural resources, such as water, but also sand,
limestone and wood (OECD 2016; Spalding et al. 2017; Tonazzini et al. 2019; WTTC 2019; UNWTO 2020a,
2020b).

Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic animals (e.g. finfish, molluscs and crustaceans) and seaweeds, is the
fastest-growing food production sector in the world, with an average annual growth rate of 5.8 percent
during the period 2000–16. In 2016, global aquaculture production reached 80 million tonnes of food fish,
with coastal aquaculture and mariculture (i.e. aquaculture in a marine environment) producing 28.7 million
tonnes or 36 percent of this production. Aquaculture is mainly practised in tropical and subtropical regions
and globally more than 60,000 km2 of coastal areas is used for aquaculture. Asia accounted for 89 percent
of global aquaculture production in 2016, much of which is produced in areas of former tidal flats and
near-shore areas; China ranked first, followed by India, Indonesia, Viet Nam, Bangladesh, Egypt, Norway,
Chile and Myanmar. Comparatively, Africa contributes the least of any continent to total global aquaculture
production, yet the continent’s aquaculture sector is growing faster than anywhere in the world, and
accounts for 8 percent of the 12.3 million Africans employed in the fisheries sector. Globally, the potential for
onshore and offshore mariculture is large, and seafood production is expected to be predominantly sourced
through mariculture by 2050. Significant areas of coast have been identified as areas that are suitable for
further aquaculture development, including environmentally sensitive areas such as southern Patagonian
coastal waters. The environmental impacts of aquaculture are well recognised and include the clearance of
mangroves for shrimp ponds, eutrophication leading to disruptions to the surrounding benthic communities
and increased phytoplankton and harmful algal blooms and disease (Kapetsky et al. 2013; Waite et al. 2014;
Tenório et al. 2015; FAO 2018, 2020a; Obiero et al. 2019; Agarwal et al. 2019; Ahmed and Thompson 2019).

Offshore renewable energy, particularly offshore wind, is projected to grow significantly over the next
decades. Under the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) Stated Policies Scenario, installed capacity of global
offshore wind is set to expand by at least 13 percent per year, increasing more than 15-fold over the 2018
installed capacity of 23 GW by 2040 (IEA 2019). Further extension of policy targets and falling technology
costs may drive even greater uptake with over 560 GW installed capacity, accounting for 5 percent of global
electricity supply, by 2040 in the Sustainable Development Scenario (IEA 2019). The UK Government 2020
levelised costs update shows continual reduction of offshore wind costs, being now lower than new gas
and other fossil fuel generation, and projected to be less than onshore wind by the mid-2030s, owing to

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 19

 the relative strength and consistency of resource, and the large-size turbines able to be deployed offshore
(BEIS 2020). Technical resource potential in shallow (<60 m) water depths, accessible to current fixed-bottom
foundation wind technologies, is more than 87,000 terawatt-hours (TWh) per year. The emergence of floating
foundation wind technologies removes depth constraints, and could provide access to another 330,000 TWh per
year; 70 percent of the most accessible wind resource (20–60 km from shore) is located in water depths greater
than 60 m (IEA 2019), which reflects the size of the opportunity to floating technologies. Other ocean-based
renewable energy sources, including tidal, wave, floating solar and others, are less developed than offshore
wind but also have significant potential for many regions where other drivers or advantages occur (see Haugan
et al. 2020).

scale reclamation projects, extending its coastline by offshore renewable energy—that will see significant
hundreds of square kilometres every year, while the growth in coastal regions throughout the world over the
Netherlands and India have reclaimed areas of 7,000 and coming decade.
1,500 km2, respectively. As well as removing valuable
The growing demand for global seafood still relies
habitat, reclamation of coastal areas contributes to land
predominantly on coastal fisheries—those that occur
subsidence in coastal areas. Many of the world’s coastal
less than 50 km from inhabited coastlines, or in waters
cities—built in low-lying areas where soft sediments
less than 200 m deep. Despite significant declines over
can compress under the weight of infrastructure as
the last 60 years in a large number of exploited fish and
cities grow—are now sinking (see Box 5). This results in
invertebrate populations, coastal fisheries (see Gaines
increased risk of flooding, with consequences including
et al. 2019) still accounted for 55 percent (50 to 60
structural damage and high maintenance costs for urban
million tonnes per year) of global marine fisheries in the
infrastructure and risk to human livelihood (Waltham
period 2010–14. About 36 percent of this catch is from
and Conolly 2011; Wang et al. 2014; Donchyts et al. 2016;
small-scale fisheries, undertaken mainly in developing
Reyna et al. 2016; Tian et al. 2016; Sengupta et al. 2017).
countries and engaging more than 47 million people,
Over the coming decades, a number of industries are nearly 50 percent of whom are women. These statistics
seeking to move further from the coasts in search of not only highlight the global importance of coastal
space to operate, or additional or more stable energy fisheries, but also the prominent role of small-scale
resources. Aquaculture, common in many inshore areas, fisheries in supporting coastal livelihoods, food security,
will be much more prevalent offshore where larger, nutrition and human well-being (World Bank et al. 2012;
more complex, infrastructure designed to withstand the Monfort 2015; FAO 2020a,b; Palomares and Pauly 2019;
rigours of these environments will be required. Likewise, Palomares et al. 2020).
marine renewable energy infrastructures to harness wind
Demand for fresh water for human consumption and
waves and tidal power will become much more common.
agricultural and industrial use has rapidly increased
and led to greater impoundment and extraction from
Resource extraction
coastal rivers and aquifers in drier areas, or where there
The demand for food and materials—some traditional
is no longer sufficient water, the use of desalination
and others novel—from coastal environments has
plants has become commonplace. In 2000, there
expanded rapidly in the last 50 years and will continue
were c.45,000 reservoirs installed, and, as of 2014, at
to do so over the coming decades, as growing coastal
least 3,700 major dams, each with a capacity of more
populations and a rising middle class seek greater
than 1 megawatt (MW), were either planned or under
protein in their diets, increased fresh water and
construction, primarily in countries with emerging
more materials to build infrastructure. Box 2 briefly
economies in Southeast Asia, South America and Africa.
summarises three sectors—aquaculture, tourism and

20 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

While this construction will increase the present global systems. Activities such as unregulated sand mining
hydroelectricity capacity by 73 percent to about 1,700 of riverbeds, particularly in developing countries, can
gigawatts (GW), these impoundments will reduce the accelerate erosion and destabilise riverbanks and
number of free-flowing large rivers by about 21 percent shorelines, and can harm benthic habitats, either
and trap 25–30 percent of the total global sediment through direct removal during dredging operations or
load—and all of the bed load—that might otherwise be from sedimentation. Transport of sand may also lead to
delivered to the coasts. Desalination facilities worldwide increased biosecurity risks (Torres et al. 2017; Schandl
include about 16,000 operational plants with a global et al. 2018; Koehnken and Rintoul 2018; Bendixen et al.
capacity of more than 95 million m3 per day and the 2019a; UNEP 2019).
majority of these are from seawater or brackish water
More than 30 percent of current global energy demands
(21 percent). New ocean-water desalination projects
are met by marine oil and gas reserves, and collectively
are on the rise, including floating desalination plants
the oil and gas sector accounts for one-third of the total
constructed on ships and offshore structures, which have
value of the ocean economy. There are currently more
the advantage of being mobile (Vörösmarty et al. 2003;
than 6,000 offshore and a few coastal (<200) platforms
Syvitski et al. 2009; Grill et al. 2019).
in service worldwide. As shallow-water fields become
Over the next 30 years, greater areas of irrigated depleted and novel technologies emerge, production
agricultural land will be required, which, unless is moving towards greater depths and new territories.
carefully managed, will have negative consequences Other unconventional forms of gas, such as shale and
for downstream coastal ecosystems. While today c.70 natural hydrates, are also being increasingly exploited, as
percent of irrigated areas are in Asia, under business- the technology to cost-effectively extract these reserves
as-usual scenarios, by 2030 the total harvested irrigated develops (Arthur and Cole 2014; US Department of
area is expected to increase by at least 12 percent, to Energy 2015; OECD 2016).
394 million hectares (ha) (and perhaps as high as 1.8
Despite the rhetoric of a sustainable ocean economy,
billion ha), with approximately 9 percent of this growth
there is growing scepticism that a business-as-usual
expected to be in developing countries, especially those
scenario, favouring industrial and economic expansion of
in Sub-Saharan Africa, but also South Asia and Latin
established and emerging industries, is being progressed
America and the Caribbean. Irrigation is responsible
without adequately addressing the equity, inclusion,
for significant groundwater depletion in many regions,
access and benefit-sharing rights of those who also hold
with about 11 percent of this resource embedded in the
rights to the same resource (Selig et al. 2019; Bennett et
international food trade (Dalin et al. 2017; Ringler 2017;
al. 2019; Cisneros-Montemayor et al. 2019; Cinner and
Puy et al. 2020).
Barnes 2019; Hodgson et al. 2019; Cohen et al. 2019; Lau
Aggregates, such as sand—a key ingredient of concrete, et al. 2019).
asphalt, glass and electronics—and gravel, are the
largest proportion of primary material inputs used in 2.4 Summary
building and transport infrastructure (79 percent or Large-scale declines in the extent of coastal landforms,
28.6 gigatonnes per year in 2010) and are the most vegetated ecosystems and biogenic structures over
extracted group of materials worldwide, exceeding the last 40 years have occurred in many regions, and
fossil fuels and biomass. In most regions, sand is a these declines have diminished coastal ecosystems’
common-pool resource, and even when sand mining natural resilience to recover from a range of climate
is regulated, it is often subject to illegal extraction and and anthropogenic threats, and to the biodiversity and
trade. As a result, sand scarcity is an emerging issue services they support. The primary agents occurring
with major sociopolitical, economic and environmental on local to regional scales are the direct consequences
implications. Continued urban expansion and large of land-clearing and fragmentation, the degradation
infrastructure projects, as well as increasing trade and of these ecosystems from pollution, and imbalance in
consumption, are pressuring sand deposits, causing natural sediment supplies. Most of the remaining regions
conflicts, and compromising environmental and human with a natural coastline are found in Africa and Asia,

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 21

 and these regions are also projected to experience the This will require more material extraction, such as for
highest coastal population and urbanisation growth in aggregates to build infrastructure, new methods of
the decades to come. Coastal ecosystems have been environmentally sensitive construction with designs
affected to varying degrees by sea level rise, ocean capable of withstanding future climate conditions. New
warming and acidification, and extreme weather and forms of coastal infrastructure will also be required over
these effects are projected to be more significant in the the coming years to meet increased demand and access
future. Over the coming decades, further urbanisation to coastal space. In an era of scarcity and increasing
and adaptation to rising sea levels and intensified demand for fresh water, desalinisation plants will
storms will require even more coastal infrastructure. become much more common.

22 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

3. Risks to Coastal Resilience
Globally, coastal systems are undergoing profound, However, the primary factor responsible for losses to
rapid and undesirable environmental changes, driven date has been the clearing of coastal vegetated habitats
by the combined consequences of climate change, to make way for agricultural, urban and industrial uses,
coastal development pressures and pollution, which and the reclamation of intertidal and subtidal areas
leads to habitat loss and fragmentation—subdivision (see Section 2.2 for more details). Less obvious, but
of habitat into smaller and more isolated patches. This equally pervasive, are the consequences of incremental
degrades the ability of these ecosystems to provide fragmentation of these habitats, which, as has been
essential ecosystem services. Anthropogenic threats to highlighted in a number of recent publications, accrues
coastal systems can be exacerbated due to connectivity significant cumulative net losses, impairs a number of
between marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, ecosystem functions and services, and leads to declines
complicating the task of governance across the land–sea in biodiversity for a range of taxa that rely on large intact
interface. Likewise, coastal settlements, their people, areas for their home range, or as wildlife corridors on
infrastructure and economies are increasingly at risk, migratory routes. Patterns of fragmentation do not
as they struggle to adapt to these changes. In this necessarily correlate with deforestation, or clearing, and
section, we summarise the potential impacts on coastal relate to differing land-use and extractive activities. For
ecosystem and services that arise from activities related example, in Ca Mau province, Viet Nam, over a 24-year
to coastal development and industries, and review the period, the number of mangrove patches increased by
risk to human populations, settlements, infrastructure 58 percent but the mean patch size decreased by 52
and economies. percent, and fish diversity was 1.8 times lower than in
less fragmented mangrove forests (Tran and Fischer
3.1 Threats to Coastal Ecosystems 2017; Jacobson et al. 2019; Bryan-Brown et al. 2020).

Habitat clearing and fragmentation Other human activities, most notably alterations to
natural patterns of river and surface water discharge,
The globally significant net loss of coastal landforms and
and the sediment, nutrients and pollutant loads that
vegetated and biogenic habitats that has occurred over
these carry to the coast, can have detrimental impacts
the last half-century was summarised in Section 2.2,
on adjacent coastal habitats. While ecosystems, such
and includes erosion of depositional coastlines, loss of
as seagrass, oysters and coral reefs, are particularly
coastal vegetated ecosystems (50 percent of saltmarshes,
sensitive to too-much sediment, in depositional coastal
35 percent of mangroves), and coral (30 percent) and
areas an adequate supply of sediment from upstream
shellfish reefs (85 percent). These losses vary between
will be required to ensure the stabilisation of shorelines
regions, with some of the greatest losses occurring in
and the ongoing accretion of mangrove and saltmarsh
Asia and Africa. While some of these changes have been
habitat.
incremental—although cumulative over time—in other
cases, rapid/abrupt and potentially irreversible changes
Pollution
have also occurred. In some cases, such as mangroves
and saltmarshes, the rates of loss in recent decades has An estimated 80 percent of pollution load in coastal
decreased relative to changes that occurred 40–50 years environments originates from industrial, agricultural,
ago, but other habitats, notably coral reefs and kelp urban/rural and other land-based activities, and is a key
forests, faced with the likelihood of more frequent and threat to biodiversity (IPBES 2019). While sediment and
severe marine heatwaves in the future, are likely to see nutrients (principally nitrogen and phosphorus) occur
further significant and widespread losses. naturally in the environment, excessive levels released
from point sources (wastewater effluent, storm-water

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 23

 outfalls and runoff from waste storage) and nonpoint is the primary vector for 60–90 percent of marine
sources (deforestation, land conversion and runoff invasions globally, transporting marine species,
from agriculture or ranching) into rivers and estuaries, including plankton, crustaceans and molluscs, in
or directly into coastal and marine ecosystems, are ballast water or attached to ships’ hulls. Terrestrial
considered serious threats. pest species can also be transported in carried goods
and their packaging, and upon arrival at destination
Among developed nations, it is estimated that more
ports can be rapidly spread inland along transportation
than 70 percent of wastewater is treated with discharges
chains. Once introduced, alien species can rapidly
to sewered connections centralised in wastewater
establish, particularly in areas that have already been
treatment plants, where remedial technologies improve
disturbed, displacing native species, altering ecosystem
the quality of the effluent to differing standards—tertiary
structure and functions such as nutrient cycling and
treatment, which removes nutrients, being the best.
carbon sequestration. Well-known examples include
The quality of the discharge is often regulated by the
invasions of coastal wetlands, dunes and saltmarshes
setting and reporting of established concentration
by vascular plant species, marine algae and plankton,
or load-based criteria. Over recent decades, this has
which increasingly result in occurrences of harmful algal
resulted in significant reductions in nutrient loads from
blooms, by molluscs such as the Asian green mussel
major coastal cities discharged into rivers, estuaries and
(Perna viridis) and by echinoderms such as the Northern
coastal waters. However, among developing nations
Pacific seastar (Asterias amurensis). Projected increases
only 8 percent of generated wastewater is treated and
in global maritime traffic of 240–1,200 percent by 2050
most people rely on some form of decentralised or
are forecast to lead to a 3- to 20-fold increase in global
self-provided services. With increasing urbanisation,
invasion risk and this will occur mainly in middle-income
especially in Africa and Asia where the urban population
countries. Significantly, Northeast Asia will not only be
is expected to grow by 2.5 billion over the next 30 years,
disproportionally affected but will also be the primary
there is an urgent need to better treat urban waste (Sato
vector source to other geo-regions (Pyšek et al. 2008;
et al. 2013; Gallego-Schmid and Tarpani 2019).
Early et al. 2016; Seebens et al. 2015; Carrasco et al. 2017;
As detailed in the companion Blue Paper, Leveraging IPBES 2019; Sardain et al. 2019).
Multi-Target Strategies to Address Plastic Pollution in the
Marine organisms serve as hosts for a diversity of
Context of an Already Stressed Ocean (Jambeck et al.
parasites and pathogens affecting not only the host
2020), marine litter is a global environmental concern,
population that can include vertebrates, invertebrates
entering the ocean largely through storm-water runoff,
and plants, but can also cascade through ecosystems
but is also dumped on shorelines or directly discharged
altering the structure and function of marine
at sea from ships. Between 61 and 87 percent of this
ecosystems. Marine diseases can become emergencies
litter is plastics, and since the 1950s this has increased
when they result in significant ecological, economic or
dramatically, with current estimates of between 4.8
social impacts, so understanding the factors responsible
and 12.7 million tonnes of land-based plastic waste
for the genesis and timing of diseases will be increasingly
ending up in the ocean every year, while in the next two
important as our use of coastal and marine resources
decades, the amount of plastics produced is expected
accelerates. The billions of dollars lost in the early
to double (Jambeck et al. 2015, 2020; Geyer et al. 2017;
1990s as a result of a global pandemic of white spot
Löhr et al. 2107; Barboza et al. 2019; Walker et al. 2019;
syndrome in penaeid shrimp aquaculture, and the
Galgani et al. 2019).
environmental and economic impacts of coral diseases
that led to widespread mass mortality in Caribbean
Bio-invasions and disease in coastal
reefs and reduced ecotourism, are salient examples.
ecosystems Marine disease emergencies can also have significant
In an increasingly tele-coupled world, invasive alien social impacts, capable of disrupting public safety,
species—most commonly introduced via shipping threatening human health, or decreasing the resilience
and associated coastal infrastructure—threaten global of local human communities. The probability of humans
biodiversity, economies and human health. Shipping acquiring infections from marine mammals, avian

24 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

influenza from marine birds, and cryptosporidiosis are much harder to quantify and only rarely are they
and vibriosis from consumption of shellfish is also directly accounted for in coastal management because
expected to increase unless carefully managed, with their services are not quantified in terms familiar to
better surveillance, impact mitigation, and adaptive and decision-makers, such as (loss of) annual expected
responsive strategies. It should be noted that COVID-19 benefits (Beck et al. 2018a). There are several competing
is not considered infectious to marine organisms (Ward lines of thought about this conundrum. Some argue that
and Lafferty 2004; Groner et al. 2016; Mordecai and we should accept that some values cannot, and perhaps
Hewson 2020). should not, be measured and monetised, and that we
need to invoke other frameworks to accommodate the
3.2 Risks to Coastal Ecosystem different types of values (Sagoff 2008). Others argue
Services that incorporation into systems derived from economic
accounting is an efficient way to ensure that resources
Coastal ecosystems, their biodiversity and functions
are devoted to conserving the ecosystems. From the
provide important provisioning goods, as well as
latter are emerging global standards, such as the
regulating, supporting and cultural services that
System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA),
underpin the ocean economy and that also have values
which uses natural capital accounting frameworks
that are not explicitly economic. Provisioning goods,
and associated methodologies to classify and place
such as the harvesting of fish or timber from coastal
a monetary value on even intangible services. These
habitats, represent products that are consumed.
frameworks can be integrated with traditional economic
Growing demand for these products is a key driver
national accounts, allowing them to be explicitly
in the conversion of habitats for these provisioning
considered in resource and environmental decision-
goods. Regulating services represent intangible benefits
making. They might also facilitate development of
provided when ecosystems are left intact, such as flood
financial instruments, such as payments for ecosystem
and erosion reduction, and underpin provisioning goods
services (PES), to incentivise the conservation or repair
such as fisheries production. Coastal areas also provide
of natural assets. More details are provided in the
for uses that are considered aesthetic, spiritual and
companion Blue Paper National Accounting for the Ocean
cultural services, such as sacred sites or points of historic
and Ocean Economy (Fenichel et al. 2020), while below
interest. Such services are not easily valued in economic
we briefly summarise the key coastal services, the value
terms and thus lead to questions as to whether the
they provide and the risks if they are diminished or lost.
concept of ecosystem services is an overly transactional
view of nature, and whether the benefits that people
Coastal protection
receive can be represented better by frameworks that are
less anthropocentric. Coastal vegetation and reefs can contribute significantly
to coastal protection by absorbing the energy of wind
A central dilemma facing coastal ecosystems, and and waves and providing a buffer that helps to minimise
achieving a sustainable ocean economy more generally, erosion and limit the intrusion of storm surges and
is reconciling the competing demands for provisioning damaging floodwater. As such, they provide significant
goods and services with the need for regulating, annual flood protection savings for people and property,
maintenance and cultural services (HM Treasury 2020). particularly from the most frequent storms. Globally,
Loss or impairment to coastal ecosystems can result and averaged across these ecosystems, it is estimated
in a concomitant, although often non-linear, loss of that they can together reduce wave heights between
service(s). It is notable that the most recent IPBES 35 percent and 71 percent, with mangroves and reefs
Global Assessment Report and World Economic Forum providing annual storm and flood protection benefits
Global Risks Report both ranked biodiversity loss and exceeding $65 billion and $4 billion, respectively.
ecosystem collapse in the top five risks to the global Along the Northeastern seaboard of the United States,
economy (IPBES 2019; WEF 2020a). saltmarshes avoided costs of $625 million in direct flood
While provisioning services can be readily measured damages resulting from Hurricane Sandy in 2012. In the
and valued, regulatory, supporting and cultural services Philippines, it is estimated that annually mangroves

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 25

 reduce flood-risk for more than 613,500 people, 23 significant emissions. For example, as a result of global
percent of which live below the poverty line, and avert net losses in mangrove ecosystems between 1996 and
damages of $1 billion to residential and industrial 2016, global mangrove carbon stocks have declined by
property. Coral reefs protect more than 18,000 people 1.5 percent (0.16 billion tonnes) with greatest losses
from flood damage and avoid costs of $272 billion. occurring in Indonesia, which has the largest areal extent
Without mangroves, it is estimated that a further 15 of mangroves, but also in countries such as Myanmar,
million people would be potentially exposed to flooding where mangrove clearing rates today still remain high.
annually across the world, while the absence of reefs Internationally, many countries with large blue carbon
would more than double the expected damage from stocks seek to recognise the mitigation potential as
flooding, and costs from frequent storms would triple. part of their national emission reduction commitments.
Many countries (notably Bangladesh, Cuba, China, For example, preventing mangrove deforestation in
India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, USA Indonesia could reduce emissions from land-use change
and Viet Nam) are estimated to gain annual expected by 30 percent. Efforts to halt and reverse this trend could
flood savings exceeding $400 million, while some small be supported by the private sector, as many companies
(20-km) coastal stretches, particularly those near cities, look to offset their carbon emissions though investments
receive more than $250 million in flood protection in blue carbon protection or restoration (McLeod et al.
benefits from nearby mangrove forests (Spalding et al 2011; Atwood et al. 2017; Serrano et al. 2019b; Spivak et
2014; Narayan et al. 2016, 2017; Beck et al. 2018a, 2018b; al. 2019; Lovelock and Reef 2020; Richards et al. 2020).
Reguero et al. 2019b; Storlazzi et al. 2019; Menendez et
al. 2020). Fisheries productivity
Another important service of mangroves, marshes, reefs
Carbon sequestration and seagrass beds is that they provide breeding and
Coastal vegetated wetlands, including saltmarshes, nursery habitat for a number of commercially important
mangrove forests and seagrass meadows, are inshore and offshore fisheries. The complex structure
considered to be the main blue carbon habitats, due of these habitats provides juveniles with refuge from
to their ability to sequester and store large amounts of predators and access to a variety of food sources that
carbon within their root systems and in the underlying sustain their growth into adulthood. The fisheries value
soil in which they grow. Despite their relatively small can be highly site specific and often more than one of
global extent (equivalent to 0.2 percent of the ocean these habitats may contribute to the life cycle of the
surface), these vegetated coastal ecosystems contribute fishery, including larval dispersal and migration to
approximately 50 percent of the carbon sequestered offshore habitats. The economic values of these fisheries
in marine sediments, absorb CO2 up to 40 times faster also vary according to specific costs associated with
than terrestrial forest and consequently are globally each fishery, proximity to economic markets and levels
equivalent to c.10 percent of the entire net residual of utilisation. Inshore, small-scale fisheries target a
land sink. Consequently, it is now well recognised by variety of mollusc, crustacean and fish species, often for
many nations and organisations that the conservation domestic use or in local markets, and are of relatively low
and restoration of these blue carbon ecosystems is an economic value relative to offshore fisheries harvested
effective climate solution that could deliver substantial mainly by industrial-scale operations. In many tropical
mitigation of CO2 through storage and sequestration, coastal communities, gleaning—fishing for invertebrates
as well as delivering other important benefits, like such as sea cucumbers in water that is shallow enough
enhancing livelihoods and reducing risks from storms. to walk in—is often done by women and children, and
Other research commissioned by the Ocean Panel provides a source of essential protein, micronutrients
estimates that coastal blue ecosystems could, by 2030, and income. Mangrove habitats adjacent to large river
contribute avoided emissions of 0.32–0.89 billion tonnes mouths, where freshwater and high nutrients enhance
of CO2e per annum and this would increase to 0.50–1.38 productivity, generate the highest numbers of juvenile
billion tonnes of CO2e by 2050. However, impairment fish (e.g. mangrove jack, Lutjanus aregentimaculatus)
or loss of these blue carbon ecosystems can contribute and commercially important species like shrimp. While

26 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Box 3. Enabling Coastal Resilience in a COVID World

COVID-19 is having serious and significant impacts on national economic growth trajectories, including
coastal economies. The hardening of borders, limited movement of people, shrinking income opportunities,
disruption of globalised supply chains and rise in restrictive trade policies are emerging as early
consequences of the global pandemic that are relevant to coastal economic sectors. Poor urban coastal
communities are most vulnerable to the pandemic since they live in crowded areas in low sanitary conditions
often at the water’s edge. The reduction of income for coastal residents, social distancing and quarantine,
and even the provision of basic food supplies to coastal communities, are proving difficult. The impacts
are most profound for marginalised groups and increase the social and environmental stressors, as well as
exacerbating the challenges of disaster response in coastal contexts (CIRAD 2020; UNCTAD 2020a; WEF 2020b).

Coastal and ocean economy sectors, such as fisheries, aquaculture and seafood processing, tourism and
recreation, maritime transport and logistics, are most impacted by the pandemic. Restrictions to ship
docking, limited road transport and access to ports, falling demand for fish products and for tourism and
recreation all reduce the income of the coastal and ocean economy sectors and associated jobs, as well as
impacting on those who work on board vessels, with accounts of crew being stranded at sea for months
(Bennett et al. 2020; Gössling et al. 2020; OECD 2020a, 2020b).

COVID-19 has exposed weaknesses in the complex global fisheries and seafood production system and supply
chains. Impacts on the hospitality sector and live export markets has led to international demand for fresh
fish dropping dramatically and prices dropping accordingly. At the same time, demand for canned tuna has
been maintained as it is seen as desirable as a source of shelf-stable protein, and some markets have seen
increased demand (FAO 2020c, 2020d; OECD 2020a, 2020b).

The small-scale fisheries sector has been particularly hard hit, especially where perishable product is
dependent on being sold through wet markets and then processed locally. Small-scale fisheries and fish
processing are high-employment, low-wage sectors, with a high proportion of women working in fish
processing facilities, and where proximity puts workers at risk of COVID-19. Entrepreneurial vendors are
using digital technology to connect directly to customers, but the closure of wet markets and the closure of
processing facilities has meant that a large proportion of product has no pathway to market (Bennett et al.
2020; CIRAD 2020; Davey and Steer 2020; FAO 2020c, 2020d; OECD 2020a, 2020b).

Positive stories have emerged from several Pacific Island nations, where practices such as food sharing have
restarted and local food networks have been revived, and where collective actions have worked to safeguard
rights. There are also stories of increased pressure on natural resources, through more fishing effort,
regulations being relaxed and areas being opened up to fishing, including as people move back to their home
communities from major cities, because of the loss of jobs. Using coastal resources as a social safety net, and
relaxing rules during times of economic crisis is a high-risk strategy and could lead to greater problems in the
long term (Bennett et al. 2020; CIRAD 2020; Davey and Steer 2020).

Tourism is one of the economic sectors hardest hit by COVID-19. Economies and communities with a high
dependence on international tourism receipts have been badly affected by travel bans and restrictions.
Tourism is a high-employment, low-wage sector, often employing large numbers of young people, and is
particularly important as a source of GDP for many SIDS economies. Many coastal hotels and recreation

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 27

 facilities are facing bankruptcy, and stimulus options are urgently needed for this sector to preserve the
long-term potential and to engage the affected workforce. Reskilling in digital technologies, engagement in
natural resource recovery programmes or mobilising the workforce into nation-building sustainable natural
infrastructure programmes are all options that could be explored (Gössling et al. 2020; OECD 2020a, 2020b;
Vianna et al. 2020; WEF 2020b).

many coastal small-scale fishers are fully aware of their Bergillos et al. 2019; Hino et al. 2019; DasGupta and Shaw
reliance on mangroves, larger commercial fisheries, 2015; Betzold and Mohamed 2017; Kramer et al. 2017;
such as the shrimp industry, operating in offshore waters Hagedoorn et al. 2019; WEF 2019, 2020a).
often overlook the mangroves on which they depend.
Seagrasses also support substantial fisheries, both from Populations
small-scale fisheries that target species that rely on An estimated 310 million people, and $11 trillion in GDP,
seagrass for most of their life (e.g. rabbitfish) or species are exposed globally to the risk of a 100-year flood event.
that rely on seagrass in early life stages before they move Risk is expected to increase, due to rising sea levels and
offshore (e.g. northern Atlantic cod). Seagrass meadows other climate-related threats concurrent with population
are also popular locations for small-scale mariculture, growth. If no mitigation measures are undertaken, by
like sea cucumbers and seaweeds (Benzeev et al. 2017; 2050, c.9 million of the world population, concentrated
Carrasquilla-Henao and Juanes 2017; Worthington and in more than 570 coastal cities, situated in low elevation
Spalding 2018; Waltham et al. 2019; Jinks et al. 2020; areas, notably in China, Bangladesh and Indonesia, could
Vianna et al. 2020; Waltham et al. 2020). suffer from enhanced inundation and increased coastal
erosion. By 2060, up to 411 million people could be
3.3 Risks to Coastal Populations, exposed to the risk of a 100-year flood event (Ericson et
Infrastructure and Economies al. 2006; Hallegatte et al. 2013; Hinkel et al. 2014; Wong et
Coastal communities, built infrastructure, and al. 2014; Neumann et al. 2015; Reguero et al. 2015; Arnell
established and emerging economic sectors are and Gosling 2016; Lumbroso 2017; Brown et al. 2018;
significantly affected through the disruption of coastal Barnard et al. 2019; Nicholls et al. 2020).
physical processes resulting from climate change and Both sea level rise and extreme coastal events cause
coastal and upstream development. Globally, around massive and existential displacement of populations.
10 million people experience coastal flooding due to Sea level rise has already affected many low-lying
storm surges, cyclones and heavy rainfall every year islands, such as Kiribati, and Isle de Jean Charles in
with impacts ranging from displacement of households Louisiana, USA, and resettlements of populations are
and destruction of sources of livelihoods, to disruption either under way or planned. After the Indian Ocean
of national economies. The World Economic Forum’s tsunami, in the coastal areas of the provinces of Aceh and
two most recent Global Risks Reports ranked extreme North Sumatra in Indonesia, over half a million people,
weather, preparing cities for sea level rise biodiversity including some 300,000 living in severely damaged areas,
loss, and ecosystem collapse in the top five risks. were displaced. The task of resettling these residents,
While the consequences of COVID-19 (see Box 3) on the while keeping their sense of community, serves as a test
resilience of coastal ecosystems will continue to unfold case for future events (UNDP 2005; McGranahan et al.
over many years, the immediate impacts on coastal- 2007; Birkmann et al. 2013; Gray et al. 2014; Wilkerson et
dependent industries, such as tourism, and the flow-on al. 2016; Oliver-Smith 2019; Visessri and Ekkawatpanit
effects on the economies of nations and livelihoods of 2020).
local communities, are profound (Vitousek et al. 2017;

28 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Figure 3. Coastal Risks to Nations and Geo-Regions

Maximum coastal risk = 1

Source: Beck 2014. Data from The Atlas of Ocean Wealth (https://oceanwealth.org).

The risk posed to coastal populations depends not To mitigate the impacts of the pandemic, government
only on the exposure to the hazard, but also on social and industry need to address the immediate economic
conditions (susceptibility) and capacities to respond and social hardships caused by the pandemic and enable
(resilience) and together describe the vulnerability of coastal communities to maintain their resilience and
societies. As a result, countries have different risks, with rapid after-pandemic recovery, while maintaining their
tropical states and SIDS in the Caribbean and Oceania long-term goals of protecting coastal natural resources,
and coastal areas in Southeast Asia (Bangladesh, the coastal environment and ecosystems. This can
Myanmar, Papua New Guinea and Timor-Leste) being be done by supporting the incomes of and providing
most at risk (Figure 3). Countries in Africa have high healthcare to the most vulnerable groups and ensuring
overall risk, as vulnerability scores are high and exposure that evidence-based management remains in place and
to coastal hazards and adaptation are generally low; in is enforced. It is estimated that $10–20 trillion of public
contrast, countries like the Netherlands and Japan have funding will be mobilised into the world economy in
high exposure rates but are more resilient (Beck 2014). the next 2–3 years to support and stimulate economic
recovery, including the recovery of coastal economic
Coastal indigenous peoples, particularly those inhabiting sectors. Therefore, a unique window of opportunity
islands or archipelagos, are some of the most vulnerable exists to engage and influence relevant policy and
populations to coastal hazards. Often their traditional investment decisions and ensure stimulus funds foster
and customary use areas are not recognised and their sustainable ocean economic pathways and support the
access to cultural and spiritual sites of importance is recovery and development of impacted communities.
not upheld, including where national and multinational For example, coastal restoration can be used to help
interests seek access to the coast (see Box 4).

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 29

 Box 4. Vulnerabilities of Coastal Indigenous Peoples and People
from Traditional Communities
Coastal indigenous peoples, including those of SIDS, comprise some 370 million people, or 5 percent of the
global population. As they rely on ocean resources and are highly vulnerable to ecosystem and economic
change, the exploitation of fish resources and climate hazards pose distinct threats to these communities
(Cisneros-Montemayor et al. 2016). Coastal indigenous peoples consume approximately 1.9 million tonnes of
fish per year, approximately 2 percent of the global catch, and this seafood demand is concentrated around
equatorial regions in Africa and Asia, and in the Arctic. In many of these areas’ fisheries, stocks (e.g. of Pacific
tuna; Bell et al. 2015) are changing migration and distribution patterns in response to global environmental
changes, and traditional fisheries areas are under mounting pressure from foreign and domestic fishing fleets.
Already, people in the 22 small island nations and territories of the southwest Pacific have increased their
reliance on imported foods, including canned meats and packaged products, in part because of depleted
fish stocks. Food imports to countries such as Samoa and Tonga now exceed total exports. These societal
shifts have strong negative implications for the health and well-being of indigenous peoples. For instance,
deaths in the Pacific from preventable non-communicable diseases, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease
and cancer, have risen, in part because of the dietary and lifestyle changes that have accompanied people’s
increased reliance on food imports (Morrison et al. 2019).

Coastal indigenous peoples are some of the most vulnerable populations to coastal hazards, such as
storms, cyclones and tsunamis. While efforts to mitigate the impacts of these hazards mainly focus on
defence infrastructure development, or early warning systems, the traditional and local knowledge of these
communities has been found to increase their resilience and help them to manage crises—be it natural
hazards, economic problems or political conflicts (Hiwasaki et al. 2014). Furthermore, many indigenous
communities live in regions without strong governance, although a number of international agreements
and bodies (e.g. United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples; Convention on Biological
Diversity; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) recognise preferential access rights for indigenous
peoples, their vulnerability to climate and food security, and the value of traditional ecological knowledge
(Cisneros-Montemayor et al. 2016; Vierros et al. 2020).

economic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic can be expensive to build and maintain, and can lead
while providing co-benefits of ecosystem services, to unintended shoreline erosion, degradation or loss
community cohesion and climate adaptation of habitat, impacting on communities that depend on
(ADB 2020; OECD 2020a). healthy coastal ecosystems for protection, subsistence
and livelihoods. However, decision-makers often
Infrastructure lack basic information about where and under what
Building resilient communities is a shared challenge for conditions ecosystems reduce risk to coastal hazards
the world’s population living along the coast now and and who would benefit from the protective function
in the future. To address this challenge, communities conferred by those ecosystems (Adger et al. 2005;
typically engineer barriers along the coast. However, McGranahan et al. 2007; Kron 2013).
there is growing understanding that traditional
The proportion of the world’s gross domestic product
approaches to coastal protection (e.g. seawalls,
(GDP) annually exposed to tropical cyclones has
bulkheads) are unsustainable. Hardened shorelines
increased from 3.6 percent in the 1970s to 4.3 percent

30 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

 Box 5. Sinking Cities
Land subsidence is one of the world’s under-rated problems, yet its impact on many coastal cities is
increasingly apparent. Many of the world’s sinking cities are built on low-lying marshes, flood plains or
river deltas, where soft sediments compress under the weight of infrastructure, and this is exacerbated by
groundwater or oil/gas extraction for human use, as well as reductions in sediment supply due to dams and
impoundments. The increased frequency and magnitude of extreme weather events and changing sea levels
further increase the risk of flooding, the consequences of which include structural damage to infrastructure,
drains and sewage systems and high maintenance costs for roads and railways.

Cities that have grown rapidly, or have failed to curb groundwater usage, are particularly at risk, most notably
in Asia (e.g. Jakarta, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Dhaka, Ho Chi Minh, Bangkok), but also on other continents,
including the Americas (e.g. Mexico City, Houston, New Orleans), Africa (e.g. Lagos) and Europe (e.g. London,
Rotterdam, Venice). Jakarta is the world’s fastest-sinking city, at a rate of c.25.4 centimetres (cm) per year.
Around 40 percent of the city now lies below current sea levels and some coastal districts have sunk as much
as 4.3 m in recent years. With further population growth, urbanisation, intensification of economic activities
in deltas, and climate change, the problem is set to accelerate. Stopping the pumping of groundwater is one
of the practical and local actions that can be readily implemented. A century ago, Tokyo was sinking at a
greater rate than Jakarta is now. Following the Second World War, laws limiting pumping and a programme
to re-inject water back into the ground has stabilised land subsidence such that, by the early 2000s, the city’s
subsidence slowed to 1 cm a year (Sato et al. 2006; Kramer 2018).

in the first decade of the 2000s. Flood assessment of 3.4 Summary

136 major coastal cities shows that average flood losses
Coastal environments and dependent human
in 2005 were about $6 billion per year, and in the last
communities are already experiencing the impacts of
10 years insurers have paid out more than $300 billion
climate-related changes from extreme events and slow-
for coastal storm damage. Considering the risks from
onset changes, and the consequences of rapidly growing
sea level rise and sinking land, both the World Bank
and urbanising populations that demand great access
and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
to greater resources, built infrastructure and services,
Development (OECD) estimate that, by 2050, global flood
and space. These climate and development changes can
damage in large coastal cities could cost $1 trillion a year,
act synergistically and result in cascading and hard-to-
while climate-induced declines in coastal and ocean
predict impacts, as the world has seen with the global
health will cost the global economy $428 billion per year,
COVID-19 pandemic, in which core vulnerabilities have
and global infrastructure investment of more than $94
been exposed with devastating consequences. While
trillion will be required to reduce these risks (UNISDR
across the globe there is regional variability in how
2011; Hallegatte et al. 2013; Diaz 2016; Oxford Economics
coastal environments will be affected, these changes
2017; IPCC 2019; ORRAA 2019; WEF 2019).
will continue for many decades irrespective of actions
taken, while no action will result in disproportionately
higher risks, and a return to previous conditions should
not be expected.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 31

 4. Building Coastal Resilience
To effectively manage the challenges wrought by coastal All four strategies broadly fall under the umbrella
development and climate change, there are four main framework of nature-based solutions (NbS), which are
management strategies that can be used to secure the defined by the IUCN as “actions to protect, sustainably
integrity and resilience of coastal ecosystems and their manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems,
contributions to people: that address societal challenges effectively and
adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being
1. Protection strategies use regulations and area-based
and biodiversity benefits” (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016).
management, to designate where and how much of
NbS is an area that covers a range of ecosystem-related
specified activities can and cannot occur in coastal
approaches to protect (i.e. area-based conservation), to
environments and in the adjacent catchment, and
manage holistically (e.g. integrated coastal management
legislate areas for conservation such as marine
or ICM), to address specific issues and to repair and
protected areas (MPAs) or implement area, habitat
restore ecosystems.
and species-specific conservation plans.
NbS approaches are now being used to reframe policy
2. Mitigation strategies aim to reduce local stressors
debates on biodiversity conservation, climate change
caused by human action through the use of
adaptation and mitigation, and sustainable use of
technology, regulation and the promotion of
natural resources, to address conflicts and trade-offs
stewardship to minimise the introduction of
associated with use and management of ecosystem
pollutants, the over-exploitation of resources
services, and to invest in blue infrastructure and
or activities that will otherwise harm coastal
ocean finance (World Bank 2008; United Nations 2013;
environments.
Nesshover et al. 2017; Thiele et al. 2020; WEF 2020c). But
3. Adaption strategies explicitly consider the coastal not all strategies are applicable in a given situation, and
social-ecological system and are implicitly related evaluating a broad range of actions, and combinations
to resilience; adaptation leads to resilience and of actions, can help decision-makers to estimate the
resilience is a property needed for having capacity trade-offs of different management approaches and
to adapt (Nelson 2011). They use principles of to maximise the co-benefits. In fact, comprehensively
ecosystem-based adaptation and ecological tackling issues, such as reducing pollution or preventing
engineering to incorporate natural infrastructure clearing of mangroves and saltmarshes, will require a
into existing grey infrastructure, relocate at-risk mix of all four strategies.
activities and populations away from the coast,
The success of any of these strategies is predicated
and also use incentives to change behaviours
on the presence of a number of enabling factors or
and practices.
conditions that encompass the dimensions of technical
4. Repair strategies seek to restore damaged readiness, social equity, economic viability and
ecosystems by restoring the composition and/or environmental sustainability. Some of these are shown
function of lost or fragmented habitats, restoring in the outside ring of Figure 4 and are summarised in
(reinstating) the natural hydrology, sediment and Section 4.6; they also form the basis for many of the
nutrient balance entering and cycling through opportunities for actions outlined in Sections 5.2 and
coastal ecosystems, or by assisted evolution. 5.3. In particular, integrated management is listed here
as an enabling factor as it provides the framework with
Figure 4 represents 17 actions that can be taken under which these various strategies can be applied across the
these four strategies and highlights the enabling terrestrial-coast ocean continuum, between institutional
conditions needed to ensure their success. lines of responsibility, as well as integrating with other

32 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Figure 4. Four Strategies and Actions for Building Coastal Resilience and the Enabling Conditions
to Achieve Them

ated management
Integr
Mitigate




 
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ge

    

wled

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ing & sharing kno

rnance & partnerships


 

Repair
 
 
  

  



   


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y build


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Source: CSIRO.

relevant agendas, such as those for climate action and sections: area-based measures for protecting coastal
urban transitions. Approaches to coastal integrated ecosystems; mitigating terrestrial impacts on coastal
management are discussed below but are considered environments; adapting infrastructure; and restoring
in detail in the companion Blue Papers Integrated coastal habitats.
Ocean Management (Winther et al. 2020) and The Ocean
Transition (Swilling et al. 2020). 4.1 Protecting Coastal Ecosystems
As part of the four strategies outlined above, the The first line of defence in ensuring coastal resilience is
approaches and activities most useful to ensuring coastal to provide adequate protection of coastal habitats from
resilience are evaluated below and form the basis for inappropriate forms, or unsustainable levels, of human
the opportunities for actions presented in the following use, and to secure the rights of peoples with recognised

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 33

 tenure and customary access rights. Protecting coastal reductions under the Paris Agreement and the Sendai
habitats is more cost-effective and has better ecological Agreement for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 may
outcomes than rehabilitating lost habitat. For example, secure better protection of coastal ecosystems through
protection of mangroves provides an immediate benefit– recognition of their carbon sequestration and climate
cost ratio of 88, compared with restoration activities protection services. However, many of these agreements
which have a ratio of 2, because they require higher are usually voluntary and non-binding and, as Winther et
logistical costs and take decades to realise the benefits al. (2020) note, “it is failure to implement these existing
(Konar and Ding 2020). international instruments at national levels that is one of
the most important weaknesses of ocean governance”.
Protection can only occur where there is a clear, effective
and enforceable regulatory framework in place, with Over the last 30 years, a number of integrated planning
national and subnational policies and regulations that, frameworks, conservation and spatial management tools
among other things, forbid the clearance of natural and processes have been developed and implemented
coastal lands for other activities, designate appropriate to protect coastal ecosystems, and minimise multi-
human activities that are allowed to occur within sector competition for resources or space. Best known
defined coastal areas while minimising harm, and set is integrated coastal management (ICM), also known
limits to levels of resource extraction or activity. In as integrated coastal zone management (ICZM), which
all cases, such regulations are most effective when aims to balance the complexities and potential conflict
ownership is clearly established. However, as many of growing uses of the coastal zone through the use
of these regulations pertain to single areas, sectors of relevant legislation and policy and spatial and
or individual developments, a priority for further conservation management tools to integrate planning,
enhancing protection of coastal ecosystems is to improve decision-making and management across sectors and
legislation, policies and planning frameworks to better across land and sea estates, and aspires to consider
consider multiple pressures and cumulative impacts cumulative effects and trade-offs (Álvarez-Romero et al.
from marine and land-based activities. Ensuring there 2011; Bernal 2015; Cicin-Sain 1993; Katona et al. 2017;
is a comprehensive monitoring program and research Stephenson et al. 2019).
agenda in place to assess and predict potential impacts
ICM principles and frameworks have been implemented
and develop effective management strategies is also
at global, regional and national scales. Many countries
required (Griffiths et al. 2019).
have sought to implement ICM in several forms and with
There are a number of international conventions and various degrees of success. For example, many countries
agreements that relate to various aspects of coastal in East Asia, including Viet Nam, the Philippines, China,
management, including conservation of coastal and the Republic of Korea, have institutionalised ICM in
environments and biodiversity (e.g. Convention national legislation, and this has supported countries
on Biological Diversity (CBD), Ramsar Convention in the region to improve coastal management and to
on Wetlands) and controlling pollution (MARPOL enhance the effectiveness of use and conservation of
Convention, United Nations Framework Convention on coastal natural resources and environment. Regionally,
Climate Change (UNFCCC)), which can be built upon to intergovernmental cooperation, such as the Partnerships
provide greater levels and greater breadth of protection in Environmental Management for the Seas of East
for coastal ecosystems and their services. Both the SDGs Asia (PEMSEA), has for more than 25 years applied ICM
(14.5) and the CBD Aichi Targets (11) commit nations to solutions in dozens of sites across East Asia, covering
conserve at least 10 percent of their coastal and marine around 38 percent of the region’s coastline, across 12
areas by 2020; and it is now being advocated that at least countries (see Box 6).
30 percent will need to be protected by 2030, with the
Success in implementing ICM in some countries has
remaining areas also under environmental management
been hindered by the absence, or limited presence, of
(World Conservation Congress 2016; Laffoley et al. 2019;
key enabling factors, including inadequacies with legal
Roberts et al. 2020). The UNFCCC nationally determined
frameworks, poor cooperation between different sectors
contributions (NDCs) for greenhouse gas emission
or government departments, lack of personnel, capacity

34 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

and access to knowledge (White et al. 2006; Shipman and most countries, multiple-use MPAs are the most common
Stojanovic 2007; Borja et al. 2008; Nguyen and Bui 2014; form (>75 percent in 2013). More than 40 percent of
Elmgren et al. 2015; Candel 2017; Liu and Xing 2019; mangroves and warm water coral reefs are placed within
PEMSEA 2020). gazetted MPAs, while seagrasses and estuaries are the
habitats with the lowest proportion of area (<30 percent)
ICM is a dynamic process and continues to evolve,
contained within MPAs (Toonen et al. 2013; Costello and
with greater emphasis on better management across
Ballantine 2015; Jacobsen 2019; Bryan-Brown et al. 2020;
the catchment–coast–ocean continuum, coupling
Rogers et al. 2020; UNEP 2020).
coastal, water and urban frameworks, integrating
climate and disaster risk reduction and management. There is now a recognition that conservation is
A terrestrial–ocean integrated climate policy is part enhanced when the people and communities dependent
of a larger changing narrative about the ocean and on resources take on some of the responsibility for
the recognition of its untapped potential for climate managing (making decisions about) those resources.
regulation, mitigation and adaptation, and our The most widely used OECM is locally managed marine
aspirations for a sustainable ocean economy. There are areas (LMMAs), whereby coastal communities limit or
significant opportunities for alignment with Integrated prohibit extractive or destructive practices within a
Water Resources Management initiatives, including defined area. One example is the Territorial Use Right
the UN’s 2018–28 Water Action Decade and the urban for Fisheries (TURFs), where local communities, or
sustainability agenda (discussed further in Section 4.2). associations or cooperatives, of fishers have exclusive
property rights to harvest resources within defined
Today, an integrated management framework, coupled
areas. TURFs, in combination with no-take-areas, are
with an ecosystem-based approach to management
now being implemented throughout the Americas,
and supported by marine spatial planning, including the
Oceania and Southeast Asia, and demonstrate a range
use of MPAs and other effective conservation measures
of positive effects, including increased yields, ancillary
(OECMs), is recognised as best practice. Ecosystem-
biodiversity conservation, and social and ecological
based approaches and management are based on the
enabling conditions for local stewardship. For example,
application of scientific methodologies, focused on
in Chile, the combination of TURFs and small-scale
levels of biological organisation, which encompass
aquaculture are showing promising results for livelihood
the essential structure, processes, functions and
diversification, production and food security. LMMAs
interactions among organisms and their environment.
generally operate on more limited spatial (1–10 km2)
These approaches have been most widely applied
scales than contemporary MPAs, potentially reducing
and institutionalised into fisheries management.
their conservation effectiveness. There are also, however,
For example, Indonesia and the Philippines have
a number of less-encouraging aspects, including biases
both recently adopted ecosystem-based fisheries
towards only reporting positive results and focusing
management and spatial closures by designating a
on sedentary biota, lack of effective enforcement,
number of Fisheries Management Areas (Mokhtar and
misalignment between yields and sharing agreements,
Aziz 2003; Levin et al. 2009; Saad et al. 2012; Ureta
and operating as isolated silos that can’t meet ecological
et al. 2016; Altenburg et al. 2017; Gelcich et al. 2018;
and economic expectations (Christy 1982; Jupiter et al.
Muawanah et al. 2018; Alexander et al. 2019; Alexander
2014; Afflerbach et al. 2014; Albert et al. 2016; Viana et
and Haward 2019; Kirkfeldt 2019).
al. 2018; Andrachuk et al. 2019; Sepulveda et al. 2019;
MPAs are one of the most widely implemented area- Villaseñor-Derbez et al. 2019; Aceves-Bueno et al. 2020;
based management tools used by countries to protect Halim et al. 2020; Nguyen et al. 2017).
valuable or representative coastal and marine areas,
Recognition of indigenous rights to, and ownership
and, increasingly, areas of the high seas. MPAs vary in
of, significant coastal estate in some countries (e.g.
levels of protection, from marine reserves and parks that
Australia, Canada, New Zealand) is having a growing role
provide full protection to multiple-use areas that restrict
in marine governance and conservation and aspirations
some activities in some areas, such as no-take areas. In
for blue economy livelihood opportunities. Across many

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 35

 Box 6. Regional Coastal Management Strategies
Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA): PEMSEA is an
intergovernmental organisation operating in East Asia to foster and sustain a healthy and resilient ocean, as
well as coasts, communities and economies across the region. PEMSEA serves as the regional coordinating
mechanism for the shared regional coastal and marine strategy, Sustainable Development Strategy for
the Seas of East Asia (SDS-SEA), adopted by 14 countries (Brunei, Cambodia, China, DPR Korea, Indonesia,
Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, the Philippines, RO Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste and Viet Nam)

Figure B6t.1. PEMSEA ICM Sites

 

36 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

(Figure B6.1). The strategy is a package of applicable principles, relevant existing regional and international
action programmes, agreements and instruments, as well as implementation approaches, for achieving
sustainable development of the Seas of East Asia. It offers a regional framework for the interested countries
and other stakeholders to implement, in an integrated or holistic manner, the commitments they have already
made, without assuming new legal obligations. It addresses linkages among social, cultural, economic and
environmental issues and embodies the shared vision of the countries and other stakeholders for the Seas
of East Asia, and the ways by which they will achieve that shared vision. PEMSEA has developed an ICM
system that addresses complex coastal management concerns, covering governance and various sustainable
development aspects. In November 2015, PEMSEA country partners committed to scale up the ICM to cover 25
percent of the region’s coastline by 2021. To date, PEMSEA has exceeded that target and secured about 37.9
percent of the region’s coastline, having a significant impact on 86,284 km of coastline and over 150 million
people living in coastal and watershed areas. As part of ICM implementation towards achieving blue economies
in the region, PEMSEA is committed to improving coastal and ocean governance, and implements programmes
on climate change mitigation, disaster risk reduction, habitat protection restoration and management, water
use and supply management, food security and livelihood management.

West Africa Coastal Areas Management Program (WACA): WACA was established by the World Bank in 2015
in response to demands from countries in the region to manage their growing coastal erosion and flooding
problems. Countries already participating in the programme include Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Mauritania,
Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, and Togo, and discussions are under way with other countries. WACA is
designed to improve the livelihoods of coastal communities in West Africa by reducing the vulnerability of
its coastal areas and promoting climate-resilient integrated coastal management. The programme’s mix of
technical assistance and investments will seek to preserve and rehabilitate the natural coastal resources
essential for livelihoods; spur economic development and increase social welfare; and support the sustainable
development of key growth sectors, such as agro-industry, fisheries, offshore petroleum exploration and
production, and tourism. WACA is also a convening platform to help countries obtain the finance and expertise
they need to sustainably manage their coastal areas. It also serves as a forum within which countries and
regions can share lessons learned.

Southeast Pacific Data and Information Network in Support to Integrated Coastal Area Management
(SPINCAM): SPINCAM is an IOC-UNESCO/Flanders and Permanent Commission for the South Pacific (CPPS)
initiative, created in 2008 to develop a framework of indicators in various pilot sites of the southeast Pacific
(Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and Peru). SPINCAM supports the development of decision-making tools
and implementation of ICM through regional and national investment for improved data and information
management capacity, knowledge, communication and networking at national and regional level (COI-
UNESCO and CPPS 2016). Main outputs so far have been the development of information systems, in the form
of substantial ICM atlas and web-based portals for the associated metadata. The main outcomes expected
from SPINCAM include: institutionalisation of coastal and marine governance at national and regional level;
improved regional networks on coastal and marine issues; regional strategic recommendations on marine
spatial planning, sustainable blue growth, monitoring systems and decision support tools; reduction of national
technical disparities on capacity development; and improved communication and participatory processes.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 37

 cultures, traditional owner communities have often for example, through creating refugia and connected
long practised conservation of coastal ecosystems and networks of “bright spots” and incorporate projected
resources through application of traditional ecological future distributions of coastal ecosystems rather than
knowledge, such as spatial and seasonal closures, and focusing on past conditions.
there is growing recognition of the need to incorporate
such knowledge within modern conservation practices 4.2 Mitigating Catchment
(Kerr et al. 2015; Charles 2017; Ban and Frid 2018; von Impacts Through Terrestrial
der Porten et al. 2019a, 2019b; Rist et al. 2019; Reid and Reform
Rout 2020). Achieving a sustainable ocean economy relies on
To empower and to incentivise local communities as the adequacy of upstream urban and hinterland
custodians to protect and restore local coastal areas, the infrastructure to provide the transport, energy and
application of payments for ecosystems services (PES) is water services required to support ocean industries
increasingly being adopted. With this approach, stewards and their supply chains. Equally important, however, is
(traditional owners or community groups generally) of a addressing the downstream impacts of inappropriately
coastal area are incentivised (paid) to carry out activities designed and operated infrastructure and activities
that preserve or enhance the provision of ecosystem on coastal ecosystems. The activities of concern are
services. Those who pay for PES are motivated by direct those that clear, convert or modify coastal ecosystems
benefits (e.g. environmental protection helps a business) to other land uses; extract resources such as surface
or indirect benefits (e.g. offsetting carbon footprint), and water, groundwater and sand; and introduce land-based
PES transactions are generally regulated by independent pollutants, such as excessive nutrients, sediments and
organisations who certify that measurable units of manufactured chemicals (e.g. agricultural, industrial
benefit (e.g. carbon sequestered) have been created by pharmaceuticals and personal care products), and litter.
the project’s activities and allow the resulting credits to In relation to the last of these, the companion Blue
be sold or traded in relevant marketplaces (UNEP 2020). Paper Leveraging Multi-Target Strategies to Address
Beyond designating areas with a level of protected Plastic Pollution in the Context of an Already Stressed
status, many factors can define success or failure of Ocean (Jambeck et al. 2020) proposes several relevant
individual MPAs. Without careful governance, planning interventions that would reduce pollutant inputs:
and execution, MPA designations can amount to little improve wastewater and storm-water management,
more than “paper parks”. Multi-stakeholder engagement adopt green chemistry and new materials, recover
is considered a critical factor affecting success, as is and recycle materials, implement coastal zone
whether zoning and plans identify and resolve conflicts improvements, and build local systems for safe food and
among users, and whether effective performance water.
monitoring and evaluation occurs. Even when MPAs Given growing water scarcity worldwide, there is also
are effective, issues can arise with unmet expectations opportunity for better reuse of wastewater to meet
by communities, upfront costs from decreased fishing these demands as well as to reduce impacts on coastal
in new protected or regulated grounds, loss or change environments. There are well-established technologies
of cultural uses, and unequal distribution of resources that can be deployed to increase the amount of
(Cinner et al. 2012; Fox et al. 2012; Ehler 2018; Giakoumi wastewater that is recycled and reused. As a result, cities
et al. 2018). across the globe are establishing ambitious targets and
Marine Protected Area design continues to evolve developing policies to support zero discharge concepts
as it seeks to meet a range of emerging challenges. (UN Water 2017).
Irrespective of the level of protection afforded from As noted in Section 4.1, there are significant
human-use impacts, effective MPA management must opportunities for closer integration with current global
now also consider the consequences of a changing water, urban and climate agendas and initiatives.
climate (recurrent coral bleaching, for example) and the
role ofSource:
MPAs inAdapted fromthe
addressing theimpacts
SEA Knowledge Bank (http://seaknowledgebank.net/).
on biodiversity—

38 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

The High Level Panel on Water articulated an agenda and pesticides discharged from catchments adjacent to
for water reform that encompassed: establishing a the Great Barrier Reef have been in place since the 1990s
foundation for action based on better understanding, and encompass regulations that range from setting end-
valuing and managing water; leading an integrated of-catchment load reduction targets to regulating and
agenda to provide sustainable and universal access to incentivising land-practice activities, such as precision
safe water and sanitation, build more resilient societies and regenerative farming that retain soils on-farm, and
and economies, invest more and more effectively in minimise the use of agrochemicals. Further downstream,
water-related infrastructure, and build sustainable cities the retention of vegetative buffer strips along the
and human settlements; and catalysing change, building banks of rivers, estuaries and shoreline, and the use of
partnerships and international cooperation to encourage natural and constructed wetlands to trap sediments and
innovation, promote partnerships and strengthen filter nutrients, are also effective ways of minimising
cooperation, and leverage finance and institutional discharges to coastal environments (Brodie et al. 2012;
support. The High Level Panel on Water highlighted Day 2018; Adame et al. 2019; Saderne et al. 2020).
the need to consider “urban deltas, coastal areas and
While ecosystems such as seagrass, oysters and coral
other environmentally sensitive areas” and “to integrate
reefs are particularly sensitive to too much sediment,
appropriate measures into sustainable urban and
in depositional coastal areas an adequate supply of
territorial planning and development” (High Level Panel
sediment from upstream will be required to ensure the
on Water 2017).
stabilisation of shorelines and the ongoing accretion
To support these efforts, the UN General Assembly of mangrove and saltmarsh habitat. Regulation of the
proclaimed the period 2018–28 as the Water Action amount of water used by upstream activities, removal of
Decade, which—given that it overlaps with the unnecessary impoundments and barriers, sustainable
2021–30 UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable sediment management in reservoirs, and the setting of
Development—means that there are considerable dedicated natural environmental hydrological flows that
opportunities to harmonise initiatives to develop a can reach the coast unimpeded are needed to ensure
“source-to-sea” approach that explicitly considers that deltas and estuaries can keep pace with sea level
downstream impacts of terrestrial infrastructure and erosion (Kondolf et al. 2014; Anthony and Goichot
and activities on coastal ecosystems. The strength of 2020).
source-to-sea management is that it considers the
The carbon sequestration and storage of areas of
entire system, highlighting upstream and downstream
mangrove, saltmarsh and seagrass is now widely
environmental, social and economic linkages, and
considered by many countries with large blue carbon
stimulating coordination across sectors and across
stocks as part of their national emission reduction
different authority levels. Source-to-sea approaches
commitments, and they are now active in conserving and
have been implemented in many countries, often under
restoring these ecosystems (see Section 4.4).
different names (e.g. catchment-to-coast, ridge-to-reef),
while globally this approach is recognised as essential Emerging initiatives are focusing attention on the
to addressing SDG implementation by ensuring that importance of action to curb the over-extraction of sand
linkages between the different goals and their targets are from rivers and coastal areas and stop critical deltas from
considered (Mathews et al. 2019; Singh et al. 2020). “sinking and shrinking”. For example, WWF’s Resilient
Asian Deltas initiative (WWF 2019) focuses on Asia’s six
Mitigating the impacts of diffuse land-based sources of
largest delta systems—Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna,
pollution, including the application of nutrient fertilisers
Indus, Irrawaddy, Mekong, Pearl and Yangtze—with an
and agricultural chemicals (pesticides and herbicides),
emphasis on the importance of building with nature
as well as the erosion of sediment on sensitive adjacent
and the benefits nature provides as a key solution for
coastal ecosystems (seagrass beds and coral reefs), is
delta and coastal resilience. From restoring fluvial and
now the principal concern among developed nations,
coastal sediment flows to creating more room for rivers,
and globally. For example, in Australia, management of
from reconnecting floodplains to restoring mudflats,
activities to mitigate the loads on nutrients, sediment
mangroves and other wetlands, from minimising the

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 39

 impact of new infrastructure on river flows to creating engineering principles are increasingly being used to
ponds and sponge cities to compensate for expanding build coastal defence structures that “mimic” natural
areas of impermeable concrete, building with nature coastal areas, including dynamic coastal landforms,
across their river basins would transform the future of such as beaches, barrier islands and dunes; coastal
these deltas. vegetation, such as mangroves, seagrasses, dune
vegetation, saltmarshes and kelp forests; and reef
Likewise, over-abstraction of groundwater, leading
systems, such as mussel beds, oyster reefs and coral
to subsidence in low-lying areas and cities, requires
reefs. Figure 5 illustrates the cbenefits of implementing
a comprehensive approach to better manage these
blue infrastructure, and Table 4 summarises the
resources. Given that these abstraction and extraction
advantages and disadvantages of each form of
activities can occur many hundreds of kilometres from
infrastructure.
the coast, and sometimes in adjacent countries, regional,
or transnational source-to-sink approaches are required. The direct benefits of natural infrastructure are
principally protection from flooding and from erosion.
4.3 Adapting Coastal Consequently, such approaches are now recognised
Infrastructure as a way of balancing continuing development with
solutions that deliver climate change resilience and
The coastal adaptation strategies considered here
adaptation benefits, alongside multiple ecosystem
are principally concerned with using nature-based
benefits, including enhancing biodiversity and carbon
approaches to adapting infrastructure to increase
sequestration and improving water quality by filtering
resilience to changing conditions, and to minimise the
storm water (Francis 2010; Lai et al. 2015; Perkins et al.
loss of ecosystem services. This also requires a change in
2015; Sutton-Grier et al. 2015; Firth et al. 2016; Vikolainen
behaviours or practices by which we make use of coastal
et al. 2017; Gracia et al. 2018; Burt et al. 2019; Browder et
environments and the resources they provide, and the
al. 2019; Conger and Chang 2019; Liu et al. 2019; Thacker
way in which we value the direct and indirect benefits
et al. 2019).
derived from these ecosystems.
However, as the design and performance of this natural
Traditional coastal infrastructure is typically built with
infrastructure is often influenced by local ecological,
“hard” or “grey” engineering techniques and materials
social and political conditions, increasingly hybrid
(e.g. concrete, steel) and designed to specifications
approaches blending strategic use of natural assets and
for withstanding probabilistic exceedances that are
ecological principles with grey-engineered techniques
based on the assumption that the past can reliably
and existing infrastructure are being adopted. Hybrid
predict the future; as discussed in Section 2.1, this is no
approaches provide cost-effective hazard protection
longer the case and puts many low-lying settlements at
solutions and are increasingly being adopted in urban
risk. These hard approaches have also left a legacy of
areas where green approaches may be insufficient to
environmental impacts affecting the structure, function
meet the rising impacts of climate change, or where
and connectivity among adjacent coastal habitats
space is limited. There are now numerous examples
and diminishing biodiversity. The next generation of
and guidance on applying these approaches to
coastal infrastructure will have a critical role in meeting
applications that range from the landscape scale to
these increased climate-driven challenges, as well
individual breakwaters. Restoration of wetlands, sand-
as accommodating continued urbanisation and the
dunes and beaches can be integrated with supporting
needs of blue economy industries. To ensure that the
grey structures for flood or erosion management (e.g.
right infrastructure is built, we must adopt resilient
levees, breakwaters and seawalls), providing a solution
approaches, and policymakers will need to establish
that is more comprehensive, robust and cost-effective
long-term visions for sustainable national infrastructure
than either solution alone. Small-scale engineering
systems, informed by the SDGs (Thacker et al. 2019).
interventions to coastal defence structures can be
Softer, natural approaches—often labelled “green” for implemented at relatively low cost, in intertidal and
terrestrial or “blue” for marine—that apply ecological shallow subtidal zones to increase faunal and algal

40 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

abundance and diversity. The modification of these implementing green urban infrastructure plans and
structures, by adding grooves, pits, ledges and texture, demonstrating that urban transitions integrating green,
can be incorporated into the design of coastal defence blue and grey infrastructure are possible and affordable,
structures or retrofitted to existing structures. For and lead to more efficient, multipurpose infrastructure.
example, the Living Seawalls project (see Box 7) is Recognition that these solutions can be applied in other
fitting seawalls with various shaped tiles—made with 3D parts of the world has led to a number of international
printing technology—that enhance relief and facilitate city networks, notably the C40 Cities Climate Leadership
settlement of a variety of benthic organisms, or create Group, the World Mayors Council on Climate Change
habitat for small cryptic fishes (Borsje et al. 2011; and the Urban Climate Change Research Network, now
Depietri and McPhearson 2017; Strain et al. 2018a, 2018b; actively collaborating and learning from each other to
Browder et al. 2019; Conger and Chang 2019). improve their adaptive capacity.

Another area of adaptation is the development and use Similarly, many seaports around the world, facing
of building materials that are more environmentally growing environmental concerns about their
benign. There are now a number of green concretes— construction and operation, have sought to align their
made with waste material as a partial or complete performance with sustainability considerations, as
replacement for cement or aggregate, including well as planning protection from the impact of climate
recycled demolition waste aggregate, blast furnace slag, change. A shift to greener, integrated ports is now
manufactured sand, glass aggregate and fly ash. While recognised as a long-term economic choice, and an
green concrete requires less energy for its production increasing number of ports now implement a range
and produces less CO2, the higher cost of reinforcement, of in-port operations, including energy conservation,
and the shorter life of buildings constructed with green environmental protection and development planning
concrete are limitations that are being addressed (Zhang that considers the adjacent environment, other coastal
et al. 2014; Khazaleh and Gopalan 2019; UNEP 2019). operations and nearby cities. A range of incentives
are also used to reduce emissions, such as using
Many cities around the world are now developing and
shore-based electricity for ships at berth, requiring

Figure 5. Benefits of Implementing Blue Infrastructure

Water trickling through reed beds are Smart road construction maintains
cleaned by microorganisms living on the hydrology for wetlands and supports
root system and in the litter, reducing water quality for coral reefs and
other coastal ecosystems Renewable energy powers the cooling
polluted run-off
and fish processing facilities,
sourcing natural resources from the
Powered by renewable sustainably managed area
energy, recycling centres
keep rivers clean

Co-designed management areas

containing aquaculture and
renewable energy create win-wins

Underwater cables with real time

monitoring devices feed universities
and disaster risk prevention centres
with relevant data

Mangroves play a significant role Coral reefs are critical nursery grounds for
as sediment traps and can support fish and crustaceans. Healthy reefs provide
port maintenance by reducing the backbone for a sustainable fisheries
dredging needs sector and the local tourism sector’s
income opportunities (e.g. dive spots)

Breakwaters reduce wave energy to buffer impacts

of weather events to coastal infrastructure and Proximity of MPAs creates economic
facilitate sediment accumulation for ecosystem opportunities for export of related
restoration, such as for mangroves commodities to commercial markets (fish,
sustainable timber, non-timber products)

Source: Thiele et al. 2020. IUCN.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 41

 slow vessel speeds, and incentivising rail and barge institutional arrangements capable of matching available
transport, rather than roads, from ports. Some ports funding with the needs of individual situations (Colgan
also reduce fees based on indices that assess the et al. 2017).
environmental performance of individual vessels,
Policy support for green/blue/hybrid infrastructure
such as the Environmental Ship Index. However, the
can make good politics and has an important social
voluntary nature of such schemes means that progress
dimension, as adoption will be most successful when
on significant emission reductions remains slow.
it meets the needs and interests of local stakeholders
Consequently, regulators and policymakers must be
and communities. However, much clearer integrated
prepared not merely to nudge and incentivise but to take
policy pathways to promote adoption of blue and
more concrete action (PIANC 2014; Gonzalez et al. 2018;
hybrid infrastructure are required, and while “green”
Bergqvist and Monios 2019; Psaraftis 2019; de Boer et al.
and “blue” are often used to delineate terrestrial and
2019; Dundas et al. 2020; WPSP 2020; UNCTAD 2020b).
marine approaches, in fact, “teal” approaches are what
With growing offshore sprawl, there are opportunities to is required to effectively address coastal development
find synergy in sharing infrastructure between industry (Browder et al. 2019; Dundas et al. 2020).
sectors that might previously have been in conflict. For
A body of policy and practitioner guidance has
example, combining aquaculture with wind or solar
emerged in recent years that provides tools to enable
operations, and even conventional oil and gas platforms,
integration and the use of natural infrastructure
is now increasingly common. Such multifunctional
solutions, lessons from implementation, and policy
use is, however, still very much in its infancy and
recommendations to ensure that infrastructure meets
requires technical and economic feasibility as a basic
sustainable development objectives (Browder et
prerequisite, as well as alignment among sectors and
al. 2019; Conservation International 2019; Thiele et
national jurisdictions of environmental, safety and
al. 2020). At a macro level, the 2019 G20 Principles
regulatory regimes and practices. Similarly, a growing
for Quality Infrastructure Investment provide clear
legacy of ageing marine (e.g. oil and gas platforms and
policy guidance for the consideration that needs to be
pipelines) and catchment (e.g. small dams) infrastructure
taken around infrastructure planning, including that
that must be decommissioned in the near to medium
in the coastal zone. The principles include a focus on
future is driving the development of policy and science
maximising the positive impact of infrastructure on
that seeks to minimise environmental harm while
achieving sustainable growth and development through
ensuring cost-effectiveness (Buck and Langan 2017; Buck
the positive economic, environmental, social and
et al. 2018).
development impact of infrastructure and encourages
Multilateral funding and investment agencies and the the use of a virtuous circle of economic activities,
insurance industry now recognise that integrating blue including the use of ecosystem-based adaptation where
and grey infrastructure can help to fill the need for possible. They highlight the need for comprehensive
the next generation of climate-resilient infrastructure disaster risk management planning in the design of
solutions and allow for the devising of new risk infrastructure, including in terms of considering the
financing for nature-based solutions, such as the recent re-establishment of essential services, as well as the
insurance for the Mesoamerican Reef (Reguero et al. need to ensure long-term adaptability and to build
2019b). There is a large and growing pool of funding for infrastructure resilience against natural disasters
for natural infrastructure—although the availability is and the slow onset of environmental changes. Finally,
geographically uneven—with the largest opportunities they highlight the importance of finance and insurance
in the redirection of post-disaster recovery funds to mechanisms, including well-designed disaster risk
pre-disaster investments in risk reduction. However, finance, to help incentivise resilient infrastructure
the largest barriers for securing adequate resources are through the financing of preventive measures, and the
identifying locations where natural infrastructure can need to make transparent the additional benefits of
play a significant role in flood risk reduction, developing sustainable infrastructure projects to enable the use of
the experience and standards to overcome institutional green finance instruments, including in the delivery of
biases that favour grey infrastructure, and developing NDCs (G20 2019).

42 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Table 4. Summary of Selected Management Approaches Advantages and Disadvantages

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
GREY INFRASTRUCTURE
• Significant expertise exists on how to design and build • Does not adapt with changing conditions such as sea level rise
such approaches at large scales • Weakens with time and has a built-in lifetime
• Decades of experience with implementation • Can disrupt longshore coastal sediment transport and cause
• Excellent understanding of how these approaches downdrift coastal erosion
function and what level of protection will be provided • Can cause coastal habitat loss and have negative impacts on
by different types of structures built to specific the ecosystem services provided by nearby coastal ecosystems
engineering standards • May sustain more damage during small storm events
• Infrastructure is ready to withstand a storm event as • Only provides storm protection benefits when a storm is
soon as it is constructed approaching; no co-benefits accrue in good weather
• Needs continuous monitoring and regular maintenance
• Barrier to dispersal and movement of fauna and flora, resulting
in loss of ecosystem connections

NATURAL AND HYBRID INFRASTRUCTURE

• Capitalises on best characteristics of built and natural • Little data on how well these systems perform to date
• Allows for innovation in designing coastal protection • Does not provide the same benefits that natural systems
systems provide
• Provides some co-benefits besides coastal protection • More research is needed to design the best hybrid systems
• Can provide a greater level of confidence than natural • Growing but limited expertise in the coastal planning and
approaches alone development community on which approaches to use
• Can be used in areas where there is little space to • Hybrid systems, due to the built part of them, can still have
implement natural approaches alone some negative impacts on species diversity
• Balances conservation with development • Uncertainty in cost-effectiveness and long-term performance
• Permitting for hybrid projects can be a more difficult process
than for built projects
• Response to native species colonisation is unpredictable

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION
• Provides many co-benefits in addition to coastal • The development of best practices for how to restore
protection, including fishery habitat, water quality ecosystems is needed, according to a set of starting criteria
improvements, and carbon sequestration and storage, • Provides variable levels of coastal protection (non-linearity of
and can provide these benefits to coastal communities the provisioning of coastal protection benefits), depending on
all the time, not just during storm events the ecosystem, geography and also on the type and severity of
• Ecosystem grows stronger with time as establishes storm events; more research is needed to better understand
• Has the potential to self-recover after a storm or other how to estimate or predict the coastal protection provided
disturbance event • In the case of restored ecosystems, it can take a long time for
• Can keep pace with sea level rise ecosystems to get established so that the natural systems can
• Can be cheaper to construct provide the necessary level of coastal protection
• Increased CO2 storage capacity in created, maintained • Likely requires a substantial amount of space to implement
or restored ecosystems; reduction of urban heatwave natural approaches (such as ecosystem restoration or
island effect; improvement in water quality protection of existing ecosystems), which may not be possible
• Can enhance tourism, recreational and local in highly urban or industrial contexts
employment opportunities included in establishment • Uncertainty in cost-effectiveness and long-term performance
and maintenance • Permitting for natural projects can be a more difficult process
• Enhances the natural environment and implicit value than for built projects
• Saves raw materials and improves public health • Uncertainty over responsibility for ownership and maintenance
• Uncertainty in assessing levels of risk for insurance cover and
premiums for coastal assets

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 43

 Box 7. Living Seawalls: A Green Engineering Solution with Global
Significance
The Living Seawalls project enhances the ecological value of seawalls by using modular habitat panels,
constructed using 3D design and printing technology, to mimic features of natural shorelines (SIMS 2020).
Panels with crevices and ridges, in New South Wales, Australia, enhance native biodiversity and the survival of
Sydney rock oysters, a native habitat-forming and economically important species (Strain et al. 2018a, 2018b).
Individual panels can be designed to mimic the natural habitat features of a locality, and panels of multiple
designs can be configured in mosaic arrangements to provide a variety of habitats to maximise diversity.

To date, panels of multiple designs have been installed at six locations in Sydney Harbour to create “living
seawalls”. Within hours of installation, panels were inhabited by microbes and mobile macro-invertebrates,
and within just a few months, the complex panels supported more diverse and abundant marine
communities than flat surfaces. This project, a collaboration between marine biologists, designers and
engineers, was made possible by a forward-thinking local council (North Sydney), which has long supported
seawall greening and provided access to their seawalls.

Figure B7.1. Living Seawalls

Living Seawalls panels can be affixed to existing seawalls that are generally flat and featureless, and otherwise
provide little protection for marine life (A). Panels have been designed using 3D printing technology to
incorporate complex texture and a variety of microhabitat features (B). Seawalls can be retrofitted in a variety
of configurations to suit site conditions, ecological objectives or aesthetic preferences (C). Within months, the
complex panels were colonised by a variety of invertebrate and macroalgae and fish (D).

A B C

D E

Source: Maria Vozzo.

44 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

 Urban stakeholders are supportive of green engineering initiatives and local stakeholders reported a greater
sense of well-being associated with these initiatives. The enormous potential of the Living Seawalls habitat
panels to transform seawalls around the world has captured the attention of local and state governments,
consultants, marine managers and ecologists from around Australia and abroad. At present, the main barriers
to implementation are the lack of clarity on seawall ownership due to jurisdictional boundaries within the
intertidal and shallow subtidal environment, confusion around required documentation for the permitting
process, and the slow rate at which these questions are resolved.

degraded and deforested lands by 2030, while the Global

4.4 Repairing Coastal Ecosystems Mangrove Alliance has set a target of increasing global
It is now widely accepted that protection is not enough mangrove extent by 20 percent within this time period.
to reverse trends in coastal habitat loss and degradation,
and efforts to repair these ecosystems, through at-scale While the reasons for restoration are varied, it should be
habitat restoration efforts and by re-establishing natural understood that the aim of restoration activities is not
coastal and hydrological processes, are required. It is to return degraded coastal ecosystems to any particular
also increasingly accepted that these efforts can deliver past reference point, but rather to focus on increasing
substantial environmental co-benefits (Section 4.5), the extent and abundance of key habitats and keystone
including biodiversity protection, coastal protection, species, and use metrics that include presence of
coastal carbon storage and fisheries production, as well structure, functions, resilience and ecosystem services
as direct and indirect employment co-benefits related to evaluate success (Bayraktarov et al. 2016, 2019, 2020a;
to installation, maintenance, recreation, tourism and Friess et al. 2019; Duarte et al. 2020).
education. Several studies have begun to quantify the Depending on the habitat to be restored, as well as
singular and bundled value of the direct and indirect local conditions, a variety of restoration methods have
benefits that accrue from repairing coastal ecosystems, been used and there are now numerous examples of
and demonstrate substantial economic gains and cost successful and unsuccessful projects that have allowed
avoidance relative to business-as-usual scenarios. the development of extensive practical guidance on
Restoration science and practice is also fundamental restoration (Gann et al. 2019). Box 8 summarises some
to creating new nature-based infrastructure for coastal of these principles and learnings, and Boxes 10 to 13
defence (Section 4.3). Recent analysis commissioned by provide relevant examples of mangrove, seagrass, coral
the High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy and shellfish reef restoration.
notes that restoration activities provided a benefit of
four dollars for every one invested, but due to higher For coastal marine ecosystems, mangrove restoration
logistical costs and the longer timescales taken to is the most well established and is widely undertaken
realise the benefits, this ratio is at least 20-fold less than throughout the world. Mangrove restoration occurs
implementation of protection measures (Konar and Ding predominantly by planting seedlings and saplings in
2020). projects that vary from small (<1 km2) to large (1,000 km2)
scale, and by 2010, nearly 4,000 km2 had been restored.
Globally, there are a number of initiatives actively Online tools, such as the Mangrove Restoration Potential
seeking to scale up restoration. The UN General Map (maps.oceanwealth.org/mangrove-restoration/),
Assembly has declared 2021–30 the UN Decade on allow users to explore at global, regional and national
Ecosystem Restoration, promoting global cooperation levels the opportunities for mangrove restoration.
on the restoration of degraded ecosystems to combat The map identifies c.8,120 km2, or 6 percent, of
climate change, protect biodiversity, assist with food former mangrove area as restorable, with the greatest
security and deliver clean water for the planet. The Bonn opportunities in Southeast Asia (Worthington and
Challenge seeks to restore 350 million ha of the world’s

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 45

 Spalding 2018). The Global Mangrove Alliance (http:// among agencies, many of whom often have conflicting
www.mangrovealliance.org/gma/) provides practical production/development and environmental protection
advice on mangrove restoration. mandates.

The reinstatement of natural hydrological conditions for In addition to the ecosystem services that restoration
rivers, as well as tidal areas that have been restricted, of coastal habitats can provide, there are also
is an important pre-condition for restoration in coastal significant flow-on benefits through the creation of
marine habitats. In many cases, the removal of bunds new jobs and supporting local economies. Marine
and other structures restricting natural tidal flows can habitat restoration is recognised as a “jobs-intensive”
be sufficient to assist revegetation of coastal areas that industry and strong driver of economic growth, creating
had previously been cleared for other land use, including immediate employment in transport, construction,
agriculture and aquaculture (Kelleway et al. 2020). marine engineering, project management, science and
aquaculture. For example, the economic impact of 50
Technically, to improve the success of restoration efforts,
coastal habitat restoration projects funded through the
the rigorous application of science to design and select
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (2009) created
areas that are suitable for restoration is needed, and the
on average 17 jobs per million dollars spent, which was
use of “big data” can be utilised for such assessments.
higher than traditional industries, including coal and
Continual evaluation of project progress with metrics
gas, roads and energy generation. Many jobs are created
that assess effectiveness rather than effort will help to
in rural and regional coastal areas and offer a range of
ensure that lessons are learned from past failures and
skilled and low-skilled positions, considerably enhancing
successes so that restoration practices are improved and
economic opportunities in regional areas. Longer-term
resources can be maximised in the most cost-effective
employment can be created through the flow-on benefits
manner. Harnessing knowledge of the life histories
of these ecological improvements to new and increased
of the habitat-forming organisms, using technologies
opportunities for fishing, aquaculture and tourism and
such as drones to identify suitable areas for restoration
their service sectors (Edwards et al. 2013; Powell et al.
and to disperse pods into ideal locations, or using
2018).
commercial vessels equipped with oil booms to collect
wild coral-spawn slicks for re-seeding target reefs (see Marine habitat restoration is also almost unparalleled
Box 11) are just a few examples to help achieve the in its capacity to deliver collaborative, partnership-
scale of restoration required (Fairhead et al. 2012; Baker based approaches for restoration. Active involvement
and Eckerberg 2013; Doropoulos et al. 2019a, 2019b; and meaningful consultation between practitioners,
Vanderklift et al. 2020; Worthington et al. 2020; Waltham local communities and the science sector that leads to
et al. 2020). integration of best-practice science and local knowledge
is essential for effective implementation. Factors for
Apart from the technical challenges of undertaking
success include local government support, community
restoration at ecologically meaningful scales, restoration
involvement, property rights, education and preparation,
must operate within a complex and dynamic interplay
and supplementary livelihoods. Citizen science activities
between technical decision-making, legal constraints,
are regularly incorporated into projects to reduce costs
social licence to operate, ideologies and politics. As a
and expand community participation and education.
result, many efforts are considered value-laden, context-
Engagement with traditional landowners can result in
driven and prone to disagreement and compromise.
shared learning, application of traditional ecological
In developing countries, restoration projects must also
knowledge and improved coastal management and
operate and respect the cultural norms and traditional
indigenous engagement (Diefenderfer and Adkins 2003;
ownership/rights issues relevant to the project area,
Stojanovic et al. 2004; Ismadi and Yamindago 2014;
while at the same time addressing perceptions of “green
Dharmawan et al. 2016; McLeod et al. 2018; Powell et al.
grabbing”. Governance and institutional issues can
2018; Waltham et al. 2020).
also hamper rehabilitation if there is poor coordination

46 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Box 8. Success Factors for Coastal Restoration

1. Planning: Careful planning is necessary and should include identifying the causes of degradation and
conducting preliminary small-scale interventions to test effectiveness prior to applying any full-scale
restoration activities.

2. Create the right preconditions: Removal or mitigation of stressors, such as poor water quality, and
limiting conditions, such as lack of suitable substrate or inadequate supply of propagules, is necessary
before natural recovery can occur. Stressors that enhance mortality, such as disease and predation,
particularly during early stages of growth, also need to be minimised.

3. Consider the right scale and context: The need to scale up restoration activities means that the patch-
based approaches must consider processes at the broader landscape and regional scales—for example,
movement of water or dispersal of biota.

4. Location: Ensuring restoration takes place in the locations that maximise success for the system being
restored, in terms of considering scale, access, disturbance history and forecasting, and downstream
benefits, is vital.

5. Focus on tangible outcomes, not targets: While ambitious area-based targets (e.g. size of area planted,
number of seedlings planted) for restoration are being widely advocated, these should be reframed to
focus on success criteria linked to environmental outputs (e.g. percentage survival, vegetation densities
similar to natural forests) and incorporate social-ecological outcomes of restoration.

6. Engage partners and community: Active involvement and meaningful consultation between
practitioners, local communities and the science sector—that leads to integration of best-practice
science and local knowledge—is essential for successful implementation and longevity.

7. Harness technology: Technology must be developed and utilised to effectively scale up restoration
efforts. Remote sensing technology opens new ways to monitor and inform conservation and
restoration.

8. Long-term monitoring and adaptive management: It is important to plan for, commit to and invest in
long-term monitoring, so that small issues can be quickly rectified.

9. Investment: Besides public investment, restoration efforts clearly need private investment, and this
investment could be accessed via new financial instruments, including payment for ecosystem services,
green bonds, biodiversity offsets, carbon credits, debt-for-nature swaps, and water quality credit
markets.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 47

 Box 9. Mangrove Protection and Restoration: Nature-Based
Solutions to Multiple Problems
Mangrove conservation—including actions that both protect and restore—is becoming a priority for
international policy, in part because mangroves provide multiple benefits, including carbon sequestration,
coastal protection and fish habitats. Currently, around 36 percent of the world’s mangroves have some form
of legal protection, and they are also implicitly or explicitly included under multiple international policy
frameworks, including the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance.

Many nations are developing policies and legislation that afford increased protection. For example, the island
nation of Sri Lanka—one of the countries most affected by climate change—has implemented legal protection
for all of its mangrove areas, as well as a policy to rehabilitate 10,000 ha of mangrove forest, while Indonesia
aims to restore 50,000 ha of mangroves by 2024. However, policy frameworks still include incentives (such as
expansion of aquaculture) that contribute to mangrove degradation and loss, and removing such perverse
incentives is key to reversing decline.

Efforts to restore mangroves have taken many forms, from using seedlings grown in pots or directly inserting
mangrove propagules into the soil, to simply allowing the tide to return and letting nature take its course. The
approach has varied, depending on the purpose, such as whether the focus is on stabilising an eroding coast
or generating carbon credits. Many of these initiatives often fail completely (for example, all the seedlings
die), or they do not achieve the intended result. However, many successful initiatives exist, which shows the
enormous potential of restoration. For example, in Bali, Indonesia, restoration of abandoned aquaculture
ponds has yielded excellent results over more than a decade, including high rates of carbon sequestration.
Breaching the barriers around the ponds (i.e. pond walls and gates) has allowed the tide to return, promoting
rapid natural mangrove regeneration and accumulation of carbon-rich soil.

Figure B9.1. Mangrove Restoration in Bali, Indonesia

Source: Mangrove Nusantara.

48 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

In southwest Madagascar—a nation that lost 21 percent of its mangroves in the 20 years from 1990 to 2010
alone—coastal communities are almost entirely reliant on the resources they get from the sea. Blue Ventures
has worked with these local communities using participatory approaches to develop a suite of activities
designed to encourage sustainable use of mangroves, including development of sustainable alternative
ways of generating income. Among the activities is the implementation of a locally managed marine area,
alongside local regulations (Dina) to prevent overharvesting mangroves. The project also includes mangrove
restoration by directly inserting into the soil the viviparous propagules of Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops
tagal and Bruguiera gymnorhiza, which are collected from parent trees nearby. The survival rate of planted
mangroves is high, and measurements also include the carbon content of mangroves and the underlying soil,
to develop carbon credits for sale in the voluntary carbon market, and so generate an additional source of
income for local people.

Box 10. Seagrass Protection, Adaptation and Restoration

Seagrasses globally have been degraded over recent decades, and there is ample evidence from well-studied
parts of Australia, North America and Europe showing that millions of hectares of seagrass meadows have
died around the world (Waycott et al. 2009).

Can we begin to reverse this pattern through restoration? Advances in seagrass restoration techniques suggest
that we can. Broadly, there are two main ways of restoring seagrass, which take advantage of the way that
seagrasses (like grasses on land) can multiply both asexually and sexually. In asexual growth, seagrasses send
out rhizomes (structures like horizontal stems) that colonise new areas; sometimes parts of an adult plant can
break off and be transported to a distant area through sea currents, where it can then establish and grow. This
characteristic of seagrass has been harnessed for decades in attempts at seagrass restoration, by methods
which involve taking shoots from a healthy meadow, and planting them elsewhere. It can be laborious, and
sometimes survival is low. But, if circumstances are right, it can be very successful. One example is Oyster
Harbour, an enclosed embayment on the southern coast of Australia. After the original causes of seagrass death
were ameliorated, efforts were made to transplant rhizomes of Posidonia australis, it with its characteristic large
leaves attached. These were replanted in areas that once hosted seagrass, taking care to bury the rhizomes
below the sediment surface, holding them in place with a wire hook. Survival was high, and the transplanted
seagrass began to extend outwards. After eight years, individual transplants could not be distinguished and
meadows of transplanted Posidonia had begun to merge with existing natural meadows. When rates of carbon
burial were measured 18 years after the original planting, rates inside meadows that grew from transplanted
seagrass were similar to those in natural seagrass—further demonstration of the success of that project (Bastyan
and Cambridge 2008; Marbà et al. 2015; Serrano et al. 2020).

Another restoration method yielding promising results harnesses the use of the seeds that seagrasses
produce. In this method, seeds are dispersed into areas where seagrass once grew. Although only a small
proportion survive and grow, many seeds can be dispersed, so that the overall chances of success are
improved. In coastal bays of Virginia (USA), a project started in 1999, which involved scattering seeds of
eelgrass (Zostera marina) from a boat across 125 ha over several years, had, by 2010, formed seagrass
meadows covering greater than 1,700 ha (Orth et al. 2012). Similar successes are now being reported at
multiple locations around the world, highlighting that this method offers considerable promise.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 49

 Figure B10.1. Seagrass (Syringodium isoetifolium) in Mauritius

Source: Mat Vanderklft.

Box 11. Restoration and Adaptation of Coral Reefs

With widespread and more frequent bleaching events, it is now widely held that conventional management
approaches are not enough to protect coral reefs, and that restoration at ecologically meaningful scales is
urgently needed to aid and accelerate recovery of damaged reefs.

Restoration methods developed over the last 40 years have traditionally involved transplanting coral
fragments or adding artificial substrate, with other approaches such as larval addition, rubble stabilisation
or algal removal infrequently applied (Boström-Einarsson et al. 2020). The coral gardening approach was
pioneered in the 1990s and programmes using this approach now operate in more than 150 coral nurseries
across 20 countries. Most interventions have traditionally been small, labour intensive and costly (replanting
coral fragments grown in a nursery costs between $1 million and $4 million per ha) and have had mixed
results (Rinkevich 1995; Edwards and Gomez 2007; Lirman and Schopmeyer 2016; Bayraktarov et al. 2016,
2019, 2020b; Anthony et al. 2017; van Oppen et al. 2017; Ladd et al. 2018; National Academies of Sciences,
Engineering and Medicine 2019).

Some recent studies have begun to demonstrate longer-term and larger-scale (around 1–2 ha) successes (Fox
et al. 2019; Williams et al. 2019; Bayraktarov et al. 2020a, 2020b). One promising approach shown below is the
harvesting, culturing and release of wild coral-spawn slicks to targeted reefs. Recent studies in Australia have
demonstrated the feasibility of such large-scale restoration, and have been accomplished by incorporating

50 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

technologies used in oil spill remediation, dredging operations and land-based aquaculture. Such an approach
allows for long-distance translocation of corals and maintenance of coral diversity, and has virtually no impact
at source (Doropoulos et al. 2019a, 2019b).

Assisted evolution, such as selective breeding, assisted gene flow, conditioning or epigenetic programming,
and manipulation of microbiome could also help coral reefs, which are particularly sensitive to warmer water
temperatures (van Oppen et al. 2017). Moreover, including strategic decision science (Doropoulos and Babcock
2018) alongside novel interventions (Anthony et al. 2017) is necessary to maximise the long-term effectiveness
of restoration activities.

Figure B11.1. Coral-Spawn Slicks

(A) Conceptual diagram for the harvesting of wild coral-spawn slicks following mass spawning events for
transport during cultivation and release onto degraded reefs to assist in recovery. (B) Kilometre-long slick seen
from the sky. (C) Slick contained in an oil boom. (D) Slick cultivated on a floating aquaculture system built on a
commercial tug-boat in the first field trial

A B C
5 days
013 MAH HAM 310

embryo larvae

Transport larvae
during cultivation
Harvest Settle larvae
coral slicks onto reef

D
Naturally Assisted
spawning coral reef
corals recovery

Source: CSIRO.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 51

 Box 12. Shellfish Reef Restoration

Shellfish restoration has been successfully undertaken in several countries at scale and has employed
approaches ranging from natural regeneration, assisted regeneration and reconstruction approaches.
Shellfish reef restoration now frequently occurs at large scales (>10 ha), engages across government, non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) and local communities and is innovative in addressing financing options.
Examples of shellfish restoration around the globe include:

ƒ In the United States, the Chesapeake Bay Executive Order requires oyster populations of 20 Chesapeake
Bay tributaries to be restored by 2025. Three estuaries have been restored thus far, including 390 ha
of restored reef at a projected total cost of $72 million. The economic investment was returned in less
than five years through the increased catch of commercial fish and crab fisheries as a result of increased
productivity from restored reefs (Knoche and Ihde 2019).

ƒ In China in 2004, over 20 tonnes of hatchery-reared seed oysters were successfully transplanted onto two
around 50-km concrete dykes previously constructed in the Yangtze River (Quan et al. 2009).

ƒ In South Australia in 2018, a 20-ha native flat oyster reef was restored at a cost of c.$3 million, to
support recreational fishing tourism and regional jobs at an employment ratio of 8.5 jobs per million
invested. Key success factors included using case studies of the environmental and social benefits of
reef restoration (particularly from the United States) to help educate the community and government
stakeholders on the benefits of natural habitat restoration compared with artificial reefs; identifying a
clear social beneficiary stakeholder (i.e. recreational fishers) and economic beneficiary stakeholder (i.e.
local service businesses that financially benefit from the predicted increase in recreational fishers in the
region); and successfully articulating marine ecosystems as natural infrastructure, which is synonymous
with built infrastructure in terms of providing a beneficial service to communities and which can be
quantified like other types of infrastructure (Econsearch 2016).

The benefits of restoring shellfish reefs to coastal communities and industries are well quantified, with the
economic value of the full suite of ecosystem services derived from natural oyster reefs in North America
estimated to be as high as $100,000 ha per annum (Grabowski et al. 2012) and including job creation and
economic development, fish production, water filtration and dentification, coastal protection and providing
habitat for many other marine species.

Figure B12.1. Shellfish Reef Restoration

at Windara Reef in South Australia

Source: Chris Gillies.

52 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Box 13. Promoting Gender Equality for Coastal Resilience
Promoting gender equality is essential for ensuring coastal resilience, as women play key roles in many
marine sectors and are important negotiators and decision-makers. Women can make up more than half of
the workforce in some marine industries, especially small-scale fisheries, aquaculture and processing plants.
However, women, particularly in developing countries are often disadvantaged through gender inequalities
caused by unequal power relations and structures, lack of training, discriminatory laws and customs,
and unequal access to and control of resources, and as a result, there are very few women in leadership
positions. Women are also more vulnerable than men to climate change and natural disaster impacts.
Many examples from developing countries show that, where women are empowered and can contribute to
decision-making processes, social well-being is enhanced and conflict reduced, the health and education of
children is improved, and the environment is better protected. Thus, developing and implementing education
programmes and capacity building, not only for women but men in the community as well, and establishing
women’s cooperatives and advocacy groups are needed (Tschakert and Machado 2012; Alston 2013; Monfort
2015; CARE 2016; Dah-gbeto and Villamor 2016; Smucker and Wangui 2016; Tran et al. 2016; de la Torre-Castro
et al. 2017; MFF 2018; UNFCCC 2019; Stacey et al. 2019; Ravera et al. 2020).

Box 14. Incentivising Coastal Development and a Sustainable

Ocean Economy

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) gives us an example of how a multilateral development bank is moving
to incentivise coastal development and a sustainable ocean economy. In its operational plan, ADB highlights
the importance of building resilience as part of its overarching vision for a “prosperous, inclusive, resilient,
and sustainable Asia and the Pacific”. Many Asia Pacific countries, particularly low-lying nations and SIDS,
are highly exposed and vulnerable to natural hazards and the impacts of climate change. Disaster losses are
already growing due to insufficient regard for climate and disaster risk in either the design or location of new
infrastructure. A clear priority is planning and delivering infrastructure that builds resilience in a climate and
disaster risk resilience context, with a number of different categories of resilience being identified (see Box 1).

ADB’s Action Plan for Healthy Oceans and Sustainable Blue Economies, launched in 2019 (ADB 2020), is
an example of an integrated approach to promoting ocean health and sustainable coastal development.
It includes a commitment of $5 billion in investments and technical assistance in focus areas that include
sustainable infrastructure, blue economy livelihoods, ecosystem management and pollution control
management, supported by an ocean financing initiative.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 53

 4.5 Coastal Co-Benefits and Trade-offs
Trade-Offs A key challenge in coastal marine conservation and
management is how to manage trade-offs between
Co-benefits social and ecological goals, so that both benefits and
All too often coastal management strategies are costs can be distributed equitably across individuals
undertaken in order to meet a single objective, without or communities (Halpern et al. 2013). For example,
recognising the multiple other benefits that can result the decision to protect a mangrove to avoid carbon
from an action. Only by accounting for these can we truly emissions or to slow erosion may have an impact on
place the full value of ecosystem services into a planning current timber harvesting or future opportunities to
and management context. Value can be expressed in develop the coast for aquaculture or urban expansion.
many ways other than direct monetary metrics, including For the people who rely on these for their livelihoods,
food security, health and cultural values. The benefits there is no obvious benefit and therefore little incentive,
that people receive from ecosystems may accrue far from unless alternative sources of income can be provided.
where they are produced. In the last decade, there have
Globally, climate and coastal development projections
been significant advances in developing methods to
over the coming decades mean that we are inevitably
quantify non-market benefits of coastal ecosystems and
faced with compelling circumstances requiring trade-
to map additional benefits that cascade from them.
offs to maintain viable environmental conditions and
Today, ecosystem service valuation is increasingly standards of living (Whelchel et al. 2018). Navigating
being used as a tool to assist coastal planning and these trade-offs will require thoughtful consideration of
management to achieve better informed and more the distribution of costs and benefits, and development
holistic decision-making about resource use, and identify of mechanisms that protect the livelihoods of those
opportunities for effective conservation. For example, least able to bear the cost. For example, in southwestern
ecosystem-service approaches can help to inform coastal Madagascar, efforts to reduce mangrove deforestation
and marine planning by modelling the likely outcomes of have involved developing partnerships with local
management strategies for objectives expressed in terms communities that include finding alternative fuel
of value to people, whether monetary or otherwise. sources, and alternative ways of generating food and
income (Rakotomahazo et al. 2019).
A number of studies demonstrate that spatially explicit
scenario modelling of ecosystem services allows Understanding trade-offs can be complex and cannot be
stakeholders and policymakers to better refine zones limited to assessing only quantifiable costs and benefits,
of human use, identify how different regions may but needs to consider less obvious factors that can result
contribute to the flow of services on a larger scale, and from complex social-ecological interactions, or that arise
test the efficacy of different management strategies. because the trade-offs affect marginalised individuals.
One such recent global analysis finds that, under Concepts of social equity, justice and human rights need
business as usual, the biggest economic impacts that to be incorporated in assessing these trade-offs and co-
could result from the loss of nature would be increased benefits, especially within the wider global discourse on
coastal vulnerability, followed by loss of carbon governing the blue economy. While efforts to meet SDG
sequestration potential, while a “global conservation” 14 will typically be compatible with those for other SDGs,
scenario would deliver economic gains that result protecting and conserving coasts to meet SDG 14 targets
principally from improved natural coastal defences can also lead to social and economic trade-offs and the
(Johnson et al. 2020). These results suggest that one downstream effects of such trade-offs can be especially
clear opportunity for action is to focus on protecting pronounced in low-income coastal communities
and rehabilitating natural infrastructure. These types of (Allison et al. 2012; Daw et al. 2015; Galafassi et al. 2017;
nature-based solutions are increasingly being viewed as McClanahan et al. 2016; Nippon Foundation–Nereus
critical actions to reduce societal risk regarding a number Program 2017; Gattuso et al. 2018; Kittinger et al. 2017;
of complex problems, from coastal protection to food Davies et al. 2018; Singh et al. 2018; Bennett 2019; Cohen
security (Whelchel et al. 2018). et al. 2019; Lombard et al. 2019).

54 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

To avoid these effects, consideration of trade-offs ƒ Strengthening governance and recognising customary
requires a deliberative approach engaging stakeholders rights: A key influence on the choice and likely
through participatory processes, and harnessing marine success of management options is the existing
spatial planning and scenario modelling tools that allow regulatory framework, through which management
multiple perspectives and objectives to be considered. authorities, such as permitting and other approvals,
As a result, final decisions may reflect open debates are distributed across local, regional, state and/
about trade-offs and can inform solutions that balance or federal entities. Most coastal landscapes in the
multiple objectives—and surprising synergies may occur tropics have complex and unclear land tenure and
(e.g. developing infrastructure to meet multiple uses) sea use arrangements, especially for indigenous
that transform a trade-off to a co-benefit (Arkema et al. peoples and traditional communities. Furthermore,
2015). in many countries indigenous peoples and traditional
communities have traditional and customary tenure
It is important to adopt a long-term perspective when
and rights to significant coastal assets, often defined
considering trade-offs. For example, short-term losses of
by LMMAs. Ensuring that these rights are respected
livelihoods or income resulting from the creation of MPAs
and indigenous peoples and traditional communities
can lead in the long term to ecological, socioeconomic
are engaged in the stewardship of these coastal
and cultural benefits upon the recovery of fish
assets and the creation of alternative livelihood
populations and marine habitats. Intergenerational
opportunities will be essential.
equity must also be an essential criterion when
balancing short-term trade-offs and long-term benefits. ƒ Multilateral partnerships: Any decision pathway
necessarily involves multiple stakeholders who
Unintended consequences can also arise. For example,
will be interested and involved in the decisions
a focus on gross area targets for MPAs may promote the
surrounding interventions that sustain or repair
creation of very large marine protected areas, which,
coastal ecosystems: practitioners, science and
by virtue of their size, are generally located in offshore
engineering, regulators, industry, investment
areas, where space is available, tenure arrangements
community, traditional owners and local
are less complicated and the numbers of stakeholders
communities. Developing ecological engineering
involved are lower. This may, however, discourage
solutions will require much closer collaboration
the further protection of mangroves, saltmarshes and
between scientists and engineers, plus the funding
seagrass, as their coastal location, often fringing and
for and a commitment to scientifically test a range of
disjunct distributions, and their location along coasts
bold innovations at sufficient scale. Where successful,
with multiple land uses and stakeholders make it more
this knowledge should be shared to understand
complicated to create large protected areas (Friess et al.
how these innovations could be applied in other
2019).
settings. Globally, the private sector is seen to have
a major role in the implementation of the SDGs and
4.6 Enabling Conditions in conserving coastal ecosystems. The International
The coastal zone is crowded, jurisdictionally complex, Chamber of Commerce has explicitly stated
contains an extremely diverse set of user and interest that sustainability is no longer a luxury business
groups and is subject to multiple competing demands, investment, but a core driver of business productivity
particularly for space and access. It is a complex and growth.
socioeconomic system, where achieving sustainable
ocean economy outcomes that are resilient to current ƒ Valuing and accounting for coastal assets and
and future shocks will depend on strong institutions, ecosystem services: Coasts and coastal natural
clear and appropriate governance and finance, infrastructure are essential to the economies of
an inclusive and equitable approach, and a set of countries and the livelihood of their inhabitants.
information and science needs. These enabling elements Impairment of coastal ecosystems that leads to
are by nature cross-cutting and are listed below. a reduction in resilience or productivity can be a
significant cost to the economy. Many ecosystem

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 55

 assets and services remain unquantified. Better and adjacent to coastal zones. A new generation of in
methods for valuing non-market assets and services, situ sensors, observational platforms, environmental
and applying these consistently within national satellite capabilities and informatics provide
Systems of Environmental-Economic Accounting unprecedented capability and are increasingly
(SEEAs), will better inform choices relating to what accessible and affordable.
areas or assets can be developed and what needs to
ƒ Capacity building and sharing knowledge: Supporting
be protected.
the capacity and adaptability of nations—especially
ƒ Quantify co-benefits and trade-offs: As discussed least developed and small island states—to
in Section 4.5, analysing trade-offs requires a successfully implement these strategies requires
deliberative approach, with stakeholder values at ongoing, not one-off, capability development that
the centre. Obtaining full stakeholder involvement includes both training and access to best-practice
through participatory integrated and ecosystem- information.
based marine planning is an important component
ƒ Financing the future: Financing for green and
of assessing trade-offs because it allows for the
grey-green infrastructure is in an exciting growth
articulation of multiple perspectives that can inform
phase as private investors and development banks
solutions that balance multiple objectives (Galafassi
increasingly recognise the high potential of this type
et al. 2017; Gattuso et al. 2018; Lombard et al. 2019).
of infrastructure to tackle development challenges.
ƒ Science, technology and innovation: Implementing Initiatives such as the WWF’s Sustainable Blue
these various strategies and actions must be Economy Finance Principles (WWF 2018) lay the
underpinned by multidisciplinary science that groundwork for such investments and need to be
informs wise decision-making. Although many of broadly and full adopted by public and private
these issues encompass the complexity of human sector finance organisations. Strong and effective
decision-making, institutional structures and national sustainable blue economy strategies or
governance arrangements, science is pivotal to plans, based on a clear vision for and definition
developing more sophisticated and evidence-based of a sustainable blue economy, help to foster an
policy and management. Integrated management enabling environment that reduces risk and builds
must be underpinned by a deeper understanding of investor confidence. The creation of targeted finance
how biophysical and human systems are coupled and and investment opportunities, such as blue bonds,
an understanding of singular and cumulative impacts. blended finance, public–private partnerships,
Technological innovation underpins the emerging insurance payments for risk reduction and corporate
“science of solutions” that will guide the choice stewardship, have emerged as novel ways to build
of interventions chosen to safeguard and restore resilience, restore natural capital, and reduce
coastal ecosystem resilience. Novel approaches have environmental, social and economic risks and
originated from the growing understanding of biology investor risk (Herr et al. 2015; Colgan et al. 2017;
and ecology, inspiring new theories (e.g. positive Niehörster and Murnane 2018; Sumaila et al. 2020;
species interactions) on which new interventions can Thiele et al. 2020).
be built and tested at scale. There is an important
role for the social sciences to be included in future
intervention study design, implementation efforts
and the collection of evaluation effectiveness metrics.

ƒ Monitoring and assessment: Ongoing synoptic

and finer-scale observations are required to
assess changes in the coastal ecosystems and the
surveillance of activities that are occurring within

56 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

5. Conclusions and
Opportunities for Action
5.1 Conclusions effects on coastal ecosystems and habitats. Energy
production and resource extraction infrastructure have
The coastal zone has the world’s highest population
high freshwater requirements, while urban infrastructure
density, is where the vast majority of resources that
growth leads to habitat conversion, hardening of
underpin the world’s ocean and maritime economic
coastlines, channelisation of flow, and sand-mining in
sectors are located, and where the majority of many
upstream catchments altering sediment budgets at the
coastal nations’ commercial, residential, transport
coast. The result is direct physical loss, fragmentation
and national defence infrastructure is situated. Coasts
and alteration of many ecosystems, as well as a
sustain livelihoods for hundreds of millions of people
functional loss of resilience—which diminishes their
in endeavours that range from artisanal small-scale
ability to resist and recover from such perturbations—
fisheries and aquaculture to transnational fishing,
that is unprecedented historically. The drivers of
shipping, energy and tourism industries.
this change in coastal ecosystems are complex and
Over the last 30–50 years, there have been significant, interconnected and result from unsustainable levels of
and, in many cases, rapid/abrupt and irreversible, human modification to, and resource extraction from,
changes across all of the world’s coastal ecosystems. coastal ecosystems.
These have included erosion of depositional coastlines,
A rapidly growing and urbanising coastal population,
loss of coastal vegetated ecosystems (50 percent of
and expansion of existing and new industries, has
saltmarshes, 35 percent of mangroves), and coral (30
generated additional demand for coastal space and
percent) and shellfish reefs (85 percent), and significant
resources, while incompatibility between different
reduction in system resilience.
uses—and sometimes ideologies—has also led to conflict
Coastal ecosystems have evolved in dynamic spatial in coastal environments. Coastal population growth and
contexts and many are adapted to disturbance and increasing urbanisation, catchment degradation and
perturbation or perform a stabilisation and energy mismanagement, loss of coastal foreshore amenities,
dissipation function. Climate change impacts are environmental impacts from industry, incompatible or
increasing the physical stress and damage to coastal unsustainable resource use, and climate change are
habitats from storms, flooding and inundation, and are some of the major challenges that can result in conflict
also directly affecting ecosystems through warming and require careful management.
and changing ocean chemistry on the abundance and
The physical loss of ecosystems and habitats leads to
distribution of species and ecosystems.
the loss of their ecological function within the coastal
Humans are also directly affecting coastal ecosystems, zone socioeconomic system, including provisioning
with pressures from increasing population growth and and protection functions. Coastal communities,
urbanisation, poor upstream land practices, alteration especially those that are poor and vulnerable and that
of freshwater and sediment flows, habitat conversion, rely directly on coastal resources for food security,
water quality degradation, litter, pollution and over- nutrition and livelihoods, are often those most at
exploitation of resources. Agriculture operations in risk of climate impacts or disasters. COVID-19 has
catchments can lead to alteration of flows, and increased shown us the vulnerabilities that exist in many coastal
sediment, nutrient and chemical loads, while coastal economic sectors, and again it is those who are poor and
fisheries and aquaculture can have direct and indirect vulnerable who appear to be most at risk.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 57

 If current trends continue unabated, or without based solutions. However, the availability of support is
significant interventions, projections over the next geographically uneven and there are many barriers to
10, 30 and 80 years comprehensively demonstrate the implementation of such approaches at scale.
widespread and potentially catastrophic risks to coastal
Building the socioeconomic resilience of those who are
ecosystems, human populations, built infrastructure and
most vulnerable, and empowering and engaging natural
economies that will result. The rapid population growth
resource users and coastal communities, especially
that will occur across Asia, and, even more significantly,
those who rely directly on coastal resources for food
Africa, will increase demand for coastal resources and
security, nutrition and livelihoods, are critical aspects
services, and potentially expose coastal cities and
of ensuring healthy coastal ecosystems and realising a
settlements to increased impacts. It is here, as well as in
sustainable ocean economy.
the many small island nations spanning the Indo-Pacific
and in the Caribbean, that the greatest risks occur.
5.2 Opportunities for Action
Failure to properly manage our coastal resources will To ensure environmental, economic and social
result in further significant environmental damage sustainability of our space-constrained coastal
to coastal environments, loss of economic well-being systems, the great challenge will be to balance ongoing
for existing industries that operate in the coastal zone development and multiple competing uses. By realising
(and disincentive for new industries to invest), and the following opportunities for action, it will be
inadequate infrastructure development to meet the possible to reverse the trend of degradation, including
demands of changing demographics and climate change from terrestrial and extractive activities, and instead
impacts. optimise the benefits of healthy ecosystems, natural
Actions that aim to deploy protection as the “first infrastructure, and inclusive and equitable approaches,
line of defence” are no longer enough; strategies and to build a coastal zone and coastal economy that is
technology solutions that mitigate threats, assist in robust, sustainable and resilient.
the adaptation of human activities, infrastructure and
behaviours, or seek to repair coastal natural systems Building coastal resilience
through restoration and facilitated adaptation will be The resilience of coastal ecosystems, and the people who
required. Over the coming decade, implementing these rely upon them, can be enhanced through actions that
actions at scale must be accelerated and assistance to increase their ability to withstand pressures, and actions
less-developed countries will need to be stepped up. that help them to recover when damage occurs.

There are, however, a range of positive policy, planning ƒ Coastal ecosystems must be better protected by
and coastal infrastructure developments that are cause strengthening regulations and increasing area-based
for cautious optimism as we look towards 2030. Nature- conservation to halt the net loss, increase the extent
based and hybrid approaches are increasingly being and improve the condition of critical coastal habitats,
used to adapt existing, and design new, infrastructure to such as sand-dunes, saltmarshes, mangroves,
increase resilience to changing climate conditions, and seagrass, and coral and shellfish reefs.
to minimise the loss of ecosystem services. There is great
ƒ At-scale habitat restoration, and re-establishing
interest, and a large pool of funds, from the investment,
natural coastal and hydrological processes, are
insurance and business sectors to implement natural
required in order to repair many damaged coastal
and hybrid approaches for the next generation of
ecosystems and restore functional resilience.
climate-resilient infrastructure, and to empower nations
and communities to protect coastal ecosystems through ƒ Restoration also delivers significant co-benefits
a range of financial mechanisms that remunerate that extend beyond ecosystem goods and services
for the protection and enhancement of ecosystem by creating jobs related to restoration activities,
services. Intergovernmental bodies, funding agencies and once established, livelihood opportunities
(the World Bank, Global Environment Facility, Green from tourism, enhanced fisheries and payment for
Climate Fund), the insurance industry and investment ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration and
banks all recognise the need for investing in nature- storage.

58 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Creating coastal community resilience, foster sustainable economic pathways that support the
equity and access recovery and development of impacted communities
and build the resilience of coastal ecosystems,
Actions that build the socioeconomic resilience of
safeguarding the services they provide.
communities, including gender equity and social
inclusion, are important in mitigating and recovering ƒ Coastal fiscal and economic stimulus and recovery
from climate and disaster risks and shocks, such as packages must be designed with a sustainable and
COVID-19, where the impacts are greatest among the equitable ocean and coastal economy outcome as a
poor and vulnerable. primary objective, and meet multiple SDGs.

ƒ The multiple benefits coastal communities derive for ƒ High-employment sectors should be prioritised if
ocean and coastal services should be included in the they are essential services, or support sustainable
valuing and accounting of the ocean economy. ocean economy opportunities. Options include
micro-canneries for domestic consumption,
ƒ Communities and coastal fishers should be
mangrove restoration for disaster risk reduction, and
recognised as legitimate resource users and also
investments in effective waste management systems
stewards of marine ecosystems. This is particularly
that reduce disease prevalence.
true for SIDS and remote coastal regions, where
communities are often isolated from major ƒ Vulnerabilities in coastal economic sectors and
governance centres and where marine tenure has supply chains should be prioritised for investment
remained or is being reinvigorated. and innovation. Examples include the development
of product alternatives that have a longer shelf life,
ƒ Governance approaches must be inclusive,
using digital means to connect to customers and
incorporating indigenous and local knowledge in
local markets, and adopting electronic and digital
planning and decision-making processes.
verification systems in supply chains.
ƒ It is vital to ensure that business processes are
ƒ Climate change projections and impacts should be
inclusive and that incentives exist to protect and
incorporated into all aspects of COVID-19 recovery
restore coastal ecosystems and enhance local
planning and sustainable infrastructure design.
livelihood opportunities.
This includes the protection and restoration of
ƒ Local supply chains should be prioritised, so that coastal ecosystems and fisheries as part of building
pregnant women and infants, and those at risk of resilience.
malnutrition or hunger, gain access to the nutritional
benefits from locally sourced sustainable fish. Mitigation of terrestrial and extractive
activities on coastal ecosystems
ƒ Governments should prioritise poverty reduction
and social protection programmes that build The impacts of terrestrial and extractive activities
community resilience, including to climate change on coastal ecosystems may be cumulative and may
and disasters, and channel post-disaster support to be amplified by climate change effects, while the
affected poor households. In particular, they should downstream impacts of upstream activities can lead to
build the resilience of those who are most vulnerable, conflicts among user groups.
especially by promoting gender equality and ƒ Integrated management underpinned by good spatial
empowering women. planning and coastal ecosystem planning must be
While the consequences of COVID-19 for the resilience fully integrated into urban, catchment and land-use
of coastal communities will continue to unfold over planning frameworks.
many years to come, as nations begin to rebuild their ƒ Urban and agriculture water use should be managed
economies, there is a unique window of opportunity to to ensure that coastal ecosystems receive healthy
ensure relevant policy and investment decisions also surface flows and that coastal groundwater reserves
address these coastal challenges. In addition, they must are maintained.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 59

 ƒ Upstream catchment diversions and dams should existing planning and management approaches,
be managed to ensure that adequate freshwater including within spatial management tools such as
flow and adequate sediment supply is maintained to marine spatial planning, ecosystem-based integrated
the coast. Promotion of alternatives to mega dams, ocean management, marine protected areas and
such as building small dams with sediment release community-based natural resource management
facilities, is a priority. tools and approaches.

ƒ Regional multi-sector dialogues should be initiated to ƒ Support the restoration of coastal ecosystems,
address upstream sand extraction and sand scarcity, including mangrove forests, saltmarshes, seagrass
particularly in relation to coastal city subsidence and meadows, kelp and other seaweed forests, and coral
stability of urbanised deltas. and shellfish reefs, to optimise their function for
coastal defence, coastal stabilisation or as part of
ƒ Closer integration should be pursued between the
hybrid coastal defence structures. Recognise that
current global water, food and energy nexus, and the
coral reef and mangrove restoration in particular offer
water, urban and climate agendas and initiatives,
cost-effective options for risk reduction of climate
including the High Level Panel on Water, and the
hazards.
overlapping UN decade initiatives for Oceans, Water,
and Ecosystem Restoration. ƒ Develop the experience and standards to overcome
institutional biases that favour grey infrastructure,
Sustainable, future-ready and develop institutional arrangements capable
blue infrastructure of matching available funding with the needs of
The following opportunities for action are designed individual situations.
as ones that industry, government, scientists and ƒ Design new and innovative financial instruments to
communities can take to promote the uptake, resourcing provide the pathways for investors to direct private
and deployment of natural infrastructure. finance into nature-based solutions, including
ƒ Identify locations where natural or hybrid through public–private investments.
infrastructure can play a significant role in natural ƒ Establish standards and principles for developing
hazard risk reduction, and adapt and upgrade existing and financing blue infrastructure and appropriate
coastal infrastructure through the adoption of nature- blended finance instruments, a good example of
based approaches for more sustainable designs, which are the Sustainable Blue Economy Finance
including retrofitting coastal defence structures. Principles.
ƒ Develop and scale cost-effective, hybrid approaches ƒ Enable the use of green finance instruments,
that enhance resilience by integrating nature into including in the delivery of NDCs, and use them
mainstream infrastructure systems. Encourage closer to promote the uptake of natural infrastructure
collaboration between scientists and engineers, and sustainable infrastructure projects, including
and dedicate funding to develop eco-engineering in developing and low-income countries seeking
opportunities. financing from multilateral development banks.
ƒ Build the skills and capacity of government staff in
the design of sustainable ocean economy recovery 5.3 Enabling Conditions to
programmes and in the design and maintenance of Support Coastal Resilience
sustainable green coastal infrastructure, such that For any of the above actions to be successful in
there is a common understanding of the benefits and delivering coastal resilience, a number of enabling
opportunities. conditions need to occur. These were summarised in
Section 4.6, while enabling actions specific to the coastal
ƒ Embed opportunities for future-ready blue
context are given below.
infrastructure and nature-based solutions within

60 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Strengthening governance and recognising customary will be essential for gaining social licence. Ensuring a
rights: The enabling conditions for inclusive and role in the stewardship and day-to-day management of
effective local governance must be put in place, so activities that use these coastal assets and creation of
coastal communities can effectively advocate for their alternative livelihood opportunities must be a priority.
rights to access coastal resources. Power imbalances
Capacity building and sharing knowledge: Translating
must be acknowledged and addressed, to allow coastal
coastal research to best practice and “how to” guidance
communities the necessary influence and impact in
on coastal issues, such as dredging, coastal modelling,
governance and policy fora. As suggested in SDG 14,
water and sediment quality standards, restoration
Target 14.b, the will and needs of coastal communities
methodologies, coastal and eco-engineering, and
should be recognised, respected and reflected in
emergency preparedness, is required. Making this
policymaking and decision-making, and in the
information available through a clearinghouse of coastal
implementation of the SDGs. Local and national policies
information will encourage adoption by regulators,
recognise the role of communities in the management of
environmental consulting and analysis sectors and
coastal resources, incorporate advice from community
organisations, and communities seeking to undertake
members in decision-making, and facilitate more
restoration activities.
equitable and inclusive access of communities to natural
resources and markets. Financing the future: Green infrastructure and hybrid
infrastructure designed with co-benefits in mind opens
Science, technology and innovation: The cross-
up a range of possible finance options in addition to
disciplinary nature of grey-green infrastructure and
the standard government financing model. It allows
natural infrastructure brings together ecology and
projects to be promoted to governments, the private
engineering in the emerging discipline of ecological
sector or development agencies as stand-alone
engineering, in designing societal services such that
investment opportunities, matched to particular
they benefit society and nature. As the implementation
motivations. The private sector has the ability to
of hybrid and grey-green infrastructure solutions grows,
provide substantial investment to support nature-
there needs to be a body of research on all aspects and
based solutions, including through bonds and other
at a range of scales, in order to optimise the design
novel instruments. However, the amount they currently
of individual projects and to facilitate scaling. It is an
invest is small because of constraints such as limited
area that is ripe for the application of technological
evidence of the returns on investment and lack of
innovation, consistent with the use of intelligent and
appropriate financial instruments. Development
smart building design in green buildings. COVID-19
agencies with core mandates of climate resilience,
has stress-tested contemporary coastal economic and
poverty reduction and environmental sustainability also
logistical systems, and identified weaknesses and
have a strong motivation to invest in such projects. The
vulnerabilities that need to be prioritised for research,
next decade should see significant growth in green and
innovation and technological solutions.
grey infrastructure, as investment pipelines grow, the
Multilateral partnerships: Ensuring traditional owners capacity for designing and managing such investments
and local communities have a voice and are engaged in is increased in target countries, and as challenges to
the co-design and development of strategies and plans scaling are overcome.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 61

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 Abbreviations
ADB Asian Development Bank NbS Nature-based Solutions

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity NDC nationally determined contribution

CO2 carbon dioxide NGO non-governmental organisation

EEZ exclusive economic zone OECM other effective conservation measure

GSLR global mean sea level rise PES payments for ecosystems services

ICM integrated coastal management RCP Representative Concentration Pathway

ICZM integrated coastal zone management SDG Sustainable Development Goal

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

IPCC SEEA System of Environmental-Economic Accounting
Change
Intergovernmental Science-Policy
IPBES Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem SIDS small island developing states
Services

LMMA locally managed marine area TURF territorial use right for fisheries

United Nations Framework Convention on

MPA marine protected area UNFCCC
Climate Change

80 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

Glossary
Ecological engineering: The design of sustainable Ocean economy: Also known as the blue economy,
ecosystems that integrate human society with its natural encompasses a sustainable economy for the ocean-
environment for the benefit of both. The approach has based marine environment, related biodiversity,
developed over the last 30 years, rapidly over the last 10 ecosystems, species and genetic resources, including
years, and its goals include the restoration of ecosystems marine living organisms (from fish and algae to
that have been substantially disturbed by human microorganisms) and natural resources in the seabed,
activities and the development of new sustainable while ensuring their sustainable use and hence
ecosystems that have both human and ecological values. conservation.

Green grabbing: The appropriation of land and Rehabilitation: The replacement of structural or
resources for environmental ends, where “green” functional characteristics of an ecosystem that have
credentials are called upon to justify appropriations of been diminished or lost.
land, and the restructuring of rules and authority in the
Resilience: The capacity of social, economic and
access, use and management of these resources may
environmental systems to cope with a hazardous event
have profoundly alienating effects.
or trend or disturbance, responding or re-organising
Green infrastructure: Green infrastructure (also in ways that maintain their essential function, identity
sometimes called natural infrastructure or engineering and structure, while also maintaining the capacity for
with nature) intentionally and strategically preserves, adaptation, learning and transformation.
enhances or restores elements of a natural system, such
Restoration: The process of assisting the recovery of
as forests, agricultural land, floodplains, riparian areas,
an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or
coastal forests (such as mangroves), among others, and
destroyed.
combines them with grey infrastructure to produce more
resilient and lower-cost services. Social-ecological: Refers to systems that emphasise
humans as part of nature and stress that the delineation
Grey infrastructure: Traditionally used to manage
between social systems and ecological systems is
coastal hazards, often constructed out of concrete with
artificial and arbitrary. While resilience has somewhat
a uniform and smooth texture, often costly to install and
different meanings in social and ecological contexts,
maintain, usually has low flexibility, and when it fails can
the social-ecological approach holds that social
generate catastrophic impacts on social and ecological
and ecological systems are linked through feedback
domains.
mechanisms, and that both display resilience and
Nature-based solutions (NbS): Actions to protect, complexity.
manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems,
Source-to-sea: A source-to-sea system is the land area
which address societal challenges, effectively and
that is drained by a river system, its lakes and tributaries
adaptively, providing human well-being and biodiversity
(the river basin), connected aquifers and downstream
benefits. IUCN defines nature-based solutions as actions
recipients, including deltas and estuaries, coastlines
to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or
and near-shore waters, as well as the adjoining sea and
modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges
continental shelf and the open ocean. A source-to-sea
effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing
system can also be defined at a larger scale to include
human well-being and biodiversity benefits.
a sea and its entire drainage area, which may include
several river basins.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 81

 Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the many people who generously provided material, advice and review for the report: Russ Babcock,
Elisa Bayraktarov, Melanie Bishop, Katherine Dafforn, Dorothee Herr, Alexander Goad, Mariana Mayer-Pinto, Peter
Steinberg and Torsten Thiele. The paper’s technical reviewers, Audrey Legat, Borja Reguero, Julien Rochette, Alan
Simcock and Sharon Tatman, as well as its arbiter, Jane Lubchenco, all provided helpful technical comments.

While our colleagues were very generous with their time and input, this report reflects the views of the authors alone,
and is not necessarily the views of their organisations. Thank you to Em Muirhead, Lauren Hardiman and Derek Fulton for
providing administrative, editing and graphic design support.

The authors thank Sarah Chatwin for copyediting and Romain Warnault for design.

82 | High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy

About the Authors
Co-authors
Andy Steven is the Research Director of Coasts at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Australia.

Kwasi Appeaning Addo is an associate professor in Coastal Processes and Delta Studies and the Director of the Institute for Environment
and Sanitation Studies, University of Ghana.

Ghislaine Llewellyn is Deputy Practice Leader – Oceans, with WWF International, Australia.

Vu Thanh Ca is a principal lecturer at the Ha Noi University of Natural Resources and Environment.

Contributing Authors
Isaac Boateng is an James Kairo is a principal Megan Saunders is a research Mat Vanderklift is a research
associate professor of Coastal scientist at the Kenya Marine scientist at CSIRO, Australia. scientist at CSIRO, Australia.
Engineering at the Department and Fisheries Research
of Construction and Wood, Institute, Kenya. Frida Sidik is a senior Maria Vozzo is a research
University of Education, researcher at the Institute associate at the Sydney
Winneba, Ghana. Priscila Lopes is an associate for Marine Research and Institute of Marine Science,
professor at the Universidade Observation, Indonesian Australia.
Rodrigo Bustamante is a Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Ministry of Marine Affairs and
research scientist at CSIRO, Brazil. Fisheries, Indonesia.
Australia.
Munsur Rahman is a professor U. Rashid Sumaila is Director
Christopher Doropoulos is at the Institute of Flood of the Fisheries Economics
a research scientist at CSIRO, Management and Water at Research Unit at the Institute
Australia. the Bangladesh University of for the Oceans and Fisheries,
Engineering and Technology, University of British Columbia,
Chris Gillies is the Program Bangladesh. Canada.
Director, Oceans, at The Nature
Conservancy, Australia Program Lalao Aigrette Louise Teh is a research
Office, Australia. Ravaoarinorotsihoarana is a associate at the Fisheries
National Technical Advisor for Economics Research Unit at
Mark Hemer is a principal Mangrove Programme, Blue the Institute for the Oceans and
research scientist at CSIRO, Ventures, Madagascar. Fisheries, University of British
Australia. Columbia, Canada.

Coastal Development:Resilience, Restoration and Infrastructure Requirements | 83

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